BALAJI INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY AND
SCIENCE
LAKNEPALLY (V), NARSAMPET (M), WARANGAL-506331

ENGINEERING
WORKSHOP
LABORATORY
MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
M. BHAVANI, Assistant professor
 LIST OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY 1

2. TOOLS & DESCRIPTION

I. HOUSE WIRING 7
II. FITTING 17
III. TINSMITHY 35
IV. CARPENTRY 41
3. EXCERCISES
I. HOUSE WIRING
Two lights controlled by one switch in series. 55
Two lights controlled by one switch in parallel. 56
One light controlled by 2 two way switches 57
(stair case connection)
II. FITTING
L-Fitting 58
V- Fitting 60
Half round Fitting 62
III. TINSMITHY
Rectangular Tray 64
Open Scoop 66
Funnel 67
IV. CARPENTRY
Cross Lap Joint 69
Dovetail Lap Joint 71
Mortise & Tenon Joint 73
4. TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION
Metal cutting 75
Power Tools 80
INTRODUCTION

Workshop practice imparts basic knowledge of various tools and their

uses in different sections of manufacturing such as Fitting, Tin Smithy,
House Wiring, Carpentry etc. It is true that engineers are not going to
become carpenters or blacksmiths or skilled workers on the shop floor, but
by exposing themselves to all working trades, they get a bird eye view of the
basic practical activities associated with all sections of manufacturing. It
helps them, when they occupy managerial positions, in understanding the
activities and practical difficulties, so that they can take appropriate
decisions.

Even when large amount of mechanical equipment is available for

producing or repairing parts, there are still some elements of work which
have to be performed by manual methods. However it must be borne in mind
that all workshops and work areas are places of some risk. A healthy regard
for rules and respect for all equipment being used reduces the risk of an
accident considerably.
Finally, the engineers must also be familiar with the first aid
practices. In case some minor injuries in the form of cuts, burns, fractures,
fainting, electric shock etc occur in the shop floor, they should know how to
give first aid to the victims.

WORKSHOP DRESS

1
SAFETY RULES AND UNSAFE PRACTICES
GENERAL SAFETY RULES

Remember that “Accidents do not occur, they are caused”. With

this in mind, strictly follow the general safety rules given below and safe
practices indicated in brief under each section.

1. Safety first, works next.

2. Know your job and follow instructions.
3. Avoid wearing clothing that might catch, moving or rotating parts.
Long sleeves of shirts, long hair, neck tie and jewellery are definite
hazards in the shop.
4. Wear safety shoes. Do not wear canvas shoes; they give no resistance
to hard objects dropped on the feet.
5. Keep the area around the machine or work clean.
6. Keep away from revolving work.
7. Be sure that all guards are in place.
8. One person only should operate the machine control.
9. Use tools correctly and do not use them if they are not in proper
working condition.
10. Wear safety goggles when working in areas, where sparks or chips of
metal are flying.
11. Never (a) operate a machine unless you are authorized to do so. (b)
Start a machine unless you know how to stop it. (c) Walk away and
leave a machine running. (d) Distract or interfere with any one,
operating a machine.
12. Get to know who in-charge of first-aid is and where boxes are placed
and where the first aid can be found in case of emergency

2
UNSAFE PRACTICES

3
4
5
6
 HOUSE WIRING

Introduction:
Electrical wiring is defined as a system of electrical conductor,
components and apparatus, for conveying electric power from the source to
the point of use.
Electrical power is supplied to domestic installation through a phase
and a neutral forming a single phase A.C. 230V, two wire system. For
industrial establishment, power is supplied through 3-phase wire system to
give 440v. The figure below shows the power tapping for domestic and
industrial purpose. The neutral is earthed at the distribution sub-station of
the supply.

Elements of house wiring:

1. Fuses and Circuit Breakers: These are devices designed to provide
protection to a circuit against excess current.

2. Electric Switch: This is a device that makes and breaks or

changes the course of electric circuit.

3. Plug: It is a device carrying two or more metallic contacts in the form

of pins intended for engaging with the corresponding socket contacts.

7
4. Socket outlet: It is a device carrying 2or 3 contacts designed for
engagement with corresponding plug pins and arranged for connection
to fixed wiring.

5. Lamp Holder: It is designed to hold lamps and connect them in the

circuit.
6. Main switch: This is a switch intended to connect or cut off the supply
of electricity to the whole of installation. It contains one or more fuses.

TYPES OF FUSES

CIRCUIT BREAKER

8
ELECTRICAL SWITCHES

WIRES

9
 PLUGS AND SOCKETS

PARTS OF A LAMP AND LAMP HOLDER

MAIN SWITCH

10
Wiring methods
A circuit is a path along which the electric current flows the
negative side of the power source to the positive side. There are three
types of electrical circuits that are used for connecting devices or controls
to the power source i.e. series circuit, parallel circuit and combination of
the two.

The series circuit provides a single, continuous path through which

current flows. The devices are connected one after another and the
current flows through them until it returns to the power source. In
parallel circuit the devices are connected side by side so that, current
flows in a number of parallel paths.

Common House wiring connections:

One Lamp controlled by one-way switch:
Fig 1 shows the wiring diagram for a lamp controlled by a one-way
switch. This is the normal connection one comes across in house wiring.
Two Lamps controlled by one-way switch:
Two Lamps may be connected by one –way switch in parallel for
bright glow or in series for dull glow in fig(2).
One Lamp controlled by 2 two-way switches: Fig-3.
It is sometimes desirable to control a lamp from 2 different
places. One may come across this situation with staircase, long corridors
or hall containing two entrances etc.

11
Fig 1

Fig 2

Fig 3

12
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

13
14
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. For domestic use, power is supplied through a…………and
a………….forming a single phase A.C, two wire system.
2. For industrial establishments, power is supplied
through…………phase……wire system,
3. Electric switch………..and……….the electric circuit.
4. A plug engages with corresponding…………………..contacts.
5. Main switch I only to cut-off the supply of electricity (T/F)
6. A lamp filament is made of……………………..
7. A multi-core conductor consists of several cores…………..from each
other.
8. Wire sizes are specified by the diameters /length of the wire.
9. The wire specification 14/36 indicates………….stands of ………..SWG.
10. In series circuit, when one device breaks down; the remaining
devices operate.(T/F)
11. In parallel circuit, if one device breaks down; the other devices
continue to operate.(T/F)
12. Regulator is used for controlling the……………………of a fan.
13. While using a table fan, always use two/three core flexible wire
for connection.
14. Universal fans operate both on AC and DC
15. If the bulb on the handle of an automatic electric iron glows, it
means that the iron is cool/hot.
16. The intensity of the glow of an indicator lamp is a measure of
voltage/ current level.

15
ANSWERS
1. Phase, neutral.
2. Three, four.
3. Makes, brakes.
4. socket
5. False
6. tungsten
7. insulated
8. diameter
9. 14,36
10. False
11. True
12. speed
13. Three
14. True
15. Cool
16. Voltage

16
 FITTING

INTRODUCTION:
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster
rate, but there are occasions when components are processed at the bench.
The term bench work refers to the production of components by hand on the
bench, where as fitting deals with the assembly of mating parts, through the
removal of metal to obtain the required fit. Both the bench work and fitting
operations consists of filing, chipping, sawing, drilling, tapping etc.,

CLASSIFICATION OF TOOLS: The tools commonly used in fitting may be

classified as
1. Holding tools
2. Cutting tools
3. Striking tools
4. Marking & checking tools

HOLDING TOOLS:
a. Bench vice
b. Pipe vice
c. Hand vice
d. Pin vice
e. Tool makers
f. Leg vice
g. C- clamp

BENCH VICE (OR) PARALLEL JAW VICE:

The bench vice is the work holding device. It has two jaws one of
which is fixed to the bench and other slides with the aid of square screw and
a box nut arrangement. The outer end of the screw carries a handle. The
jaws are made with hardened tool and the body is cast iron or cast steel. The
working faces of jaws are serrated to give additional grip for holding job. The
size of the parallel or bench vice is specified by the jaws width.
17
 BENCH VICE

V-BLOCK C-CLAMP

HOLDING TOOLS

18
CUTTING TOOLS:
Hacksaw:
I. Solid frame
II. Adjustable frame
The hacksaw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame,
which holds a thin blade firmly in position. Hacksaw blades have a number
of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per cm. Hacksaw blades are classified as 1. All
hard and 2. Flexible type.
The teeth of hacksaw blade are staggered or bending alternatively are
known as a “set of teeth”. These make slots wider than the blade thickness
preventing the blade from jamming.
Power Hacksaw: It is similar to hacksaw, but has a large size blade and is
driven by motor.

Drills: Drills are cutting tools used for making holes. These are naturally
made of high speed steel tools. Drills have two cutting edges and two helical
grooves (flutes). The flutes admit coolants and also allow the chips to escape
during the drilling. Its cutting angle (lips) is grounded to 118˚. The shank of
twist drill may be either straight or taper.

Reamer: A reamer is used for finishing a drilled hole to an accurate size and
to produce a good surface finish. It is made of HSS. There are two types of
reamers.
1. Hand reamer
2. Machine reamer

Chisels: Chisels are used for removing excess material from large surfaces
and cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from 0.9˚ to 1.0˚ carbon steel
of octagonal or hexagonal. The cutting angle for the chisel for general
purpose is about 60˚. The recommend angles for cutting different materials
at cold state are:

19
Aluminum : 35˚
Mild steel : 55˚
Copper and brass : 40˚- 45˚
Cast iron : 60˚
Cast steel : 70˚

HACKSAW FRAME WITH BLADE

TWIST DRILL

20
PARTS OF A REAMER

CUTTING TOOLS

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The most commonly used chisels are:
1. Flat chisel
2. Cross cut chisel
3. Half round chisel
4. Diamond point chisel
5. Side chisel
Scrapers: Scrapers are used for producing finished surface. It removes the
surface irregularities at selected spots on a surface. The scrapers are made of
tool steel. The cutting edge is hardened but not usually tempered. The most
commonly used scrapers are:
1. Flat scraper
2. Triangular scraper
3. Half round scraper
Striking tools: Hand hammers are striking tools. They are made of medium
carbon steel. The various types of hand hammers in common use are ball
peen hammer, cross pen hammer and straight peen hammer.

BALL PEEN HAMMER

CROSS PEEN HAMMER

22
 STRAIGHT PEEN HAMMER

STRIKING TOOLS

Marking tools: Marking is a process of layout of sizes on work piece. The

following tools are used in marking operations.
1. Scriber
2. Divider
3. Jenny caliper
4. Scribing block
5. Angle plate
6. V-block
7. Punch
8. Try Square
9. Surface plate
Scriber: A scriber is a slender tool used to scribe or mark lines on metal
work piece.
Tap and Tap wrenches: A tap is hardened steel tool used for cutting
internal threads in a drilled hole. Hand taps are available in sets containing
three taps. Taper tap, Second tap, and plug or bottom tap.
Die and Die holders: Dies are cutting tools used for making external
threads. They are made of tool steel or high carbon steel.
Punch: It is made of tool steel and the various types of punches are
prick punch or dot punch, centre punch, number punch and letter punch.

23
 Prick punch: It is also called as dot punch and used for marking small
dots along the layout lines. The point is tempered and grounded to an angle
of 60˚.
Centre punch: This is similar to dot punch, except that its point is
grounded to angle of 90˚. It is used for marking the location of the holes to be
drilled.
V- block: V blocks are made of cast iron or hardened steel. They are
provided with V grooves on the top and bottom and rectangle dots on two
sides for location of clamps.
Try square: It is used for checking squareness of small works. The
size of the try square is specified by the length of the blade.
Surface plate: It is used for providing true surface support to the work
during marking. It is made of cast iron, hardened steel or granite and is
specified by length× width × height× grade.
Divider: This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out
perpendicular lines, bisecting lines etc.
Jenny caliper: This is also called as odd leg or hermaphrodite caliper.
It is used for marking parallel lines from a finished edge and also for locating
the centre of round bars.
Scribing block: It is also known as universal scribing block. This is
used for scribing lines for layout and for checking parallel surfaces.
Angle plate: The angle plate is made of cast iron or hardened steel.
They are provided with v-grooves on the top and bottom and rectangular
slots on two sides for the location of clamps.
Vernier height gauge: It is clamped with scriber and is used when it
is required to take measurements from the surfaces on which gauge is
standing. The accuracy and working principles of this gauge is same as
vernier caliper.
Outside Micrometer: It is used for measuring external dimensions
accurately of 0.01mm.

24
 Inside micrometer: This is used to measure inside dimension
accurately to 0.01mm. It consists of a measuring unit, a number of
interchangeable extension rods and a handle.

SURFACE PLATE ANGLE PLATE

UNIVERSAL SCRIBING BLOCK TRY SQUARE

SCRIBER SPRING CALIPERS

MARKING TOOLS

25
 DIES & DIE HANDLE

TAP & TAP WRENCHES PUNCHES

FILE:
File is a cutting tool. A file is a hardened steel tool having slant
parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surface on the faces. The one
end of the file is shaped to fit into wooden handle. The hand file is parallel in
width and tapering slightly in thickness towards the tip. It is provided with
double cut teeth on the faces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the
other edge which is known as “safe edge”.

26
Types of files: Files are classified according to their shape of cutting teeth
and pitch grades of teeth.

S.No Type of file Uses

1 Hand file It is used for filing a surface, at a right angle to an
already finished surface.
2 Flat file Used for general file
3 Square file Used for slots and key ways
4 Triangular file Used for filing internal corners
5 Half round file Used for filing concave surfaces and internal
corners
6 Round file Used for filing concave surfaces and circular
openings
7 Swiss or needle Used for filing corners, grooves, slots etc., in
file intricate work

Based on the coarseness or pitch of the teeth, files are graded as follows:
a. Rough: It has 8 teeth per cm and it is used for rough work.
b. Baste red: It has 12 teeth per cm.
c. Second cut: It has 16 teeth per cm
d. Smooth: It has 20 to 24 teeth per cm
e. Dead smooth: It has 40 to 48 teeth per cm

PARTS OF FILE

27
TYPES OF FILES CUT OF FILES

MEASURING AND CHECKING INSTRUMENTS:

Measuring tools may be classified as :
1. Linear measuring instruments
a. Steel rule
b. Caliper
c. Depth gauge
d. Vernier caliper
e. Micrometer
f. Gauge block
g. Dial indicator or dial gauge
2. Angular measuring instruments
a. Level protractor
b. Combination set
c. Sine bar
3. Surface measuring instruments
a. Spirit level
b. Straight edge
Steel rule: It is a strip of steel with graduation on its edges.

28
 Calipers: They are used for transferring the dimensions both external
and internal. They are made either with firm joint or spring caliper.
Outside caliper: It is used for measuring outside dimensions of
cylindrical shapes.
Inside caliper: It is used for measuring the diameter of holes and
width of key ways.
Vernier caliper: It is used for measuring outside as well as inside
dimensions accurately. It may also be used as depth gauge.
Least count of vernier = 1 main scale division – 1 vernier scale division
Combination set: It consists of rule, square head, centre head, and a
protractor and spirit level. This may be used as a rule, a square, depth gauge
for marking meters (45˚) for locating the centre on the end of the round bar
and for measuring and marking angles.
Gauges: Gauges are inspection tools used in production work to
control the size and shape of the components.
Feeler gauges: These are thin steel blades hardened and grounded to
various sizes. These are used to check the clearance between two mating
parts. The blade thickness varies from 0.03mm – 1.0mm and the length of
the blade is about 100mm.
Screw pitch gauge: It is used to check the pitch of the screw. The
pitch of the screw is directly on the gauge.
Wire gauge: The wire gauge is used to check the diameter of the wire
from 0.1mm – 10mm.
Plate gauge: Plate gauge (standard wire gauge) is used to measure
thickness of sheets of different thickness. Each slot is represented by
number (SWG number). As the number increases the thickness size
decreases. The most common gauge used in sheet metal has 21 slots with
gauge numbers ranging from 4 to 24.

Radius and fillet gauge: These are used to check the radii of
curvature of convex and concave surfaces.

29
Miscellaneous tools:
1. File card: It is a metal brush used for cleaning the files to free them
from filings logged in between the teeth.
2. Screw driver: It is used for tightening and loosening the screws. It is
made of steel and its tip is hardened. It is made in a variety of sizes
and shapes.
3. Spanners: Spanners or wrenches are used for tightening and
loosening of nuts and bolts. They are made of forged steel. The size of
spanner denotes the size of the bolt on which it can work.
Types of spanners:
1. Single end spanner
2. Double end spanner
3. Ring spanner
4. Box end spanner
5. Adjustable spanner
Allen key: It is used for hallow sunk head bolts and screws.
4. Pliers:
i. Cutting pliers: It is used for holding work and cutting thin soft
wires.
ii. Nose pliers: It is used for holding and bending thin wires.
iii. Circlip pliers: It is used for locking and removal of Circlip and
are available in outside and inside pliers.

COMBINATION PLIER FILE CARD

30
SCREW DRIVERS NOSE PLIER

FLAT CHISEL

SINGLE HEADED BOX SPANNER

SINGLE HEADED SPANNER

DOUBLE HEADED SPANNER

OFFSET DOUBLE ENDED BOX SPANNER

31
 OFFSET SOCKET WRENCH

ADJUSTABLE WRENCH

MONKEY WRENCH

ALLEN WRENCH
SPANNERS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

 Never wear loose clothes, wear the prescribed dresses while in work
shop. 

 Never enter the workshop without shoes. 

 Do not run or play in the shop floor. 

 Keep the floor clear of metal chips, curls, and waste pieces. 

 Concentrate on the work and don’t talk unnecessarily while operating
the machine. 

 Do not operate the machine without getting conversant with the
machine. 

32
 Do not wear rings, watches etc., that could be caught in moving
machinery. 

 Do not attempt to oil, clean or adjust or repair any machine when it is
running. 

 When you switch off the machine, do not leave before it has completely
stopped running. 

 Keep your body behind the cutting edge of an edged cutting tool. 

 Never use a hammer with a loose head. 

 Wear goggles whenever there is a danger of flying matter or threat of
exposure of harmful light rays. 

 Do not clean chips with hands. 

 Do not try to stop the machine with your hands or body. 

 Keep all the hand tools in proper working condition. 

 Slippery floors, poor ventilation, poor lightening, and inadequate space
are the potential causes of accidents and hence should be avoided. 

 Install fire extinguishers at places prone to fire accidents. 

 Ensure availability of first aid box with contents in the workshop. 

33
VIVA VOCE

1. What is meant by fitting?

2. What is the use of vice and give the various types of vice?
3. State the different types of hammers used in fitting work.
4. What is the use of V- block?
5. What are the materials used for files?
6. What are the methods of filing?
7. What is the composition of high speed steel?
8. What is meant by peening or swaging?
9. What are the different types of punches?
10. What is a wrench?
11.What is the material used for making hacksaw blades?
12. When should a blade with 32 teeth per inch be used?
13. What are the causes of breaking of hacksaw blades?
14. How to specify a vice?
15. What are the types of wrenches?
16. What is a torque wrench?
17. Name the material lout of which the vice is made.
18. Name the different types of drills used in fitting shop?
19. How can a tap drill step be determined?
20. What is the length of available steel rule?
21. What is the material used in making taps?
22. What is the use of tap?
23. Name the files which are classified based on
longitudinal shape and cross section.

34
 TIN SMITHY
Introduction:

The metal plank having less than 2mm thick is called sheet metal.
Sheet metal work deals with the production of components in wide variety of
shapes and sizes with the aid of tools or machines. Some of the important
metals used in sheet metal work are described below.

Galvanized Iron: It is a sheet of soft steel, which is coated with zinc.

Zinc resists corrosion and improves the appearance of the metal galvanized
iron in one of the least expensive metals and is used for making pans,
buckets, ducts, gutters, tanks, boxes, etc.

Black Iron: It is an uncoated sheet of metal with bluish- back

appearance. It corrodes rapidly is not expensively due to difficulties of
soldering the block iron sheet are used for parts that are to be painted.

Tin plate: Tin plate is an iron or steel coated with pure iron. It has
very bright silver appearance and is used for food containers, cans, pans.

Stainless steels: It is an alloy steel possessing corrosion resistance.

General type stainless steel contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent
nickel. This steel is commonly known as 18-8 stainless steel. These are
available various sizes and thickness. It is widely used for food containers,
dairy equipment.

Copper: It has reddish color and possesses good malleability, ductility

and resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

Aluminum: Sheet aluminum is never pure aluminum and it is always

allowed with small quantities of copper silicon, magnesium, and iron.

Tools and Equipment: The common hand tools used in sheet metal work
are, steel rule, wire gauge, dot punch, trammels, scriber, ball peen hammer,
straight –peen hammer, cross peen hammer, Mallets, Snips and Soldering
Iron etc.

Snips: Hand shear or snips are used to cut sheet metal. Although
there are many types, the sheet metal works generally use straight snips and
curved snips.

a. Straight snips: Straight snips have straight blades and are used
for cutting along the straight lines and for trimming edges.

b. Curved snips: Curved snips has a curved blade and used for
cutting circles and irregular shapes.

35
 Bench shears: Bench shear is used for cutting thick sheets. The lower
fixed blade is firmly secured by bracket at bottom. The movable blade is
pivoted at the rear end; the hand operating lever is attached to the front
end of movable blade link mechanism.

Stakes: Stakes are made of steel and forged in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Its working face is machined and polished to facilitate various
operations such as bending, seaming or forming.

The following types of stakes are mostly used.

a. Double seaming: These stakes has two horns and it is used to

make double seam for vessels.

b. Blow horn: These stakes have two horn tapering norms and it is
used to forming or seaming funnels.

c. Break horn: These stakes have a square tapered horn on one

side and a round tapered horn on opposite side. It is used for
shaping round and square surfaces, bending edges, and making
corners.

d. Conductor stake: These stakes has two cylindrical horns having

different diameters. It is used for forming pipes and cylindrical
pieces.

e. Funnel stake: It is used for forming conical shapes and for

making wire rings.

f. Hatchet stake: It has a horizontal sharp straight edge and can

be used for making straight sharp bends and for folding and
bending edges.

Wire gauge: The thickness of sheet metal is referred in number known

as standard wire gauge. The gaps in the circumference of the gauge are used
to check the gauge number as shown in figure.

Sheet metal joints: Various types of joints are used in sheet metal
work to suit the varying requirements. Some commonly used sheet metal
joints and folded edges are shown below. These are self secured joints,
formed by joining together 2 pieces of sheet metal and using the metal itself
to form the joint.

Hand Hammers and Mallets: The sheet metal worker uses a wide
variety of hammers and mallet by forming shapes by different operations.
The most commonly used hammers are follows.

36
a. Straight-Peen Hammer: It has a peen end similar to its bottom
size round shape and its top side is straight point. Square,
slightly curved face and its peen is tapered, it is used for
riveting.

b. Cross Peen Hammer: It has a square flat face and it is tapered

on one side. It is used for setting down the edges for making a
double seam.

c. Mallet: Mallet is generally made of wood and plastic. It is used

whenever slight blows are required. Wooden mallets don’t
damage the surface.

TRAMMEL

STANDARD WIRE GUAGE

37
TINSMITHY TOOLS

38
 TYPES OF SEAMS AND FOLDED EDGES

Safety precautions:

 Never carry tools on pockets. 

 Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands. 
  Do not remove any guards on squaring shears. 
 Care should be exercised when working on squaring shears. 
  Be sure that the fingers are away from the shearing blade. 
  Never use a soldering iron a loose handle. 
 Never touch a soldering Iron to see its hotness. The safety method to
touch the iron to solder. The melting of solder indicates the correct
 temperature. 
 Be careful when cutting out a pattern. Remove scrap metal to avoid
injuries. 

39
VIVA VOCE
SHEET METAL WORK

1. Define sheet metal work?

2. What are the applications of sheet metal working?
3. What is the principle behind the sheet metal layout?
4. How do you identify the thickness of metal sheet?
5. What will be the result of the sheet thickness when increasing
the gauge number?
6. What are the metals used in sheet metal work?
7. Name the striking tools used in sheet metal work?
8. Name the five tools and equipments which are used for cutting
sheet metal?
9. What is a snip?
10. What are the types of snips?
11. Define punching operation?
12. Define nibbling operation in sheet metal work?
13. How will you design the diameter of rivet for sheet metal work?
14. Name the various sheet metal operations?
15. What is hem?
16. What are the functions of hem?
17. What is seam?
18. Double seam is……………than single seam
19. What are the different types of seam?

40
 CARPENTRY

Introduction:
Carpentry deals with the processing of wood to obtain desired
shapes and sizes. The process dealing with the technique of making
wooden pattern is called pattern making.
Classification of carpentry tools:
1. Marking and measuring Tools
2. Cutting and planning tools
3. Drilling and boring tools
4. Striking tools
5. Holding tools
1. Marking and measuring tools:
Steel rule Marking knife
Steel tape Marking gauge
Folding rule Mortise gauge
Try square Wing compass
Bevel square Divider
Meter Square Trammel
2. Cutting and Planning Tools:
Saws: Cross cut saw (Hand saw)
Rip saw
Tenon saw
Chisels: Firmer chisel
Dovetail chisel
Mortise chisel
Outside chisel
Inside chisel
Planning Tools: Wooden jack plane
Metal jack plane
Smooth plane

41
 3. Drilling & Boring Tools:
Gimlet
Ratchet
brace Hand
drill Auger
4. Striking Tools:
Warrington hammer
Claw hammer
Mallet
Straight peen Hammer
5. Holding Tools:
Bench Vice
Bar Clamp
G-Clamp
6. Miscellaneous Tools:
Screw driver
Wood rasp
file Pincer
Marking and Measuring Tools:
Marking is one of the most important features of wood work and
success of completing a job accurately depends on accuracy of marking and
measuring.
Steel Rule: It is used for marking and measuring linear dimensions
and is specified by its length.
Steel Tape: The steel tape is used for measuring longer dimensions.
They are available in different sizes running from 0.6 to 2.5 m. It is flexible
can be coiled and pressed in a case.
Folding Rule: Four – fold box wood rule is made of 4 pieces of each15
cm length. They are hinged is such a way that they can be folded. It is
adapted to carpentry up to 60 cm length.
Try square: The try square is used for testing flatness of surface
marking parallel lines and also for marking and testing of right angles. It has

42
a steel blade fitted at right angles in wooden or cast iron stock. It is available
in various sizes ranging from 100 to 300mm.

Meter Square: It is used for marking and testing 450. It consists of a

steel blade fitted in a wooden or metal stock at an inclination of 450 with
horizontal.
Bevel square: It is used for marking and testing of any angle between
00 to 1800. It has a slotted blade and stock. The blade can be fixed at any
position by means of a screw.
Marking knife: All dimensional lines marked with pencil are cut with
marking knife. It has a chisel edge at one end and sharp point at other end.
It is made of steel and generally used with a try square.
Marking gauge:-The marking gauge is commonly used when absolute
accuracy is required. It has a stem with a sharp pin at one end. It is used to
cut line along the grains and parallel to an edge. The distance can be
adjusted by sliding the stock (head) on a stem. This can be achieved by
thumbscrew.
Mortise Gauge: It has two sharp pins. One is fixed to the stem and
other to a brass slide, which can be secured at any position by a screw. It is
used to cut two parallel lines in a single stroke. It is particularly adapted for
marking in mortise and tenon joints.
Wing Compass: It is made of steel and consists of two pointed legs.
The legs secured in position by means of a setscrew and quadrant. It is used
for marking equal dimensions and for marking arcs and circles on the plane
surfaces of the wood.
Divider: It consists of two pointed legs. The points are hardened and
tempered to prevent wear. It is used for transferring the sizes and scribing
curves or circles on wooden surface.
Trammel: It is used for drawing very large circles and arcs which are
beyond the scope of a compass. It consists of a wooden beam on which the
two puns are located and the distance between them can be adjusted by
means of thumb screws.

43
 STEEL RULE

STEEL TAPE

TRYSQUARE BEVEL

44
 MARKING GAUGE

MORTISE GAUGE

COMPASS AND DIVIDER

45
Cutting and planning tools:
Cutting tools are used for cutting timber to approximate size, cutting
excess wood to obtain desired shape and accuracy. Planning tools are
intended to make smooth and accurate surface.

SAWS:
Cross cut saw: It is used for cutting the wood across the grains
(Hand saw). Its teeth are pointed. The pitch of the teeth is about 2.5 to
3.0mm and blade length is about 600mm. Its teeth have less ‘set’ than
the rip saw.

Rip Saw: It is used for cutting the wood along the grains. Its
teeth have chisel edge. The pitch of the teeth is about 5 to 8mm and
length of the blade is about 700mm.The process of cutting the wood
along the grains is called ripping. Because of high flexibility of the
blade and also number of cutting points per cm (i.e., high pitch) it is
not suitable for cutting across the grains.

Tenon Saw: Tenon saw or back saw is used for cutting small
work. It is mostly adapted in joint work. It has a brass or steel back
which strengthens the blade, but it restricts the depth of cut. Its fine
teeth (6 to 8teeth/cm) and stiff back permits the smooth, accurate
cutting for marking joints. The saw is available in different length
ranging from 250 to 400 mm.
Inside Chisel:
It is leveled inside and is used for marking curved profiles.

Planning tools:
Planning tools are used for reducing and smoothing the surface.

Wooden jack plane: It consists of a wooden body or stocks in

which blade or stock cutter is fastened at an angle of 45° to the sole.
The plane is on (blade or cutter) and the cap iron (back iron) is

46
 assembled and assembly is inserted in the mouth of plane along with
the wedge. The back iron supports the cutting edge and also breaks
the shavings so that they air away from the blade. The blade can be set
for taking deeper or shallower cuts. The length of the jack plane is
about 350to 425mm. The blade is made of high carbon steel and has a
width of 50 to 75 mm. Its cutting edge is tempered and ground to an
angle of 25 to 30° and it is slightly curved (Convex).

Metal jack plane: Its body is made of gray cast iron and it is
provided with a wooden handle at the back and a wooden knob at the
front for holding with both the hands. A fine screw is used for
adjusting the depth of cut i.e.; the thickness of shaving removed and a
level is used for lateral adjustment of the blade. It is very durable and
gives better finish.
Chisels:
Chisels are used for cutting excess wood in shaping and joint
making.
Firmer chisel: The firmer chisel is capable of doing heavy work
and is used for jointing and shaping the wood, with or without mallet.
The chisel blade is made of rectangular section with beveled edge
length of the blade is about 125mm and the width of the edge varies
from 3 to 5mm.

Dovetail chisel: It is similar to firmer chisel but sides are

leveled so that it can cut sharp corners. It is used for cutting sockets
where the angles are less than a right angle.
Mortise Chisel: These chisels are robust, and can withstand
heavy blows. It has a thick stock and narrow cutting edge. It is used
for cutting mortises, and its width is ground to exact size of mortise to
be out.
Outside Chisel: It is level on outside and it is used for
making hallows.

47
CROSS CUT SAW TENON SAW

CROSS CUT TEETH RIP SAW TEETH

TYPES OF PLANES

48
PARTS OF CHISEL

CHISELS

49
Striking tools:
Striking tools are used to drive in nails and to operate chisels.
Warrington Hammer: It is mostly used for bench work and light work.
It is made of cast steel with tempered face and peen. The wooden handle fits
in the eye and steel wedge is driven in to form a rigid joint.
Claw Hammer: It is dual purpose hammer. It has a hammer face
which is used to drive in nails, and claw at the other end for pulling out nails
from the wood. It is designed by its weight and it varies from 375 to 675gms.
Mallet: It is used for operating the chisels and gauges. It is made of
hard wood and is provided with handle. The striking faces are made flat, and
may be in square or rectangular cross-section.

MALLET

WARRINGTON HAMMER
(PEEN HAMMER)

CLAW HAMMER

50
Drilling & Boring tools:
These tools are used for drilling and making holes in wooden jobs.
Gimlet: It is hand operated tool used for making small
holes for screws. It has a spiral flutes with screw like point.
Hand drills: It is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank
drill is used with this tool. It is small, light in weight. The bit is
clamped in the chuck at its end.

Auger: It is used for producing long deep holes. It is a steel bar

with an eye at the top in which a handle is fitted. The bottom end is
provided with a screw point.

HAND DRILL AUGER BIT

GIMLET

51
Holding tools:
The vice and cramp are used to hold work while operations are carried out.
Bench vice: It is made of gray cast iron or steel, and it has two
jaws one of which is fixed to the side of a bench and other is movable.
The faces of jaws are lined with hard wood to prevent damage of work
surface. It is used for holding the work for planning, sawing and
chiseling on the bench.

Bar Clamp: It is used for holding wide work such as box of

frame constructions and jointed broads. It consists of a steel bar fitted
with two jaws, one of which is movable by a screw and other is fixed
into one of the spaced holes by fastening pin.
C-Clamp: It is used for holding small work on the bench. It
consists of a frame with a jaw at one end, and movable jaw, which is
operated by a screw and a thumb nut, at the other end.

BENCH VICE

BAR CLAMP

C-CLAMP

52
Miscellaneous Tools:
Screw Driver: These are used for driving the screws on the board
i.e., wood or unscrewing them from wood. The size is specified by the length
of the blade.
Wood Rasp File: It is exclusively used for finishing the wood surface.
It has sharp cutting teeth and it is used for finishing small curved surfaces.
Pincer: It is used for pulling out nails and is more efficient then the
claw hammers.

SCREW DRIVER PINCER

WOOD RASP FILE

53
VIVA-VOCE
CARPENTARY
1. Define Carpentry?
2. What is Timber?
3. Name the type of timbers and give examples?
4. What are the types of rules used for measuring?
5. What is the use of Try-square?
6. What is the need of Miter square and Bevel square?
7. What are the types of gauges used in carpentry?
8. What is the use of calipers?
9. What is the need of spirit level?
10. What is the chisel Material and types used in carpentry?
11. What are the types of carpentry joints?
12. What is the need of Bench vice?
13. What is the need for seasoning the wood?
14. What are the types of plane?
15. What is setting of saw teeth?
16. What is the cutting bevel angle in a chisel?
17. What is the material used for making the chisel?
18. What is TPI?
19. What are the types of saws used in carpentry?
20.What are the uses of following joints?
(i) Mortise and Tenon joint (ii) Bridle joint

54
EXP NO: 1

TWO LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH

SERIES CONNECTION

Aim: To give connection to two lights controlled by one switch in series.

Tools required:

Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks,

batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips,nails,wood
screws, poker, bulbs, wire stripper, Nose plier, cutting plier and pincer.

Sequence of operations:

1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2. Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
4. Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed
onto the wiring board.
5. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
6. The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.

Circuit Diagram:

NEUTRAL

230 V
50 HZ

PHASE

Result:
The electrical circuit, for two lights controlled by one switch in series
is thus made.

55
EXP NO: 2

TWO LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH

PARALLEL CONNECTION

Aim: To give connections to two lights controlled by one switch in parallel.

Tools required:
Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks,
batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips,nails,wood
screws, poker, bulbs, wire stripper, Nose plier, cutting plier and pincer.

Sequence of operations:

1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2. Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
4. Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed
onto the wiring board.
5. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
6. The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.

Circuit Diagram:

NEUTRAL

230 V
50 HZ

PHASE

Observation:
1. The bulb in parallel glows brightly than in series.

2. If one bulb of the two is removed then also the other i.e. 2nd bulb glows.
Result:
The electrical circuit, for two lights controlled by one switch in series
is thus made.

56
EXP NO: 3

ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY TWO TWO-WAY SWITCHES

STAIR-CASE CONNECTION

Aim: To give connection to one light controlled by 2 two way switches.

Tools used:
Wooden wiring board, one way switch, wooden round blocks,
batten lamp holders, connector screw driver, wires, wire clips,nails,wood
screws, poker, bulbs, wire stripper, Nose plier, cutting plier and pincer.

Sequence of operations:

1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2. Clips are nailed the board, following the wiring diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with clips.
4. Wires are connected to the holders and switch, which are then screwed
onto the wiring board.
5. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
6. The wiring connections are then tested, by giving power supply.
Circuit Diagram:

Result:
The electrical circuit, for one light controlled by 2 way switches is thus
made.

57
EXP NO: 4

L-FITTING

Aim: To make a straight fit L-fit from the given two M.S pieces.
Material: Two MS FLAT of size 50x50x5mm
Tools required:
150mm try-square, 250gm ball-peen hammer, dot punch, scriber,
chisel, 300mm hacksaw frame, 18TPI hacksaw blade, 250mm rough and
smooth hand files, 6mm rough and smooth square files, Bench vice and steel
rule.

Sequence of operations:
1. The burs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked
for 50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are
filed and checked for their flatness, with the help of try-square.
3. The side edges of the two pieces are filed such that, they at right angles
to each other and widths are exactly 48mm.
4. Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5. The given dimensions of the L fitting are marked, by using jenny
caliper, steel rule scriber, and the surface plate.
6. The portion to be removed is then marked.
7. Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8. Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9. Now the potions are filed and burrs are removed by filing on the surfaces
of fitted job.

58
Precautions:
1. Never remove chips with hand use a wire brush.
2. Working tool should not be kept at the edge of table.
3. While sawing secure work rigidity.
Result: The required L-fit is thus made by following the above sequences of
operations.

59
EXP NO: 5

V-FITTING

Aim: To make a V-fit from the given two M.S pieces.

Material: Two MS FLAT of size 50x50x5mm
Tools required:
150mm try-square, 250gm ball-peen hammer, dot punch, scriber, chisel,
300mm hacksaw frame, 18TPI hacksaw blade, 250mm rough and smooth
hand files, 6mm rough and smooth square files, Bench vice and steel rule.

Sequence of operations:

1. The burs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked
for 50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are
filed and checked for their flatness, with the help of try-square.
3. The side edges of the two pieces are filed such that, they at right angles
to each other and widths are exactly 48mm.
4. Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5. The given dimensions of the V fitting are marked, by using jenny
caliper, steel rule scriber, and the surface plate.
6. The portion to be removed is then marked.
7. Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8. Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9. Now the potions are filed and burrs are removed by filing on the surfaces
of fitted job.

60
Precautions:
1. Never remove chips with hand use a wire brush.
2. Working tool should not be kept at the edge of table.
3. While sawing secure work rigidity.

Result: The required V Fit is thus made by following the above sequences
of operations.

61
EXP NO: 6

HALF ROUND FITTING

Aim: To make a half round fitting from the given two M.S pieces.
Material: Two MS FLAT of size 50x50x5mm
Tools required:
150mm try-square, 250gm ball-peen hammer, dot punch, scriber, chisel,
300mm hacksaw frame, 18TPI hacksaw blade, 250mm rough and smooth
hand files, 6mm rough and smooth square files, Bench vice and steel rule.

Sequence of operations:

1. The burs in given materials are removed and the dimensions are checked
for 50x50x5mm with steel rule.
2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and outer mating edges are
filed and checked for their flatness, with the help of try-square.
3. The side edges of the two pieces are filed such that, they at right angles
to each other and widths are exactly 48mm.
4. Wet chalk is applied on surfaces of the two pieces.
5. The given dimensions of the Stepped fitting are marked, by using
jenny caliper, steel rule scriber, and the surface plate.
6. The portion to be removed is then marked.
7. Using dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
8. Using the hacksaw, the unwanted portions are removed.
9. Now the potions are filed and burrs are removed by filing on the surfaces
of fitted job.
.

62
Note: The centers of the half rounds are marked by a centre punch.
However,after marking the centre of the half round in the piece Y, the edges
of it is further filed, till half of the punch dot is left.

Precautions:
1. Never remove chips with hand use a wire brush.
2. Working tool should not be kept at the edge of table.
3. While sawing secure work rigidity.
Result: The semi circular fit is thus made by following the above sequences
of operations.

63
EXP NO: 7

RECTANGULAR TRAY

Aim: To make a rectangular tray using the given sheet metal(180x140)

Tools required: 300mm steel rule, try square, divider, scriber, straight snip,
mallet, ball peen hammer and hatchet stake.
Sequence of operations:
1. The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2. The layout of the tray is marked on the given sheet.
3. The layout of the tray is cut by using the straight snip as
shown in development.
4. Single hemming is made on the four sides of the tray.
5. The four sides of the tray are bent to 90°.

DEVELOPMENT

RECTANGULAR TRAY

64
Precautions:
1. Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2. Be sure that the fingers are away from the shearing bend.
3. Markings should be done carefully.
4. Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.

Note:
The single hemmed vertical edges of the tray can either be riveted or
soldered to ensure stability of the joints.

Result:
The rectangular tray is thus made, from the given sheet metal.

65
EXP NO: 8
OPEN SCOOP
Aim: To make a open scoop as per the given dimensions.
Tools required: 300mm steel rule, try square, divider, scriber, straight snip,
mallet, ball peen hammer and hatchet stake.
Sequence of operation:
1. The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2. The layout of the Open scoop is drawn in the sheet and cut as shown
in the development.
3. Single hemming is made on the two sides of the scoop.
4. The two sides of the scoop are bent to 90°.
5. Finally the third side is bent to 90° and seaming operation is done to
obtain the open scoop.

Precautions:
1. Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2. Be sure that the fingers are away from the shearing bend.
3. Markings should be done carefully.
4. Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
Result:
The Open scoop is thus made, from the given sheet metal as per
dimensions.

66
EXP NO: 9

CONE
Aim: To make a cone as per the given dimensions.
Tools required: 300mm steel rule, try square, divider, scriber, straight snip,
mallet, ball peen hammer and hatchet stake.
Sequence of operation:
1. The size of given sheet is checked with the steel rule.
2. The layout of the cone is drawn in the sheet and cut as shown in the
development.
3. The allowance for folding and bending is added to the development.
4. The waste metal is cut away by using the straight and bent snips.

5. The development of the cone is folded by using the funnel stake, after
forming the single hemmed joint.

Note: The angle subtended by the arc of the sector is calculated from the
relation,

θ  360x Radius of thebasecircleof thecone

Slant Height

67
Precautions:
1. Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
2. Be sure that the fingers are away from the shearing bend.
3. Markings should be done carefully.
4. Cutting should be done carefully to avoid cross cutting.
Result:
The Cone is thus made, from the given sheet metal as per
dimensions.

68
EXP NO: 10

T- LAP JOINT
Aim: To make a T-Lap joint as shown from the given reaper of size,
65x35x300mm
Tools required: Carpenters vice, steel rule, jack plane, Try-square, marking
gauge 25mm firmer chisel, cross cut saw, Tenon saw, scriber and mallet.

Sequence of operation:
1. The given reaper is checked to ensure its correct size.
2. The reaper is firmly clamped in the carpenters vice and to
adjacent faces is planned by the jack plane and the two faces are
checked for squareness with the Try-square.
3. Marking gauge is set and lines are draw at 30 and 60mm, to
mark the thickness and width of the model respectively.
4. The excess material first chiseled out with firmer chisel and then
planned to correct size.
5. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Y are then marked
using scale and marking gauge.
6. Using the cross- cut saw, the portion to be removed or cut in
both the pieces, followed by chiseling and also the parts X and Y
are separated by cross- cutting, using the tenon saw.
7. The end of both the parts are chiseled to the exact lengths.
8. A fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper
fitting is obtained.
9. The parts are fitted to obtain a slightly tight joint.

69
Result:
The T-Lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.

70
EXP NO: 11

DOVETAIL JOINT
Aim: To make dovetail lap joint as per dimensions.
Materials required: Wood 65x35x300mm
Tools required:
1. Carpenter’s vice 6. Steel rule
2. Marketing knife 7. Metal jack plane
3. Firmer chisel 8. Mallet
4. Wood rasp file 9. Try-square
5. Cross cut saw 10. Tenon saw.
Sequence of Operations:
1. The given wood is checked for dimensions.
2. One side is planned with metal jack plane and checked for
trueness by try-square.
3. The four sides are also planed.
4. The excess material is cut by cross cut saw.
5. Now the portions for lapping portion are marked.
6. After sawing remove the waste material by firmer chisel.
7. If the material is still remained in 2 or 3 mm, the remove by filing
by wood rasp file.

71
Note:
Dovetail joint is widely used simple and effective joint. Generally an
angle of 1:6 ratios is adopted. It is partially used in joint between the sides
and back of drawers.
Precautions:
1. Do not keep the tools at the edge of the work bench.
2. Do not keep the plane horizontal in idle mode.

Result:
The dovetail lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of
operations.

72
EXP NO: 12

MORTISE AND TENON JOINT

Aim: To make Mortise & Tenon Joint as per dimensions.

Material Required: Wood 65×35×300 mm
Tools required:
1. Carpenter’s vice 6. Steel rule
2. Marketing knife 7. Metal jack plane
3. Firmer chisel 8. Mallet
4. Wood rasp file 9. Try-square
5. Cross cut saw 10. Tenon saw.
Sequence of Operations:
1. The given wood is checked for dimensions.
2. One side is planned with metal jack plane and checked for
trueness by try-square.
3. The four sides are also planned.
4. The excess material is cut out by cross cut saw.
5. Now the positions for lapping portion are marked.
6. After sawing remove the waste material by firmer chisel.
7. If the material is still remained in 2 or 3mm, then remove by filing
by wood rasp file.

73
Precautions:
1. Do not keep the tools at the edge of the work bench.
2. Do not keep the plane horizontal in idle mode.
Result:
The mortise and tenon joint is thus made by following the above
sequence of operations.

74
 TRADES FOR DEMONSTRATION
METAL CUTTING
(WATER PLASMA)

Introduction:
Plasma may be defined as the charged particle which are close
together so that, each particle influences many charged particles, rather
than interactive with nearby particles. Plasma is typically an ionized gas and
it is considered to be distinct state of matter, because of its unique
properties.
Water Plasma:

It is a multi-functional, portable and hand-held device. It is a

technological breakthrough in the area of metal cutting, welding, soldering,
tempering, spraying etc. as maximum efficiency is achieved when plasma
technique is used. Usage of water plasma tool for welding in gas mode is
similar to the regular gas welding process. The difference is that electric
power and water are used instead of gas tanks to produce a high
temperature jet flame.
Plasma cutting:
It is a process that is used to cut steel and other metals of different
thicknesses (or sometimes other materials) using a plasma torch. In this
process, an inert gas (in some units, compressed air) is blown at high speed
out of a nozzle; at the same time an electrical arc is formed through that gas
from the nozzle to the surface being cut, turning some of that gas to plasma.
The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the metal being cut and moves
sufficiently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut. Plasma cutters use
a number of methods to start the arc. In some units, the arc is created by
putting the torch in contact with the work piece. Some cutters use a high
voltage, high frequency circuit to start the arc. This method has a number of
disadvantages, including risk of electrocution, difficulty of repair, spark gap
maintenance, and the large amount of radio frequency emissions.

75
 CROSS-SECTION OF A PLASMA TORCH HEAD

The Electrode: The primary function of the electrode is to provide

power to the plasma arc. Electrode wear is detected by examining the insert
and measuring pit depth. Excessive electrode wear reduces cut quality and
can result in damage to the plasma torch. Premature electrode wear is most
often caused by a few common culprits, the most common being
mismatched torch parts. Other contributors may include incorrect gas flow
settings, gas leaks, moisture build-up and impurities in the plasma gas.

The Nozzle: The nozzle limits the plasma arc to a specific diameter
through a perfectly round hole in it’s’ tip. It constricts the plasma gas,
increasing it’s’ velocity. The most common cause of nozzle damage is, once
again, mismatched torch parts. The electrode and nozzle should be
changed as a set to keep cut quality astatine it’s very highest.

The Shield: The shield surrounds the consumable stack, protecting

the parts from damage. It contains an identical, perfectly round hole as
the Nozzle. The most common trouble associated with the shield is damage
to the main orifice due to being plugged or clogged by dross or spatter.

The Swirl Ring: The swirl ring creates and controls the swirling action
of the gas as it flows around the electrode and nozzle. When inspected and
76
cleaned regularly, the swirl rings will outlive many electrode and nozzle
changes. A choked swirl ring will hamper gas flow, decrease cut quality
and shorten electrode and nozzle life.

Principle of operation:
The torch is activated by pressing the knob already filled with working
fluid. When the knob is pressed, movable cathode module slides forward and
touches the nozzle anode; and completes the anode cathode short circuit.
After releasing the knob, the cathode module moves back by means of the
return spring and an electric arc between the cathode tip and nozzle-anode.

PLASMA TORCH

77
Working of Plasma Cutter:

Plasma cutters work by sending an electric arc through a gas that is

passing through a constricted opening. The gas can be shop air, nitrogen,
argon, oxygen etc. This elevates the temperature of the gas to the point that
it enters a 4th state of matter. We all are familiar with the first three: i.e.,
solid, liquid, and gas. Scientists call this additional state plasma. As the
metal being cut is part of the circuit, the electrical conductivity of the plasma
causes the arc to transfer to the work.

The restricted opening (nozzle) causes the gas passing through it to

squeeze by at a high speed, like air passing through a venturi in a
carburetor. This high speed gas cuts through the molten metal. The gas
is also directed around the perimeter of the cutting area to shield the cut.

PLASMA CUTTING

78
Advantages:
1. Plasma tool is cost effective, portable and less power consumption.
2. Does not require lightening as the flame produces
effective illumination.
3. The device can be operated continuously.

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 POWER TOOLS

Introduction:

A power tool is a tool powered by an electric motor, an internal

combustion engine, a steam engine, compressed air, direct burning of fuels
and propellants, or even natural power sources like wind or moving water.
Power tools are classified as either stationary or portable, where portable
means handheld. They are used in industry, in construction, and around the
house for driving, drilling, cutting, shaping, sanding, grinding, polishing,
painting, and heating.

Stationary power tools for metalworking are usually called machine

tools. The term machine tool is not usually applied to stationary power tools
for woodworking, although such usage is occasionally heard, and in some
cases, such as drill presses and bench grinders, exactly the same tool is
used for both woodworking and metalworking. Stationary power tools are
prized not only for their speed, but for their accuracy. A table saw not only
cuts faster than a hand saw, but the cuts are smoother, straighter and more
square than even the most skilled man can do with a hand saw. Lathes
produce truly round objects that cannot be made in any other way.

Common power tools include the drill, various types of saws, the
router, the electric sander, and the lathe. The term power tool is also used in
a more general sense, meaning a technique for greatly simplifying a complex
or difficult task. Some safety tips are mentioned below:

1. Never operate any power equipment unless you are completely familiar
with its controls and features.
2. Inspect all portable power tools before using them. See that they are
clean and in good condition.
3. Make sure there is plenty of light in the work area. Never work with
power tools in dark areas where you cannot see clearly.

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 4. Before connecting a power tool to a power source, be sure the
tool switch is in the “OFF” position.

Some examples of Portable Power Tools:

HAND DRILL POWER CUTTER

BLOWER CIRCULAR SAW

DISC GRINDER ROTARY HAMMER

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 JIG SAW MARBLE CUTTER

ORBIT SANDER SAND POLISHER

SCREW DRIVER CHAIN SAW

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Some examples of Stationary Power Tools:

POWER HACK SAW

VERTICAL BAND SAW

CIRCULAR SAW

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