Engi

neer
ingHy
drol
ogy

Branchofappl
i
edhydr
ologyt
hatdealswithengi
neer
ingappl
i
cat
ionssuchaspl
anni
ng,
desi
gni
ng,
operat
ing,
andmai
ntai
ningwaterr
esourcesproj
ect
s.

Hydr
ologi
cal engineeri
ng,somet i
mescal l
edhydrol
ogicengi
neeri
ng,i
sanengineeri
ngspecial
tythat
f
ocusesonwat erresources.Therearebothundergr
aduateandgraduatedegreeprogramsavai
l
able
i
nthi
sf i
eld,
leadingt opotenti
alcareeropti
onsineducati
on,engi
neer
ing,andconsult
ancy.

Hydrologi
calengineeri
ng,alsocalledwat erresourcesengineering,i
sacivilengineer
ingspecial
ty
of
feredatboththeunder graduateandgr aduatelevel
s.Hydrologicalengi
neeri
ngi schief
lyconcerned
wi
tht hefl
owandst or
ageofwat er
.Hy drological
engineer
ingal sofocusesonpr eventi
ngf l
oodsand
l
esseningtheeffectsoffl
oods, droughts, andothernatur
aldisasters.
Pr
ogr
ams 
commonl
ycov
er:

 Urbandr ai
nage
 Wat ersupply
 Wast ewatertr
eatment
 Ri
v ermanagement
 Coast al
protect
ion

Degr
eePr
ogr
ams
Hydrologicalengineer i
ngispri
mar i
l
yagr aduat edegreemaj orbutisalsoofferedatt he
undergraduatelev el.Progr
amsmaybeof f
er edalongwit
hr elat
eddi sci
pli
nes, suchashy drol
ogic
sci
enceorhy draulicengineer
ing.Student
sl earnhowt ousesci enceandmat hemat i
cstodesign
waterstoring,mov ing,andconservingsystems.Cour setopicsinahy drol
ogical engi
neeringprogram
i
nclude:

 Watercyclemanagement
 Fl
oodcont rol
 Soilphy
sics
 Probabi
li
ty
 Numer i
calanaly
sis

Br
anchesofHy
drol
ogy
Hy
drol
ogycanbesubdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngbr
anches:

1.Chemi
cal
Hydr
ology

St
udyofchemi
cal
char
act
eri
sti
csofwat
er.
2.Ecohy
drol
ogy

I
nter
act
ionbet
weenor
gani
smsandt
hehy
drol
ogi
cal
cycl
e.

3.Hy
drogeol
ogy

Al
soref
err
edt
oasgeohy
drol
ogy
,ist
hest
udyoft
hepr
esenceandmov
ementofgr
ound
wat
er.

4.Hy
droi
nfor
mat
ics

i
stheadapt
ati
onofi
nfor
mat
iont
echnol
ogyt
ohy
drol
ogyandwat
err
esour
ce
appl
i
cati
ons

5.Hy
dromet
eor
ology

i
sthest
udyofthet
ransf
erofwat
erandener
gybet
weenl
andandwat
erbodysur
faces
andt
helowerat
mosphere.

6.I
sot
opeHy
drol
ogy

i
sthest
udyofi
sot
ropi
csi
gnat
uresofwat
er(
ori
ginandageofwat
er)
.

7.Sur
faceWat
erHy
drol
ogy

i
sthest
udyofhy
drol
ogi
cpr
ocessest
hatoper
ateatornearear
th’
ssur
face.

8.Gr
oundWat
erHy
drol
ogy

I
tist
hest
udyofunder
groundwat
er.

9.Dr
ainageBasi
nManagement

I
tcov
erswat
erst
oragei
nthef
orm ofr
eser
voi
randf
loodpr
otect
ion.

10.Wat
erQual
i
ty

Iti
ncl
udest
hechemi
str
yofwat
eri
nri
ver
sandl
akes,
bot
hofpol
l
utant
sandnat
ural
sol
utes.

DAEKOARAM ANGTHEDI
FFHYDROLOGI
CALWORKOFANENGI
NEERI
NG
HAHAHHAIKANAMAN
Pr
eci
pit
ati
on

preci
pit
ati
on i
sanypr oductofthe 
condensation 
of 
atmospheri
c wat
erv apor 
thatfal
ls
under 
gravi
ty.
[
2]
 
Themai nfor
msofpr eci
pit
ati
onincl
ude 
dri
zzle,
 
rain,
 
sleet, 
snow, 
graupel
 and 
hai
l
.
Preci
pit
ati
onoccur swhenapor ti
onoft heatmospherebecomessat ur
at edwithwatervapor,
sothat
thewatercondensesand" preci
pit
ates".
 

Precipitat
ionisthef all
ingofwat erfr
om theskyi ndifferentforms.Theyallfor
m
from thecl oudswhi charer aisedabout8t o16ki lomet ers(4t o11mi l
es)above
thegr oundi ntheear t
h’stropospher e.Precipit
ationtakespl acewhenev eranyor
allformsofwat erparticl
esf allf
rom thesehi ghlev el
soft heat mosphereand
reacht heear t
hsurface.Thedr opt othegr oundi scausedbyf r
ict
ional
dragand
grav i
ty.Whenonef all
ingpar ti
cledropsfr om thecl oud,itleavesbehinda
turbulentwake, causingfast erandcont i
nueddr ops.

Di
ff
erentTy
pesofPr
eci
pit
ati
on
1.Rai
n

Rai
nisanyl
i
qui
dthatdr
opsf
rom t
hecl
oudsi
nthesky
.Rai
nisdescr
ibedas
wat
erdr
opl
etsof0.
5mm orl
arger
.Dr
opl
etsl
esst
hanhal
fami
l
li
met
erar
e
def
inedasdr
izzl
e.Rai
ndr
opsf
requent
lyf
all
whensmal
lcl
oudpar
ti
clesst
ri
keand
bi
ndt
oget
her
,cr
eat
ingbi
ggerdr
ops.Ast
hispr
ocesscont
inues,
thedr
opsget
bi
ggerandbi
ggert
oanext
entwher
etheybecomet
ooheav
ysuspendont
heai
r.
Asar
esul
t,t
hegr
avi
typul
l
sthendownt
otheear
th.

Whenhi
ghi
ntheai
r,t
her
aindr
opsst
artf
all
i
ngasi
cecr
yst
alsorsnowbutmel
t
whenast
heypr
oceeddownt
heear
tht
hrought
hewar
merai
r.Rai
nfal
lrat
esv
ary
f
rom t
imet
oti
me,
forexampl
e,l
i
ghtr
ainr
angesf
rom r
atesof0.
01t
o0.
1inches
peerhour
,moder
ater
ainf
rom 0.
1to.
3inchesperhour
,andheav
yrai
nabov
e0.
3
i
nchesperhour
.Rai
nist
hemostcommoncomponentoft
he 
wat
ercy
cle 
and
r
epl
eni
shesmostoft
hef
reshwat
eront
heear
th.

2.Snow

Snowoccur
sal
mostev
eryt
imet
her
eisr
ain.Howev
er,
snowof
tenmel
tsbef
orei
t
r
eachest
heear
thsur
face.I
tispr
eci
pit
ati
oni
nthef
orm ofv
irgaorf
lakesofi
ce
wat
erf
all
i
ngf
rom t
hecl
ouds.Snowi
snor
mal
l
yseent
oget
herwi
thhi
gh,
thi
nand
weakci
rr
uscl
ouds.Snowcanatt
imesf
all
whent
heat
mospher
ict
emper
atur
es
ar
eabov
efr
eezi
ng,
buti
tmost
lyoccuri
nsub-
fr
eezi
ngai
r.Whent
het
emper
atur
es
ar
eabov
efr
eezi
ng,
thesnowf
lakescanpar
ti
all
ymel
tbutbecauseofr
elat
ivel
y
war
mtemper
atur
es,
theev
apor
ati
onoft
hepar
ti
clesoccur
sal
mosti
mmedi
atel
y.

Thi
sev
apor
ati
onl
eadst
ocool
i
ngj
ustar
oundt
hesnowf
lakeandmakesi
tto
r
eacht
othegr
oundassnow.Snowhasf
luf
fy,
whi
teandsof
tst
ruct
ureandi
ts
f
ormat
ioni
sindi
ff
erentshapesandway
s,namel
yfl
atpl
atesandt
hinneedl
es.
Eacht
ypeofsnowf
ormsunderspeci
fi
ccombi
nat
ionsofat
mospher
ichumi
dit
y
andt
emper
atur
es.Thepr
ocessofsnowpr
eci
pit
ati
oni
scal
l
edsnowf
all
.

3.Sl
eet(
IcePel
l
ets)

Sl
eett
akespl
acei
nfr
eezi
ngat
mospher
iccondi
ti
ons.Sl
eet
,al
soknownasi
ce
pel
l
ets,
for
m whensnowf
all
sint
oawar
mlay
ert
henmel
tsi
ntor
ainandt
hent
he
r
aindr
opl
etsf
all
sint
oaf
reezi
ngl
ayerofai
rthati
scol
denought
oref
reezet
he
r
aindr
opsi
ntoi
cepel
l
ets.Hence,
sleeti
sdef
inedasaf
orm ofpr
eci
pit
ati
on
composedofsmal
landsemi
tr
anspar
entbal
l
sofi
ce.Theyshoul
dnotbe
conf
usedwi
thhai
l
stonesast
heyar
esmal
l
eri
nsi
ze.

Sl
eeti
sof
tenexper
ienceddur
ingt
hunder
stor
msandi
snor
mal
l
yaccompani
ed
wi
thf
rost
yice 
cry
stal
sthatf
orm whi
tedeposi
tsandami
xtur
eofsemi
sol
i
drai
n
andsl
ushysnow.I
cepel
l
ets(
sleet
)bouncewhent
heyhi
tthegr
oundoranyot
her
sol
i
dobj
ect
sandf
all
swi
thahar
dst
ri
ki
ngsound.Sl
eetdonnotf
reezei
ntoasol
i
d
massexceptwheni
tcombi
neswi
thf
reezi
ngr
ain.

4.Fr
eezi
ngRai
n

Fr
eezi
ngr
ainhappenswhenr
ainf
all
sdur
ingbel
owf
reezi
ng
condi
ti
ons/
temper
atur
es.Thi
snor
mal
l
yresul
tsi
nthesol
i
dif
icat
ionofr
ain
dr
opl
ets.Ther
aindr
opsar
esuper
-cool
edwhi
l
epassi
ngt
hrought
hesub-
fr
eezi
ng
l
ayeri
ntheat
mospher
eandf
reezesbyt
het
imei
treachest
hegr
ound.Dur
ing
f
reezi
ngr
ains,
iti
scommont
owi
tnessanev
encoat
ingofi
ceoncar
s,st
reet
s,
t
rees,
andpowerl
i
nes.Ther
esul
ti
ngcoat
ingofi
cei
scal
l
edgl
azeandi
tcanbui
l
d
upt
oat
hicknessofsev
eral
cent
imet
ers.Fr
eezi
ngr
ainsposeahuget
hreatt
o
nor
mal
oper
ati
onsofr
oadwayt
ranspor
tat
ion,
air
craf
ts,
andpowerl
i
nes.

5.Hai
l

Hai
l
stonesar
ebi
gbal
l
sandi
rr
egul
arl
umpsofi
cet
hatf
all
from l
arge
t
hunder
stor
ms.Hai
li
spur
elyasol
i
dpr
eci
pit
ati
on.Asopposedt
osl
eet
sthatcan
f
ormi
nanyweat
herwhent
her
ear
ethunder
stor
ms,
hai
l
stonesar
epr
edomi
nat
ely
ex
per
iencedi
nthewi
nterorcol
dweat
her
.Hai
l
stonesar
emost
lymadeupof
wat
eri
ceandmeasur
ebet
ween0.
2inches(
5mi
l
li
met
ers)and6i
nches(
15
cent
imet
ers)i
ndi
amet
er.Thi
srangesi
nsi
zeofapea’
sdi
amet
ert
othatl
arger
t
hanagr
apef
rui
t.

Fort
hisr
eason,
theyar
ehi
ghl
ydamagi
ngt
ocr
ops,
tear
ingl
eav
esapar
tand
r
educi
ngt
hei
rval
ue.Vi
olentt
hunder
stor
mswi
thv
eryst
rongupdr
aft
susual
l
y
hav
ethecapabi
l
ityt
ohol
diceagai
nstt
hegr
avi
tat
ional
pul
l
,whi
chbr
ingsabout
t
hehai
l
stoneswhent
heyev
ent
ual
l
yescapeandf
all
tot
hegr
ound.So,
hai
l
stones
ar
efor
medf
rom super
-cool
eddr
opl
etst
hatsl
owl
yfr
eezeandr
esul
tsi
nsheetof
cl
eari
ce.
 6.Dr
izzl
e

Dr
izzl
eisv
eryl
i
ghtr
ain.I
tisst
rongert
hanmi
stbutl
esst
hanashower
.Mi
sti
sa
t
hinf
ogwi
thcondensat
ionneart
hegr
ound.Fogi
smadeupofi
cecr
yst
alsor
cl
oudwat
erdr
opl
etssuspendedi
ntheai
rnearoratt
heear
th’
ssur
face.Dr
izzl
e
dr
opl
etsar
esmal
l
ert
han0.
5mi
l
li
met
ers(
0.02i
nches)i
ndi
amet
er.Theyar
ise
f
rom l
owst
rat
ocumul
uscl
ouds.Theysomet
imesev
apor
ateev
enbef
orer
eachi
ng
t
hegr
oundduet
othei
rmi
nut
esi
ze.Dr
izzl
ecanbeper
sist
enti
scol
dat
mospher
ic
t
emper
atur
es.

7.SunShower

Sunshoweri
sapr
eci
pit
ati
onev
entt
hati
sregi
ster
edwhenr
ainf
all
swhi
l
ethesun
shi
nes.I
toccur
swhent
hewi
ndsbear
ingr
aint
oget
herwi
thr
ainst
ormsar
ebl
own
sev
eral
mil
esaway
,thusgi
vi
ngr
iset
orai
ndr
opsi
ntoanar
eawi
thout
 cl
ouds.
Consequent
ly,
sunshoweri
sfor
medwhensi
ngl
erai
ncl
oudpassesabov
ethe
ear
th’
ssur
faceandt
hesun’
sray
spenet
rat
ethr
ought
her
aindr
ops.Mostoft
he
t
ime,
iti
saccompani
edwi
tht
heappear
anceofar
ainbow.

8.SnowGr
ains

Snowgr
ainsar
easv
erysmal
lwhi
teandopaquegr
ainsofi
ce.Snowgr
ainsar
e
f
air
lyf
latandhav
edi
amet
ergener
all
ylesst
han1mm.Theyar
eal
mostequi
val
ent
t
othesi
zeofdr
izzl
e.Readmor
eaboutsnowgr
ains 
her
e.

9.Di
amondDust

Di
amonddustar
eext
remel
ysmal
li
cecr
yst
alsusual
l
yfor
medatl
owl
evel
sandat
t
emper
atur
esbel
ow-
30°
C.Di
amonddustgoti
tsnamef
rom t
hespar
kli
ngef
fect
whi
chi
scr
eat
edwhenl
i
ghtr
efl
ect
sont
hei
cecr
yst
alsi
ntheai
r.
WEATHERSYSTEMSFORPRECI
PITATI
ON
Weat
herSy
stemsf
orKeySt
age4

Fr
ont
s

Fr
ont
alDepr
essi
ons

Ot
hert
ypesofdepr
essi
on(
orl
ow)

Ant
icy
clones

Fr
ont
s

Af
ronti
stheboundar
ybet
weent
wodi
ff
erentt
ypesof
 ai
rmass.I
nourl
ati
tudesaf
rontusual
l
y

separ
ateswar
m,moi
stai
rfr
om t
het
ropi
csandcol
d,r
elat
ivel
ydr
yai
rfr
om pol
arr
egi
ons.

Fr
ont
smov
ewi
tht
hewi
nd,
soi
ntheUKt
hisi
snor
mal
l
yfr
om westt
oeastbecauseourpr
evai
l
ing

wi
ndsar
efr
om t
hewestorsout
hwest
.Ataf
ront
,theheav
iercol
dai
runder
cut
sthel
essdensewar
m

ai
r,causi
ngt
hewar
m ai
rtor
iseupov
ert
hewedgeofcol
dai
r.

Ast
heai
rri
sest
her
eiscool
i
ngandcondensat
ion,
thusl
eadi
ngt
othef
ormat
ionofcl
oudsand

r
ainf
all
.Consequent
ly,
front
stendt
obeassoci
atedwi
thcl
oudandr
ain.Thr
eet
ypesoff
rontcanbe

i
dent
if
ied;
war
mfr
ont
s,col
dfr
ont
sandoccl
udedf
ront
s.

War
mfr
ont

Awar
mfr
ontmar
kst
hel
eadi
ngedgeofawar
m ai
rmass.Thepr
esenceofawar
mfr
ontmeanst
hat

t
hewar
m ai
risadv
anci
ngandr
isi
ngupov
ert
hecol
dai
r.Thi
sisbecauset
hewar
m ai
ris‘
l
ight
er’
or

l
essdense,
thant
hecol
derai
r.War
m ai
rist
husr
epl
aci
ngcol
dai
ratt
hesur
face.
 Fi
g1:
 
Awar
mfr
onti
ndi
agr
ammat
icf
orm

Cloudextendswellaheadofthefr
ont,
becomi ngt
hickerasthefr
ontapproaches,accompani
edby
fal
li
ngpressure.Rai
nthenstart
stofal
l,usual
l
ybecomi ngheavi
estonthefronti
tself
.

Thepassageoft
hef
ronti
sfol
l
owedbyar
isei
ntemper
atur
eandhumi
dit
yandav
eeri
nthewi
nd,

whi
l
ethepr
essur
eal
sost
opsf
all
i
ng.Al
thought
her
aindi
esout
,itof
tenst
ayscl
oudy
.

Onwi
ndwar
dcoast
sandhi
l
ls,
thecl
oudbasemaybel
owenought
ogi
vef
ogandt
hickenought
o

pr
oducedr
izzl
e.I
nlandandt
othel
eeofhi
l
ls,
thecl
oudmaybr
eak,
all
owi
ngf
orsomewar
m sunshi
ne.

Col
dfr
ont

Thi
smar
kst
hel
eadi
ngedgeofcol
derai
r.Thepr
esenceofacol
dfr
ontmeanst
hatcol
dai
ris

adv
anci
ngandpushi
ngunder
neat
hwar
merai
r.Thi
sisbecauset
hecol
dai
ris‘
heav
ier
’ordenser
,

t
hant
hewar
merai
r.Col
dai
rist
her
efor
erepl
aci
ngwar
merai
ratt
hesur
face.
 Fi
g3:
 
Acol
dfr
onti
ndi
agr
ammat
icf
orm

Pr
essur
ebegi
nst
ofal
li
ncr
easi
ngl
yrapi
dlyast
hef
rontappr
oachesandr
ainusual
l
yst
art
snotl
ong

bef
orei
tar
ri
ves,
becomi
ngheav
yforashor
tti
me.Thi
sisof
tenaccompani
edbyani
ncr
easei
nanda

backi
ngoft
hewi
nd.I
nsomecases,
ther
emayal
sobehai
landt
hunder
.

Thepassageoft
hef
ronti
susual
l
ymar
kedbyashar
pchangef
rom f
all
i
ngt
ori
si
ngpr
essur
eanda

v
eeri
nthewi
nd.

Ast
her
aindi
esaway
,thecl
oudl
i
ftsandbr
eaksand,
alt
hought
her
eissunshi
ne,
theai
rtemper
atur
e

f
all
s.

Af
terat
ime,
cumul
uscl
oudsbegi
ntof
orm,
oft
enbr
ingi
ngshower
s.Somet
imest
heshower
smay

becomeheav
y,per
hapsev
enaccompani
edbyhai
landt
hunder
.Ont
heot
herhand,
insomecases,

pr
essur
ewi
l
lri
ser
api
dlyaf
teracol
dfr
onthaspassedandt
hiscausest
her
etobef
ew,
ifany
,

shower
s.

Occl
udedf
rontoroccl
usi
on

Occl
usi
onsar
esl
i
ght
lymor
ecompl
ext
hanwar
m orcol
dfr
ont
s.Theyoccurbecausecol
dfr
ont
s

t
rav
elmor
equi
ckl
ythanwar
mfr
ont
sandev
ent
ual
l
ythi
sresul
tsi
nthecol
dfr
ont‘
cat
chi
ngup’
wit
h

t
hewar
mfr
ont
.

Thi
scausest
hewar
m ai
rtobeunder
cutandl
i
ftedupf
rom t
hesur
face.
 Fi
g5:
 
Anoccl
udedf
ronti
ndi
agr
ammat
icf
orm

Tr
ough

Wher
easf
ront
ssepar
ateai
rmasses,
whi
char
edi
ff
erenti
ntemper
atur
e,t
roughsgener
all
ydev
elopi
n

col
dai
randar
echar
act
eri
sedbyani
ncr
easei
nthef
requencyandi
ntensi
tyofshower
s.Pr
essur
e

begi
nst
ofal
last
het
roughappr
oachesandof
tenr
isesshar
plyoncei
thaspassed.Aswi
thf
ront
s,

t
hewi
ndt
endst
obackaheadoft
het
roughandt
oveeri
mmedi
atel
ybehi
ndi
t.Ther
ear
eal
so

par
ti
cul
arl
yst
ronggust
sofwi
ndi
ntheshower
s

Summar
y
 Fr
ont
sfor
m ast
her
esul
tof‘
conf
li
ct’
bet
weenwar
m andcol
dai
r

 Fr
ont
sar
etheboundar
ybet
weent
woai
rmasses

 Themostsi
gni
fi
cantweat
heroccur
sonf
ront
s,si
ncet
hati
swher
etheai
risr
isi
ngf
ast
est

Fr
ont
alDepr
essi
ons
I
ntr
oduct
ion

Adepr
essi
oni
sanar
eaofl
owpr
essur
eandi
sassoci
atedwi
thunset
tl
edweat
her
.Thi
sisduet
othe

f
actt
hatt
heai
rwi
thi
nthedepr
essi
oni
sri
sing,
causi
ngi
ttocool
andt
hewat
erv
apourwi
thi
nitt
o

condensei
ntocl
ouds.Thi
sri
singai
rwi
thi
nadepr
essi
oncausesanar
eaofl
owpr
essur
eatt
he

sur
face.Thedeepert
hedepr
essi
on(
orl
ow)
,themor
eunset
tl
edt
heweat
her
.

Consequent
ly,
theweat
herassoci
atedwi
thadepr
essi
oni
sof
tencl
oudy
,wetandwi
ndy
.Howev
er,
 weat
heri
snotuni
for
mlydi
str
ibut
edar
oundadepr
essi
on.Di
ff
erentpar
tsofi
thav
ever
ydi
ff
erent

t
ypesofweat
her
,whi
chal
sov
aryt
hroughi
tsl
i
fet
ime.Themostsi
gni
fi
cantweat
her(
cloudand

pr
eci
pit
ati
on)occur
sindi
scr
etel
i
nesorf
ront
s.I
nthenor
ther
nhemi
spher
ewi
ndsbl
owant
icl
ockwi
se

ar
oundar
easofl
owpr
essur
e;t
hisi
srev
ersedi
nthesout
her
nhemi
spher
e.

Dev
elopmentofadepr
essi
on
St
age1–Or
igi
nandi
nfancy

Thedepr
essi
onusual
l
yst
art
sli
feasawav
e,shownonachar
tby‘
buckl
i
ng’
onaf
ront
.Att
hisst
age,

t
heai
riswar
mtot
hesout
hoft
hef
rontandr
elat
ivel
ycol
dtot
henor
thofi
t.Theweat
heri
nthewar
m

ai
rcanv
aryf
rom f
ineandsunnyt
ocl
oudy
,somet
imeswi
thdr
izzl
eandper
hapsev
enwi
thf
og.The

t
ypeofcl
oudi
slay
eredor
 st
rat
if
orm 
andi
snotv
eryt
hick.I
nthecol
dai
r,t
her
eisusual
l
ysomecl
oud,

buti
ttendst
obemor
ebr
oken,
appear
ingasdi
scr
etespeckl
esonasat
ell
i
tei
mage.Thecl
oud

i
s cumul
i
for
m andcanof
tenbel
argeenought
opr
oduceshower
s. 
Figur
e7showsanexampl
eofa

‘
wav
e’onasy
nopt
icchar
t,whi
l
st 
Figur
e8 
showst
hei
nfr
aredsat
ell
i
tei
magef
ort
hesamet
ime.
 I
nwar
m ai
r,t
heweat
hercanv
aryf
rom war
m andsunnyt
odul
landdr
izz
ly

Col
derai
rismor
eshower
y,butwi
thsomesunshi
net
oo.

St
age2–Mat
uri
ty

Ast
hedepr
essi
ondev
elops,
thepr
essur
ear
oundi
tfal
l
s,l
eadi
ngt
omor
eti
ght
lypackedi
sobar
s.Thi
s

causeswi
ndst
obest
rongerand,
att
hesamet
ime,
thebuckl
eint
hef
rontbecomesmuchmor
e

mar
ked(
see 
Figur
e9)
,wi
thdi
sti
nct
 war
m and 
col
dfr
ont
s bei
ngf
ormed.War
m ai
rispushedt
owar
ds

t
henor
thwhi
l
ecol
derai
rdr
ivessout
hwar
ds.Ther
egi
onbet
weent
hewar
m andcol
dfr
onti
scal
l
ed

t
he 
war
m sect
or.Thecl
oudneart
hef
ront
sthi
ckensandt
he 
fr
ont
alzone 
becomesbr
oader
,whi
ch

meanst
hatr
aini
smor
epr
olonged,
becomi
ngheav
iernear
ert
hef
ront
.Howev
er,
iti
sof
tent
hecase

t
hatonef
ronti
smor
eact
ivet
hant
heot
her
.Att
hisst
age,
theheav
iestr
ainoccur
sneart
hecent
reof

t
hel
ow.
 Fi
gur
e9 
showsanexampl
eofamat
ure‘
depr
essi
on’
onasy
nopt
icchar
t,whi
l
st 
Figur
e

10 
showstheinf
rar
edsatel
li
tei
magef orthesameti
me.
 Theweatheronornearafr
onti
susuallycloudy
,wi
thpr
eci
pitat
iont
hatmayvar
yfr
om v
irt
ual
l
y
not
hingonaweakf r
onttoator
rent
ial
downpouronapar t
icul
arl
yacti
veone

St
age3–Occl
usi
on

Thef
ront
smov
eataspeedi
ndi
cat
edbyt
hesepar
ati
onbet
weent
hei
sobar
sal
ongt
hem,
alt
hough

t
hespeedoft
hewar
mfr
onti
saboutt
wo-
thi
rdsoft
his.Consequent
ly,
thecol
dfr
onti
susual
l
yfast
er
t
hant
hewar
mfr
ont
.Col
dai
risdensert
hanwar
m ai
r,whi
chi
trepl
acesatt
hesur
face,
causi
ngt
he

war
m ai
rtol
i
ftandt
hewar
m sect
ort
obecomepr
ogr
essi
vel
ysmal
l
er.Thecol
dai
rincr
easi
ngl
y

under
cut
sthewar
m ai
r,i
nit
ial
l
yfr
om neart
hecent
reoft
hel
ow,
leadi
ngt
othedev
elopmentofan

occl
udedf
ront
,or
 occl
usi
on 
(see 
Figur
e11)
.

Ther
ainf
all
usual
l
ybecomesmor
espor
adi
conanoccl
usi
on,
wit
htheheav
iestr
ainoccur
ri
ngnear

t
he 
tr
ipl
epoi
nt 
(see 
Figur
e11)
,wher
eal
lthr
eet
ypesoff
rontmeet
.Byt
hisst
age,
adepr
essi
oni
snow

i
nit
smat
urest
age,
thepr
essur
eofi
tscent
rest
opsf
all
i
ngandst
art
stor
ise.Col
dai
rhasbeen

br
oughtwel
ltot
hesout
h,of
tenov
erar
easwi
thhi
ghersur
facet
emper
atur
es.Thi
scanl
eadt
o

par
ti
cul
arl
yheav
yshower
s,someofwhi
chmaybet
hunder
y.Shower
ssomet
imesbecomeor
gani
sed

i
ntol
i
nes,
whi
chcanbei
ndi
cat
edont
heweat
herchar
tby
 tr
oughs 
(see 
Figur
e11)
. 
Figur
e11 
shows

anex
ampl
eofanoccl
udeddepr
essi
ononasy
nopt
icchar
t,whi
l
st 
Figur
e12showst
hei
nfr
ared

sat
ell
i
tei
magef
ort
hecor
respondi
ngt
ime.

St
age4–Deat
h

Ev
ent
ual
l
ythef
ront
alsy
stem di
esasal
lthewar
m ai
rhasbeenpushedupf
rom t
hesur
faceandal
l

t
hatr
emai
nsi
scol
dai
r.Theoccl
usi
ondi
esoutast
emper
atur
esar
esi
mil
aronbot
hsi
desoft
hef
ront
.

Ot
hert
ypesofdepr
essi
on(
orl
ow)
Pol
arl
ows

Pol
arl
owsf
ormi
ncol
dai
r,mai
nlyi
nwi
nterorspr
ing,
andt
endt
obequi
tesmal
l
.Theyusual
l
y

or
igi
nat
efr
om eddi
est
hatf
ormt
othel
eeofhi
ghgr
ound.Theypr
oduceshower
sthatar
ewi
ntr
yin

nat
ureandwhi
chsomet
imesbecomeal
i
gnedi
ntot
roughs.Whent
heycomeacr
ossl
and,
theycan

pr
oducequi
tel
argeamount
sofsnowf
all
.
 Fi
gur
e15 
showsanexampl
eofapol
arl
owonasy
nopt
ic

char
t,whil
st 
Figur
e16 
showst
hei
nfr
aredsat
ell
i
tei
magef
ort
hecor
respondi
ngt
ime.
Thunderylows

Thunder
ylowsf
orm ov
erhotl
andi
nsummerandcanpr
oduceal
argenumberoft
hunder
stor
ms.These

t
hunder
stor
mscanal
sobecomeal
i
gnedi
ntot
roughs,
giv
ingspel
l
sofpar
ti
cul
arl
yint
ensedownpour
swi
thhai
l
,

occasi
onal
l
yaccompani
edbyt
ornadoesorwat
erspout
s.
 Fi
gur
e17 
showsanexampl
eoft
hunder
ylowsov
erFr
anceandSpai
nonasy
nopt
icchar
t.
 Fi
gur
es18 
and 
19 
show

sat
ell
i
tei
magesf
ort
hesameday
,showi
ngt
hedev
elopmentoft
hunder
stor
msdur
ingt
heday
.

Leel
ows

Leel
owsf
ormt
othel
eeofhi
ghgr
oundwhenst
rongwi
ndsar
ebl
owi
ngdi
rect
lyagai
nstar
idge.They

don’
tpr
oduceanypar
ti
cul
art
ypeofweat
her
,butwi
ndsar
oundt
hem canbev
eryunpr
edi
ctabl
ein

bot
hspeedanddi
rect
ion.
 Fi
gur
es20 
and 
21 
showanexampl
eofal
eel
owov
ert
heGul
fofGenoaon

bot
hasy
nopt
icchar
tandsat
ell
i
tei
mag

Ant
icy
clones

Anant
icy
clonei
sar
egi
onofhi
ghpr
essur
e.Thi
sist
her
esul
toft
heai
rint
heat
mospher
esubsi
ding

t
owar
dst
heear
th’
ssur
face.Thi
ssubsi
dence,
orsi
nki
ngmot
ion,
leadst
otheai
rbecomi
ngdr
ierand

war
mer
.Int
henor
ther
nhemi
spher
ewi
ndsbl
owcl
ockwi
sear
oundar
easofhi
ghpr
essur
e,t
hisi
s

r
ever
sedi
nthesout
her
nhemi
spher
e.

Whenant
icy
clonesf
orm ov
erl
and,
theski
esabov
ear
eof
tencl
earofcl
oud.Dur
ingt
hesummer
,thi
s

meansl
ong,
sunnyday
sandcl
earni
ght
s.I
nwi
nter
,thel
ongerni
ght
smeant
hatt
emper
atur
esf
all

l
ower
,wi
thf
rostof
tenf
ormi
ng,
whi
chmayper
sistal
lday
.Thef
all
sint
emper
atur
eov
erni
ghtandl
i
ght

wi
ndscanl
eadt
ofogf
ormi
ng.

Whenant
icy
clonesar
eov
ert
hesea,
theweat
hercanv
aryf
rom f
ineandsunnyt
oov
ercastcl
oud.

Thi
scl
oudmaybet
hickenought
ogi
vedr
izzl
eandmayf
all
lowenought
opr
oducef
og.Thi
s

happensmostof
tendur
ingspr
ingandi
sleastf
requenti
naut
umn.I
ftheant
icy
cloneext
endsov
er

bot
hlandandsea,
cloudandf
ogcanspr
eadacr
osscoast
alr
egi
ons,
somet
imesr
eachi
ngqui
tef
ar

i
nland.

 I
nsummerov
erl
and,
day
sar
ewar
m orhotandsunny
,ni
ght
sar
ecl
ear
.
 Ov
ert
hesea,
iti
ssomet
imesqui
tecl
oudy
.Dr
izzl
e,mi
storf
ogar
emostl
i
kel
year
lyi
nthesummer
.

 I
nwi
nterov
erl
and,
day
sar
eof
tendul
landmi
sty
,per
hapsev
enf
oggy
.Sunnyday
stendal
sot
obe
col
danddr
y.Ni
ght
scanbecl
earandf
rost
y,orbecomef
oggyorcl
oudy
.

 Ov
ert
hesea,
thewi
nterweat
heri
smucht
hesameasdur
ingt
hesummer
.Dr
izzl
e,mi
storf
og
becomemor
eli
kel
yasspr
ingappr
oaches

Cy
clones

a 
cycl
one isal ar
gescal
e ai
rmass 
thatr
otat
esaroundastr
ongcenterofl
ow atmospher
ic
pr
essure.
[
1][
2]
 
Cycl
onesar
echaract
eri
zedbyinwar
d spi
ral
i
ng wi
nds 
thatrot
ateaboutazoneof
 l
ow
pr
essure.

Cycl
ones 
canbet hemosti
ntensestormsonEar t
h.A cyclone 
isasyst
em ofwinds
rot
ati
ngcount
erclockwi
sei
nt heNorther
nHemi spher
ear oundal owpr
essurecent
er.
Theswir
li
ngairr
isesandcools,cr
eati
ngcloudsandpr eci
pitat
ion.

Therearetwotypesofcycl
ones:middlel
ati
tude(
mid-l
atit
ude)cycl
onesandt
ropi
cal
cycl
ones.Mid-l
ati
tudecycl
onesar
et hemaincauseofwinterst
ormsinthemi
ddle
l
atit
udes.Tropi
calcycl
onesareal
soknownashur ri
canes.

An ant
icycl
one 
ist
heoppositeofacyclone.Ananti
cyclone’swindsrotatecl
ockwisei
n
theNorther
nHemispherearoundacenterofhighpressure.Aircomesi nfr
om above
andsinkstothegr
ound.Highpressur
ecent er
sgenerall
yhav efairweather
.

Mi
d-Lat
it
udeCy
clones
Mid-lati
tudecy clones, sometimescal l
ed extratr
opicalcy cl
ones,f
orm atthepol arfr
ontwhent he
temper aturedifferencebet weent woai rmassesi slarge.Theseairmassesbl owpasteach
otherinopposi t
edi recti
ons.Corioli
sEf fectdef l
ectswi ndstotherightintheNor t
hern
Hemi sphere, causingt hewindst ost ri
ket hepolarfrontatanangl e.War m andcoldf r
ontsfor
m
nextt oeachot her .Mostwi nterstormsi nt hemi ddlelati
tudes,i
ncludingmostoft heUnited
StatesandEur ope, arecausedbymi d-
lati
t udecyclones.Thewar m airatthecoldfrontri
sesand
createsal owpr essur ecell
.Wi ndsr ushint othelowpr essureandcr eatear i
singcolumnofair.
Theai rtwists,rotati
ngcount erclockwisei nt heNorthernHemi sphereandcl ockwiseinthe
Sout
her
nHemi
spher
e.Si
ncet
her
isi
ngai
rismoi
st,
rai
norsnowf
all
s.

Monsoon

The monsoon 
isacycli
c,war
m wind ,
typi
calofthe I
ndianOcean 
,whi
chpr
ofoundl
yinf
luences
the 
cli
mate 
of 
theI
ndiansubcont
inent 
and 
Indochina 
.
Thenameder i
vesf rom t
he Ar abi mawsi
c  m 
meani ng"  
season "
. 
Thisperf
ectl
yindi
cat
estheseasonal
nat ureoftheselargeairflows.  
Meteorologi
sts cal
lthem peri
odicwinds.
 Thechangei
nwi nd
direction,whi
cht akesplacei n May and 
October  
,i
saccompani edbyv er
y
violent t
ropi
cal
 cyclones ,
 ty
phoons  ,whichoftenhav edevastat
ingeff
ectsonthecoastsof
the IndianOcean (egthe BayofBengal  
).

Wal
aakomahanapnangchar
act
eri
sti
cofpr
eci
pit
ati
on
 Esti
mationofArealPreci
pit
ati
on
Asinglepointprecipit
ati
onmeasur ementisquit
eoft
ennotrepr
esent
ati
veofthev ol
umeofpr eci
pit
ation
fal
li
ngov eragivencat chmentarea.Adensenetworkofpoi
ntmeasurement
sand/ orradarestimatescan
provi
deabet terrepresent
ati
onoft hetr
uev ol
umeoveragiv
enarea.Anetworkofprecipi
tati
on
measur ementscanbeconv er
tedtoarealesti
matesusi
nganyofanumberoft echni
queswhi chinclude
thefol
lowing:

1)
 Ar
it
hmet
icMean -Thistechniquecalculatesarealprecipitationusingthearithmeticmeanof
al
lthepoi
ntorar
eal
measur
ement
sconsi
der
edi
ntheanal
ysi
s.

2) I
sohyetalAnalysi
s -Thi
sisagraphi
calt
echni
quewhichi
nvol
vesdrawingesti
mat edli
nesofequal
rai
nfallov
eranar eabasedonpointmeasurements.Themagni
tudeandextentoftheresul
tantr
ainf
all
areasofcov er
agear ethenconsi
deredver
sustheareai
nquest
ioninordert
oestimatetheareal
precipi
tat
ionvalue.

3)
 Thi
essenPol
ygon 
-Thi
sisanot
hergr
aphi
cal
techni
quewhi
chcal
cul
atesst
ati
onwei
ght
sbased
ontherel
ati
vear
easofeachmeasur
ementst
ati
onint
heThi
essenpoly
gonnet
work.Thei
ndi
vi
dual
wei
ghtsaremult
ipl
i
edbythest
ati
onobser
vat
ionandt
heval
uesaresummedtoobtai
nthear
ealav
erage
pr
ecipi
tat
ion.

4) 
DistanceWeighting/Gri
dded -Thi
si sanot herstat
ionwei ght
ingtechnique.Agridofpoi ntesti
matesis
madebasedonadi stanceweighti
ngscheme.Eachobser v
edpointv al
ueisgivenauni quewei ghtf
or
eachgr i
dpointbasedont hedistancef rom thegridpointinquesti
on.Thegr idpointpr
eci pi
tati
onvaluei
s
calcul
atedbasedont hesum oftheindiv i
dualstati
onwei ghtmulti
pli
edbyobser vedstationv al
ue.Once
thegridpoint
shav eal l
beenestimatedt heyar esummedandt hesum i sdivi
dedbyt henumberofgr i
d
pointstoobtai
nthear ealaver
agepr ecipit
ati
on.

5) MAPX -Thi
sisaNWS-speci
f i
cgri
ddedtechnique.Areal
runof
fzonepreci
pitat
ionest
imat
esaremade
usingthe4x4km WSR-88D1- hour
lygri
ddedprecipit
ati
onesti
mates.Thear
ithmeticmeancal
cul
ati
on
techni
queisusedtoav
eragethegridpoi
ntestimates.

6)I
ndexStat
ions-I
nsomeareasoft
hecount
ry(
pri
mari
l
ymountai
nousareas),
pre-
det
ermi
nedst
ati
on
wei
ghtsbasedoncli
mat
ologyar
eusedt
ocomputebasi
nav
eragepreci
pit
ati
on

Di
konaal
am angmganasunodwal
aaaaaakoi
dea
hahahha