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Network Analysis

The document provides an overview of the syllabus for a Network Analysis course. It covers 5 modules: 1) Basic circuit concepts including network reduction techniques, source transformations, and node/loop analysis. 2) Network theorems like superposition, reciprocity, and Thevenin/Norton theorems. 3) Transient behavior of circuits and Laplace transformations. 4) Resonant circuits including series and parallel resonance. 5) Two-port network parameters including z, y, h, and transmission parameters. The course uses two textbooks and three reference books.

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Network Analysis

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Shyam Rajapuram

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NETWORK ANALYSIS (15EC34)

Syllabus:-
Module -1
Basic Concepts: Practical sources, Source transformations, Network

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reduction using Star – Delta transformation, Loop and node analysis With
linearly dependent and independent sources for DC and AC networks,
Concepts of super node and super mesh.

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Module -2
Network Theorems: Superposition, Reciprocity, Millman‘s theorems,

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Thevinin‘s and Norton‘s theorems, Maximum Power transfer theorem and
Millers Theorem.
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Module -3
Transient behavior and initial conditions: Behavior of circuit elements
under switching condition and their Representation, evaluation of initial
and final conditions in RL, RC and RLC circuits for AC and DC excitations.
Laplace Transformation & Applications: Solution of networks, step, ramp
and impulse responses, waveform Synthesis.
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Module -4
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Resonant Circuits: Series and parallel resonance, frequency- response of

series and Parallel circuits, Q–Factor, Bandwidth.
Module -5
Two port network parameters: Definition of z, y, h and transmission
parameters, modeling with these parameters, relationship between
parameters sets.

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Text Books:
1. M.E. Van Valkenberg (2000), “Network analysis”, Prentice Hall of India,
3rd edition, 2000, ISBN: 9780136110958.
2. Roy Choudhury, “Networks and systems”, 2nd edition, New Age
International Publications, 2006, ISBN: 9788122427677.

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Reference Books:
1. Hayt, Kemmerly and Durbin “Engineering Circuit Analysis”, TMH 7th

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Edition, 2010.
2. J. David Irwin /R. Mark Nelms, “Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis”, John
Wiley, 8th edition, 2006.
3. Charles K Alexander and Mathew N O Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric

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Circuits”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 3rd Ed, 2009.
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Module 1: Basic Circuit Concepts

Network: Any interconnection of network or circuit elements (R, L, C,
Voltage and Current sources).
Circuit: Interconnection of network or circuit elements in such a way that a
closed path is formed and an electric current flows in it.

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Active Circuit elements deliver the energy to the network (Voltage and
Current sources)

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Passive Circuit elements absorb the energy from the network (R, L and C).
Active elements:
Ideal Voltage Source is that energy source whose terminal voltage remains
constant regardless of the value of the terminal current that flows. Fig.1a

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shows the representation of Ideal voltage source and Fig.1b, it’s V-I
characteristics.
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a

b
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Fig.1a: Ideal Voltage source Representation Fig. 1b: V-I characteristics

Practical Voltage source: is that energy source whose terminal voltage

decreases with the increase in the current that flows through it. The
practical voltage source is represented by an ideal voltage source and a
series resistance called internal resistance. It is because of this resistance
there will be potential drop within the source and with the increase in
terminal current or load current, the drop across resistor increases, thus

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reducing the terminal voltage. Fig.2a shows the representation of

practical voltage source and Fig.2b, it’s V-I characteristics.

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b
Fig. 2a: Practical Current Source Fig. 2b: V-I characteristics

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Here, i1 = i - v1/R …… (2)
Dependent or Controlled Sources: These are the sources whose
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voltage/current depends on voltage or current that appears at some other
location of the network. We may observe 4 types of dependent sources.
i) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)
ii) Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

iii) Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

iv) Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
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Fig.3a, 3b, 3c and 3d represent the above sources in the same order as listed.
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v=kv
c
v=ki i=k i
c c

Fig. 3 a) VCVS b) VCCS c) CCVS d) CCCS

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

It states that algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed path of
the network is equal to zero at all instants of time. Based on the law of
conservation of energy.

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Fig. 4: Example illustrating KVL
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Applying KVL clockwise, + V1 + V2 + V3 –Vg = 0 …… (3)
=> Vg= V1 + V2 + V3 …… (4), indicative of energy delivered
= energy absorbed
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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of branch currents that leave a node of a network is

equal to zero at all instants of time. Based on the law of conservation of
charge.

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Fig. 5: Example illustrating KCL

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Applying KCL at node X, + I 1 + I 2 - I 3 - I 4 + I 5 = 0 ……. (5)
=> I 3 + I 4 = I 1 + I 2 + I 5 …… (6), indicative of sum of incoming currents
= sum of outgoing currents at a node.

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Source Transformation
Source Transformation involves the transformation of voltage source to its
equivalent current source and vice-versa.
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Consider a voltage source with a series resistance R, in Fig. 6a and a current
source with the same resistance R connected across, in Fig.6b.

a
a
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b
b
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Fig.6a Voltage Source Fig.6b Current Source

The terminal voltage and current relationship in the case of voltage source
is;
v1 = v – i1 R …… (7)

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The terminal voltage and current relationship in the case of current source
is;
i1= i - v1/ R, which can be written as, v1 = i R- i1R …… (8)
If the voltage source above has to be equivalently transformed to or
represented by, a current source then the terminal voltages and currents

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have to be same in both cases.
This means eqn. (7) should be equal to eqn. (8). This implies, v= i R or

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i = v / R…(9). If eqn.(9) holds good, then the voltage source above can be
equivalently transformed to or represented by, the current source shown
above and vice-versa.

Problems:

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1) For the network shown below in Fig.7, find the current through 2Ω
resistor, using source transformation technique.
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Fig.7
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Solution: In the given circuit, Converting 5A source to voltage source so

that resistor 4Ω comes in series with source resistor 3Ω and equivalent of
them can be found. Also converting 1A source to voltage source, we obtain
the circuit as below;

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Converting 15V source above to current source and converting 3V x
dependent current source to dependent voltage source, we get the
following;

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Taking equivalent of the parallel combination of 7Ω resistors and

converting 15/7 A current source to voltage source, we get as shown
below;
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Applying KVL to the loop above clockwise, we get;

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3.5 I - 51 Vx + 17 I +2I + 9I + 9 -7.5=0
From the circuit above, Vx =2I, substitute in above eqn, then we get;
-70.5 I = -1.5

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=> I = 0.02127 A = 21.27mA

2) Represent the network shown below in Fig.8, by a single voltage

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source in series with a resistance between the terminals A and B,
using source transformation techniques
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Fig.8

Solution: In the circuit above, 5V and 20 V sources are present in series arm
and they are series opposing.

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So, the sources are replaced by single voltage source

which is the difference of two (as they are opposing, if series aiding then
sum has to be considered). The polarity of the resulting voltage source will
have same as that of higher value voltage source. Multiple current sources
in parallel, can be added if they are in same direction and if they are in
opposite direction, then difference is taken and resulting source will have

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same direction as that of higher one.
Taking source transformation, such that we get all current

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sources in parallel and all resistances in parallel, between the terminals.
This leads to finding of equivalent current source and equivalent resistance
between A-B. The source transformation leads to single voltage source in
series with a resistance. These are shown below;

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Illustration of Mesh Analysis:

3) Find the mesh currents in the network shown in fig.9

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Fig.9

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We identify two meshes; 10V-2Ω-4 Ω called as mesh 1 and 3Ω-2V-4 Ω called
as mesh2. We consider i1 to flow in mesh1 and i2 to flow in mesh2. Their
directions are always considered to be clockwise. If they are in opposite
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direction in actual, we get negative values when we calculate them,
indicative of actual direction to be opposite.
10V-2Ω branch only belongs to mesh1 and so current through it is i1 and
3Ω-2V branch only belongs to mesh2 and so current through it is always i2.
Also, 4Ω belongs to both meshes and so, the current through it will be the
resultant of i1 and i2. These are shown below;
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Next we will apply KVL to each of the meshes; As a result, In this case, we
get two equations in terms of i1 and i2 and when we solve them we get i1
and i2. And when we know the mesh current values, we can find the
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response at any point of network.

The polarities of the potential drops across passive circuit elements are
based on the directions of the current that flows through them

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Applying KVL to mesh1;

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+2 i1 + 4 (i1 – i2) -10 = 0
=> +6 i1 – 4 i 2 = 10…… (1)
Applying KVL to mesh2;

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+3 i2 + 2 - 4 (i1 – i2) = 0
Above equation can be rewritten as
+3 i2 + 2 + 4 (i2 –i1) =0
So
=> -4 i1 + 7 i 2 = -2 …… (2)
Also observing the bold equations above, we may say that easily the
potential drops across passive circuit elements can be considered to take
+ve signs. From now onwards, we will not specifically identify polarities of
potential drops across passive circuit elements. They are considered to
take positive signs. For the case of shared element, like 4Ω above, which is
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shared between mesh1 and mesh2, the potential drop across it , is

considered to be +4(i1 –i2), when we apply KVL to mesh1 and +4(i2-i1),
when we apply KVL to mesh2. Now eqn1 and eqn2 above can be
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represented in matrix form as shown;

6 -4 i1 =
10
-4 7
i2 -2

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Using cramer’s rule;

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=> i1= ∆i1 / ∆ = 2.384 A
=> i2= ∆i2 / ∆ = 1.076 A
As already told, if we know the mesh current values, we can find the
response at any point of network. And so, V x and I x identified, can be easily

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obtained using the mesh currents.
I x= -i2 = -1.076 A
So
Vx= 3i2 = 3.228 A
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4) Find the power delivered or absorbed by each of the sources shown

in the network in Fig.10.Use mesh analysis
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Fig.10

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Solution:-

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Power delivered by 125 V source, P 125 =125 i1
Power delivered by 50V source, P 50= 50 I =50 (i2-i1)
So
Power delvd. by dependent current source, Pds = (0.2Va) (vds) = (i1-i3) (vds)
{Because Va =5 (i1-i3)}
From the circuit; Va =5 (i1 - i3)
Also; i2 =0.2 Va = i1 – i3 (it is as good as specifying the value of i2 or we can
say we have obtained equation from mesh2, so no need of applying KVL to
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mesh2)
Applying KVL to mesh1;
5 (i1-i3) + 7.5(i1-i2) +50-125=0
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12.5 i1 -7.5 i2 -5 i3 = 75; substituting i2 = i1 –i3; we have;

5 i1 + 2.5 i3 =125 …… (1)
Applying KVL to mesh3;
17.5 i3 +2.5 (i3-i2) +5(i3-i1) =0
-5 i1-2.5 i2+25 i3 =0; substituting i2 = i1 – i3; we have;

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-7.5 i1 + 27.5 i3 =0 …… (2)

Solving (1) and (2), we get; i1=13.2 A and i3=3.6 A
So, i2=i1 – i3 = 13.2 -3.6 =9.6 A
P125 = 125 i1= 125 (13.2) =1650 W (power delivered)

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P50 =50 I =50 (i2 –i1) = 50 (9.6 -13.2) = -180 W, here negative value of power
delivered is the indicative of the fact that power is actually absorbed by 50V
source.

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To find vds in the network shown, we apply KVL to the outer loop
17.5Ω0.2Va125V;
+17.5 i3 - vds -125 =0 {when applying KVL, the potential drop across passive
circuit element is taken as, + (resistance or impedance value) x (that

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particular current which is in alignment with KVL direction), if clockwise
direction is considered, then clockwise current)}
=> vds = - 62V
So
Pds = (0.2 Va )(vds) =(i1 – i3) vds = - 595.2W => Dependent source absorbs
power of 595.2 W
5) Find the power delivered by dependent source in the network
shown in Fig.11.Use mesh analysis
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Fig.11

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Solution:-

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From the circuit,
ia = i2 – i3

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Power delivered by dependent source, P ds = (20 ia ) (i2) =20 (i2-i3) i2
So
Apply KVL to mesh1
5 i1 + 15 (i1- i3) +10 (i1-i2) - 660 =0
30 i1 -10 i2 -15 i3 = 660…… (1)

Apply KVL to mesh2

10 (i2 - i1) + 50 (i2- i3) – 20 ia =0

10 (i2 - i1) + 50 (i2- i3) – 20 (i2- i3)
-10 i1 + 40 i2 – 30 i3 =0 …… (2)
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Apply KVL to mesh3

25 i3 + 50 (i3 - i2) +15 (i3 –i1) =0
-15 i1 -50 i2 + 90 i3 =0 …… (3)
Solving (1), (2) and (3), we get i 2= 27 A and i3 =22A
Pds = (20) (i2-i3) i2 = 20(5)27) =2700W, power delivered.

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AC Circuits
These circuits consist L and C components along with R. Here we consider
the excitation of the circuits by sinusoidal sources. Consider an AC circuit
shown below;

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Fig.12 Fig.13

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Let the applied voltage, v(t) = V m sin(ωt + θ1), the circuit current that flows
is i(t) and is given as; i(t) = I m sin (ωt +θ2) . These two sinusoidal quantities
can be represented by phasors; a phasor is a rotating vector in the complex
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plane. This is shown in Fig.13, which is a voltage phasor. The phasor has a
magnitude of Vm and rotates at an angular frequency of ω with time.
The voltage phasor is given by V m ∟θ1 (Also referred as polar form of
phasor). The rectangular form is V m cos θ1 + j Vm sin θ1.
Similarly, the current phasor is given by I m ∟θ2 (Also referred as polar form
of phasor). The rectangular form is I m cos θ2 + j I m sin θ2.
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The ratio of voltage phasor to the current phasor is called as impedance. Z

= (Vm ∟θ1)/ (I m ∟θ2) = (Vm/I m) ∟ (θ1- θ2) =(Vm/I m) ∟θ
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The impedance although a complex quantity but is not a phasor, as with

respect to time, the angle of impedance do not change

• If the AC circuit above is represented equivalently by single

resistance, then Z= (Vm ∟θ1)/ (I m ∟θ1) {since in resistance there is no
phase difference between voltage and current and so θ2 = θ1}.
So, Z = (Vm/I m) ∟ 0°

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= (Vm/I m) cos 0° +j (Vm/I m) sin 0°

= Vm/I m = R.
• If the AC circuit above is represented equivalently by single
inductance, then Z= (Vm ∟θ1)/ (I m ∟(θ1 - 90°)) { since in inductance,
current lags the voltage in phase by 90°}

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So, Z = (Vm/I m) ∟ 90°
= (Vm/I m) cos 90° +j (Vm/I m) sin90°

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= j (Vm/I m)
= jωL {in inductance, the ratio of peak value of voltage to peak value
of current is always the reactance which is given by ωL}. Now we can say,
any inductance of L henry can be equivalently represented by impedance of
jωL Ohms.

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• If the AC circuit above is represented equivalently by single
capacitance, then Z= (Vm ∟θ1)/ (I m ∟(θ1 + 90°)) { since in capacitance,
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current leads the voltage in phase by 90°}
So, Z = (Vm/I m) ∟ -90°
= (Vm/I m) cos 90° - j (Vm/I m) sin90°
= -j (Vm/I m)
= -j(1/ωC)
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= -j/ωC {in capacitance, the ratio of peak value of voltage to peak

value of current is always the reactance which is given by 1/ωc. Now we
can say, any capacitance of C farad can be equivalently represented by
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impedance of -j/ ωC Ohms.

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6) Find the current through the capacitor in the circuit shown in Fig.14.
Use mesh Analysis.

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lu Fig.14
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Solution:
The sources are represented by phasors. The mesh currents are identified.
The current through the capacitor is i3. So, i3 needs to be found using mesh
analysis.
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Apply KVL to mesh1;

j4 (i1 - i3) + 2 (i1 - i2) – (5∟0° )=0
(2+j4) i1 – 2 i2 – j4 i3 = 5 ……(1)
Apply KVL to mesh2;

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3 (i2 – i3) + (10∟45° ) + 2 (i 2 - i1)=0
-2 i1 + 5 i2 – 3 i3 = -(10∟45° ) = -7.07 – j 7.07 ……(2)

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Apply KVL to mesh3;
-j2 i3 +3 (i3 - i2) + j4 (i3 - i1) =0
-j4 i1 – 3 i2 + (3+j2) i3 =0 …… (3) Mesh equations in matrix form;
i1
2+j4
-2
-j4
5
-2

-3
-3

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-j4

3+j2
i2

i3
=
5
-7.07 – j 7.07
0
So
Using Cramer’s rule to find i3 .

2+j4 -2 -j4
∆= -2 5 -3
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-j4 -3 3+j2
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= (2+j4)[5(3+j2)-9] + 2[-2(3+j2)- (-3)(-j4)] –j4[6+j20]

= 40-j12

2+j4 -2 5
∆i3= -2 5 -7.07-j7.07
-j4 -3 0
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= (2 + j4)[+3(-7.07 –j 7.07)] + 2[+j4(-7.07-j7.07)] +5[6+ j 20]

=128.98 – j83.82

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Therefore, i3 = ∆i3 / ∆ = (128.98 –j83.82)/ (40-j12)
= 3.535-j1.035

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= 3.68∟-16.31° A.
The above result represents the phasor of capacitor current. From this we
can easily write the steady state expression of capacitor current, as,
i3(t) = 3.68 cos(2t -16.31°) A

Node analysis
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Here, we identify nodes of the given network and consider one node as
ground node, which is considered to be zero potential point. We then
identify the voltage at each of the remaining nodes which is nothing but
potential difference between a node of interest and ground node, with
ground node as reference. Node analysis involves the computation of node
voltages, and when once these are found, we can find the response at any
point of network.
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Illustration
7) Find the node voltages in the network shown in Fig. 15;

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Fig.15

Solution:

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There are 3 nodes in the network. The bottom node is selected as ground
node. The voltage at node1 is identified as v 1 and it is the potential
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difference between the node1 and the ground, with ground as reference.
The voltage at node2 is identified as v 2 and it is the potential difference
between node2 and the ground, with ground as reference.
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VT

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Recall KCL statement that “the algebraic sum of branch currents leaving a
node of a network is zero at all instants of time”.
Apply KCL at node1;
-10 +2v1 +4 (v1-v2) =0
 6v1 - 4 v2 = 10 ……(1)

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Apply KCL at node2;

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+4 (v2-v1) +3 v2 +2 =0
=> -4 v1 +7 v2 = - 2 …… (2)

Node equations in Matrix form

6
-4
-4
7
lu v1
v2
=
10
-2
So
Using Cramer’s rule;

∆= 6 -4 = 26
-4 7
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∆v1 = 10 -4
-2 7 = 62
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∆v2 = 6 10 = 28
-4 -2
v1= ∆v1 / ∆ = 62/26

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v1 = 2.384V
v2= ∆v2 / ∆ = 28/26
v2 = 1.076V

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Node Analysis Contd.
8) Use Node analysis to find the voltage V x in the circuit shown in Fig.

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16

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Fig.16
The ground node and other nodes with their voltages are identified as
shown;
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VT

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Although that point where two circuit elements join is referred as node
(like 30V and 3 mho joining point above), we do not consider voltage there
or apply KCL, because it will simply contribute for redundancy, as without
considering the above, still the solution can be obtained. Therefore, we
consider voltages or apply KCL to those nodes where three or more circuit
elements join.

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From the circuit; Vx = v1+ 5 –v2 and v2 = 2Vx
v2 = 2 (v1 + 5 – v2)

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 2 v1 – 3 v2 = -10 …… (1), now we have an equation expressing v 2 or an
equation associated with node 2. So no need of applying KCL at
node2.
 Apply KCL at node1;

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3 (v1 – (-30)) + 4 + 2( v 1 + 5 - v2) =0
 5 v1 – 2 v2 = -104 ……….(2)
So
 Solving (1) and (2), we get;
 v1=-26.545V and v 2= -14.363V
 Therefore, Vx = v1+ 5 –v2
 -26.545 +5 +14.363 = -7.182 V.
9) Find the power delivered by dependent source using node analysis
U

in the circuit shown in Fig. 17.

Fig.17

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Solution: Identify ground node and other node with its voltage as shown;

n
tio
From the circuit;
ia = v1/20 and

lu
Pds = ( 60 ia ) x (current that comes out of +ve polarity of 60ia )
= (60 ia ) [(v1-(-60ia))/(10 +15)]
= (60 ia ) ( v1 + 60 ia )/25
So
10) Find the current i1 in the network shown in Fig. 18. Use node Analysis.

V
U
VT

Fig.18

Identify ground node and other node voltages as shown. Also writing
source using phasor representation.

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n
From the circuit; i1 = v1 / (-j2.5)

tio
Apply KCL at node1;
v1/ (-j2.5) + (v1 – (20∟0°))/10 + (v1 –v2) / j4 = 0
 j 0.4 v1 + 0.1 v1 –j 0.25v 1 + j0.25v2 = 2
 (0.1 + j0.15) v 1 + j 0.25 v 2 = 2 ……(1)
Apply KCL at node 2;

lu
-2i1 + v2 /j2 + (v2 –v1)/j4 = 0
So
 -2(v1 /(-j2.5)) + v 2 /j2 + (v2 –v1)/j4 =0
 -j0.8 v1 -j 0.5 v2 –j0.25v 2 + j0.25v1 = 0
 -j0.55 v1 – j 0.75 v2 = 0 ………..(2)
Using Cramer’s rule;
U

0.1 + j 0.15 j 0.25 = (0.1 +j0.15)(-j0.75) - 0.25(0.55)

∆= -j0.55 -j0.75 = -0.025 – j0.075
VT

∆v1 = 2 j 0.25
= - j 1.5
0 -j0.75

v1 = ∆v1/∆ = (-j1.5) / (-0.025-j0.075) = 18 +j6 =18.97∟18.43°V

Therefore, i1 = v1 /(-j2.5) = -2.4 + j7.2 = 7.58 ∟108.43° A.
i1(t)= 7.58 cos (4t +108.43 °) A

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Concept of Supermesh:
Supermesh concept is considered whenever a current source appears in
common to two meshes.
Consider the Network Below;

n
tio
+
vx
-

lu Fig.19
So
To know the advantage of applying supermesh concept; first consider usual
way;
Applying KVL to mesh 1;
R1 i1 + vx –Vs =0
R1 i1 + vx = Vs …..(1)
U

Applying KVL to mesh 2;

(R2 +R3)i2 –vx =0
vx = (R2 +R3)i2 …..(2)
VT

Substituting (2) in (1), we get;

R1 i1 + (R2 +R3)i2 =Vs …..(3)
Also from the circuit;
i2-i1 =I s
 i2 = I s +i1 ……(4)

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 Substituting (4) in (3) we get, i1;

 Substituting i1 in (4), we get i2.
Applying the concept of supermesh;

n
tio
lu
Here, after identifying a current source common to two meshes; we first
write constraint equation which relates corresponding mesh currents and
So
the current source value.
i2 – i1 =I s
Or i2 =I s +i1….. (1)
We then club those two meshes and call it as supermesh; shown by dashed
lines in the figure; Now we apply KVL to supermesh;
U

R1i1 + R1i2 +R3 i2 –Vs =0

R1i1 + (R1 +R3 ) i2 =Vs ……(2), this equation is exactly the same as (3) in
previous case. In this case, it was easily obtained thus reducing the steps.
VT

Now, substituting (1) in (2), we get i1. Then substituting i1 in (1) we get i2.
Therefore, mesh currents were easily obtained using supermesh concept.

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11) Use mesh analysis to find V x in the circuit shown in fig. 20

n
tio
Fig.20

lu
So
Solution: From the circuit; Vx = 10i1
U

Identifying 3A and Vx /4 current sources appearing in common to mesh-1&2

and mesh-2&3 respectively; the constraint equations are written as; i2 – i1
=3
VT

=> i2= 3 +i1 Also i3- i2 = Vx/4 ,

wkt, Vx = 10 i1
Substituting in above equation we get i3 –i2= 10 i1/4, wkt i2 = 3+i1
substituting this => 4 i3- 4(3+i1)-10i1=0
-14 i1 + 4 i3 =12 …….(1)

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Apply KVL to supermesh

formed by 10Ω→2 Ω→4Ω→25V→50V→10Ω
10 i1 + 2 i2 +4 i3 +25 -50 =0
 10 i1 + 2 i2 + 4 i3 = 25

n
 10 i1 + 2 (3+i1) +4 i3 =25
 12 i1 + 4 i3 =19 ……..(2)

tio
 Solving (1) and (2), we get i1= 0.2692 A and i3 = 3.9423 A
 i2 = 3+i1 = 3.2692 A.
 Vx= 10 i1 = 2.692V
12)

lu
Find vx in the circuit shown in fig. 21, using mesh analysis;
So
Fig.21
U

Solution:-
VT

From the circuit; v x = - j4 i2

ix = i1 –i2

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i3 – i2 = 2 ix (current source 2ix appears in common to two

meshes)
i3 – i2 = 2( i1 –i2)
i3 = 2i1 –i2
Apply KVL to mesh 1;

n
10 i1 – j 2.5(i1 – i2) – (20∟0°) = 0

tio
(10 - j2.5) i1 + j 2.5 i2 = 20 ………(1)
Apply KVL to supermesh formed by
j4Ω→2Ω→5∟30°→-j2.5 Ω → j4Ω, we have,
j4 i2 +2 i3 +(5∟30°) – j 2.5 (i2 –i1) = 0

lu
wkt i3 = 2i1 –i2 , subs in above eqn;
j4 i2 + 2 ( 2i1- i2) + (5∟30°) – j2.5 (i2 –i1) = 0
So
(4 +j2.5) i1 + (-2 + j1.5) i2 = -(5∟30°) = - 4.33 - j2.5 …….(2)
Using cramer’s rule;

∆ = 10 - j2.5 j2.5
4 + j2.5 -2 + j1.5 = (10-j2.5)(-2 +j1.5) – j2.5(4+j2.5) = -10 +j10
U

10-j2.5 20 = (10-j2.5)(-4.33-j2.5) – 20(4 +j2.5)

∆i2 =
4+j2.5 -4.33-j2.5 = -129.55 - j64.175

i2 = ∆i2 / ∆ = (-129.55 - j64.175) / (-10 +j10)

i2 = 3.268 + j9.686

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i2 = 10.22 ∟71.35° A
Therefore, v x= -j4 i2 = 38.74 – j13.07 = 40.89 ∟-18.64° V

Concept of Supernode:

n
Supernode concept is applied whenever a voltage source appears in
common to two nodes.

tio
Consider the network below;

lu Fig.22
So
To illustrate the advantage of supernode concept; we first find the node
voltages of the network by the usual way;
U
VT

Apply KCL at node 1;

v1/R1 – I S + I X = 0
v1/ R1 + I X = I S ……. (1)
Apply KCL at node 2;

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v2 / R2 + v2 /R3 – I X =0
v2/R2 + v2 /R3 = I X …..(2)
Subs (2) in (1), we get;
v1/R1 + v2/R2 + v2/R3 = I S …… (3)

n
Also from the circuit; v1- v2 = VS
=> v1 = VS + v2 ……. (4)

tio
Substituting (4) in (3) will give the value of v 2
Substituting the value of v 2 in (4) will give the value of v 1.
Applying the concept of supernode;

lu
After identifying the voltage source appearing in common to two nodes;
We first write constraint equation; which relates the voltage source value
with the corresponding node voltages; here it is; v 1 – v2 = VS
So
v1= v2 +VS …… (1)
After this, we club the corresponding nodes to become one node and call it
as a supernode. Then we apply KCL to supernode. Here, we apply KCL at
supernode X as shown;
U
VT

v1/R1 – I S + v2/R2 + v2/R3 =0

v1/R1 + v2/R2 + v2/R3 = I S ……(2)
The above equation is same as eqn 3 in previous method, but the above
equation was easily obtained in just one step. Therefore, when a voltage

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source is appearing in common to two nodes, it is always advantageous to

consider the concept of supermesh.
Now, substituting (1) in (2), we get v 2.
Substituting v 2 in (2) we get v 1.
13) Find ia and va in the network shown in fig. 23 using node analysis.

n
tio
Fig.23

Solution:- lu
So
From the circuit;
ia = (v2- v3)/250
U

va = v3
VT

Also; v2 =12 V
v1- v3 = 8
 v1 = 8 + v3
Apply KCL at supernode X;
V1/500 + (v 1- v2) /125 + (v 3-v2)/250 + v3/500 =0

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v1 +4v1 -4v2 +2v3 -2v2 +v3 =0

5v1 -6v2 +3v3=0
Substituting v 1 = 8 + v3 in above equation, we get; 5(8+v 3) -6v2 +3v3 =0
-6v2 + 8v3 = -40

n
Wkt v2 =12 V
Therefore, v 3 = (-40+6(12))/8 = 4V

tio
Now, ia = (v2 – v3)/250 =0.032 =32 mA.
va = v3 = 4V.
14) Find all the node voltages in the network shown in fig.24

lu
So
Fig.24
U

Solution:
VT

From the circuit;

vb = 8 V
Also, va –vd = 6 i1

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i1= (vb -vc)/2 subs in above eqn. we get;

va – vd = 6 (vb - vc) /2
 2va – 2vd = 6 vb – 6 vc
 2va + 6vc – 2vd = 6 vb =6(8) =48 ………(1)

n
Apply KCL at supernode X as shown;
(va - vb )/2 + va /2 - 3vc + (vd -vc)/2 =0

tio
(va -8)/2 + va /2 - 3vc + (vd - vc)/2 = 0
 va - 8 + va – 6 vc + vd – vc =0
 2va – 7vc + vd = 8 …………….(2)
Apply KCL at node C

lu
-4 + (vc- vd )/2 + (vc- vb )/2 = 0
 -8 +vc – vd + vc –vb =0
So
 2vc –vd = vb + 8 =16 ………..(3)
Solving (1),(2) and (3), we get; v a = 9.142V , v c= -1.142 V , v d = -18.28V
and vb =8V (given)
U
VT

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Star- delta (∆) and delta (∆) to star transformations

n
tio
Fig25a delta arrangement Fig.25bStar arrangement

lu
(The positions of Z1, Z2 and Z3 should be noted. Z1 will appear between a
So
and c; from there, going clockwise we see Z 2 and Z3. The positions of Za , Zb
and Zc should be noted. Za connected to vertex-a and centroid. Zb
connected to vertex-b and centroid. Zc connected to vertex-c and centroid.)
Consider the above arrangements are equivalent; then;
Za c = Z1(Z2+ Z3) / (Z1+Z2+ Z3) = Za +Zc ……..(1)
Also,
U

Za b = Z2(Z3+ Z1) / (Z1+Z2+ Z3) = Za + Zb ……………..(2)

Zbc = Z3( Z1+ Z2) / (Z1+Z2+ Z3) = Zb + Zc ……………..(3)
VT

Eqn. (1) –Eqn.(3)

(Z1Z2 – Z2Z3)/(Z1+Z2+Z3) = Za - Zb …………………..(4)
Solving (2) and (4), we get, Za = Z1 Z2 /(Z1 +Z2 +Z3)………(5)
Substituting (5) in (2), solving for Z a , we get;
Zb = Z2 Z3 /(Z1 +Z2 +Z3)………(6)

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Substituting (5) in (1), solving for Z c, we get;

Zc = Z1 Z3 /(Z1 +Z2 +Z3)………(7)
Consider
Za Zb +Zb Zc +Za Zc = (Z1 Z22 Z3 + Z1 Z2 Z32 + Z12 Z2 Z3) / (Z1 + Z2 + Z3)2

n
Za Zb +Zb Zc +Za Zc = Z1 Z2 Z3 / (Z1 + Z2 + Z3) ………(8)
Eqn(8) / Zb gives

tio
Z1 = (Za Zb +Zb Zc +Za Zc ) / Zb …………………(9)
Eqn(8) / Zc gives
Z2 = (Za Zb +Zb Zc +Za Zc ) / Zc …………………(10)
Eqn(8) / Za gives

lu
Z3 = (Za Zb +Zb Zc +Za Zc ) / Za …………………(11)
So
15) Reduce the network shown in fig.26 to a single resistor between
terminals a-b.
U

Fig.26
VT

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Solution:-

n
tio
From the network above, we observe, 10Ω and 5Ω are in series and also 5Ω
and 25Ω are in series. Therefore they are equivalently replaced by
15 Ω and 30 Ω as shown.

We have R1→R2→R3
lu
Identifying delta between the vertices a1-b1-c1;

as, 5Ω→20Ω→15Ω
So
Corresponding star will have;
Ra = R1 R2 /(R1 + R2 + R3) = 100/40 =2.5 Ω (resistance connected to vertex
a1)
Rb = R2 R3 /(R1 + R2 + R3) = 300/40 =7.5 Ω (resistance connected to vertex
b1)
U

Rc = R1 R3 /(R1 + R2 + R3) = 75/40 =1.875 Ω (resistance connected to vertex

c1)
After replacing delta elements by corresponding star elements;
VT

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10Ω and 2.5 Ω appear in series. 30Ω and 7.5Ω appear in series. 2Ω and
1.875Ω appear in series. They are replaced by their equivalent resistances.

n
tio
Identifying star between the vertices a2-b2-c2;
We have Ra →Rb →Rc

lu
as, 12.5Ω→37.5Ω→3.875Ω
So
Corresponding delta will have;
R1 = (Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc )/Rb
= [(12.5)(37.5) + (37.5)(3.875) + (3.875)(12.5)]/37.5
=662.5/37.5= 17.66 Ω (resistance connected b/n vertex a2 and c2)
R2 = (Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc )/Rc
U

=662.5/3.875= 170.96 Ω (resistance connected b/n vertex a2 and b2)

R3 = (Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Ra Rc )/Ra
VT

=662.5/12.5= 53 Ω (resistance connected b/n vertex b2 and c2)

After replacing star elements by corresponding delta elements;

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15||17.66 = 8.11Ω
53||30 =19.15Ω

n
tio
Therefore, Ra b = (19.15 +8.11)||170.96 = 23.51Ω

lu
Q16) Find the current I in the network shown in fig.27, by reducing the
network to contain a source and and a single series impedance.
So
U

Fig.27
VT

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Solution:-

n
tio
Identifying delta between the vertices a1-b1-c1;
We have Z1→Z2→Z3

lu
as, -j6Ω→j2Ω→4Ω
Corresponding star will have;
So
Za = Z1 Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 + Z3) = (-j6)(j2)/(4-j4) = 1.5 + j1.5Ω
(Impedance connected to vertex a1)
Zb = Z2 Z3 /(Z1 + Z2 + Z3) = (j2)(4)/(4-j4) = -1 + j Ω
(Impedance connected to vertex b1)
Zc = Z1 Z3 /(Z1 + Z2 + Z3) = (-j6)(4)/(4-j4) = 3-j3 Ω
U

(Impedance connected to vertex c1)

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After replacing delta elements by corresponding star elements;

n
tio
The series impedances are replaced by equivalent impedances

lu
So
(6-j3) // (4+j) = 2.711 - j 0.057Ω
U
VT

The single series impedance value , Z = (3.5 + j4.5) + (2.711- j 0.057)

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Z = 6.211 + j 4.443 Ω
Therefore, I = 100/Z = 100/(6.211 + j4.443) =13.09∟-35.57° A

Additional Problems and Solutions

1) Using source transform, find the power delivered by the 50V source

n
in the circuit shown:-

tio
R1 5Ω
R2 3Ω
I1
10 A R3 2Ω

V1 50 V
V2 10 V

lu
Solution: - Using source transformation for the pair V2 and R2, we get,
So
R1 5 Ω
I1 R2 3 Ω
I2
10 A R3 2 Ω
10 A

V1 50 V

Adding the parallel current sources and obtaining equivalent resistance of R3

and R2, we have,

R1 5Ω
I1
40 A R3 1.2 Ω

V1 50 V

Converting the current source back to voltage source,

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R1 5Ω R 1.2 Ω

V1 50 V V 16 V

If is the current in the circuit,

Therefore Power delivered by 50V source is .

n
2) Find the current through 4Ω in the network shown:

tio
50∟0° V 26.25∟-66.8° V

lu
Solution: - Applying KVL to mesh 1 (mesh with )
So
Applying KVL to mesh 2

Applying KVL to mesh 3

-
U

- = -10.39 + (24.12)
Matrix form
VT

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3) Find the value of V2 if the current through 4Ω is zero.

50∟0° V

n
tio
Solution: - Given =0

Applying KVL to mesh 3 (mesh with ), we get

lu
Applying KVL to mesh 2,
So
Applying KVL to mesh 1,
5
=
Therefore, V2 = V

4) Find Vx using mesh analysis for the circuit shown

2Ω
2j - Vx +
U

3Ω

-3j
5sin(wt + 45) V 3cos(wt-180)A 2sin(wt) V
VT

Solution: - From the circuit

Applying concept of super mesh,

Therefore,

Remove the arm of the current source and apply kvl,

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Applying KVL to mesh with i 3

Therefore

n
tio
5) Find Vx and Ix in the circuit shown using mesh analysis
5Ω
10 Ω

50 V
3A
lu 0.25 Vx 4 Ix
So
2Ω
Vx

Solution: - From the circuit

Also from the circuit

Substituting equations 1 and 2 in 3, we get
U

6 ⟹ ……(4)

Removing the arm containing common current source and applying KVL, we get
VT

Solving equations 4 and 5, we get

Therefore, .

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6) Use node analysis to find V 0 in the circuit shown below

12V

V1 V3
V2

n
1Ω 1Ω

2Ω -j4 ohm Vo

tio
j2 ohm

From the circuit,

lu ;

12V
----- (1);

Super node X
So
V1 V3
V2
1Ω 1Ω

2Ω -j4 ohm Vo
j2 ohm
U
VT

Applying KCL to super node X,

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 (From (1))

 --------- (2)

n
Applying KCL at V1,

tio


 lu
So
 ------------- (3)

Using Cramer’s rule,

∆=
U

∆=
∆=
VT

∆ =

∆
∆

W.K.T,

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7) Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals X and Y

5Ω 6Ω

X
2Ω 3Ω

n
4Ω 7Ω 10Ω

tio
Y

Solution:-
Star 1:-

lu
Corresponding Delta will have,
;
So
Similarly,
= 6.5
U

= 13

Now consider star 2:- ;

Corresponding Delta will have,

Similarly,

= 15.28

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= 21.4

15.28Ω

X
6.5Ω

n
17.8Ω 8.66Ω 13Ω 21.4Ω 10Ω

tio
Y

This circuit can be reduced now using parallel and series combination of
resistors as show below.

lu 4.56Ω

5.82Ω 4.47Ω
X

5.82Ω 9.03Ω
So
Y Y
X

3.53Ω

Therefore the equivalent resistance between X & Y = 3.53

U
VT

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8) Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals X & Y

6Ω 4Ω
b
a

n
3Ω 5Ω

tio
5Ω 8Ω 4Ω

Solution:
Consider the Delta lu Y

;
So
It can be replaced with the circuit shown below
X

6Ω 4Ω
U

a
3Ω
b
2.35Ω 1.17Ω
5Ω
VT

1.88Ω

Where,

53
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Similarly,

The above circuit can be written as,

n
X

6Ω a 5.17Ω

tio
c b
5.35Ω

5Ω 1.88Ω

Consider the Delta, lu Y

;
So
X
a

1.87Ω
U

c b
1.94Ω 1.674Ω
VT

5Ω 1.88Ω

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1.87Ω

6.94Ω 3.554Ω

n
Y

tio
X

4.22Ω

lu
Therefore the equivalent resistance between X & Y = 4.22
So
Source Shifting:
(i) Voltage Source Shifting:-

R1 R2
U

R3 R4
VT

The above circuit can be written as,

R1 R2

Vs Vs

R3 R4

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Which is equivalent to,

Vs Vs
R1 R2

n
R3 R4

tio
(ii) Current Source Shifting:-

Is + IR1 Is Is + IR3

IR1 R1
lu R3
IR3
So
IR2

The above circuit can be redrawn as,

Is + IR1 Is + IR3
U

R1 IR1 R3
Is IR3 Is
VT

IR2
R2

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Problems on Source Shifting & Source Transformation:-

1) Reduce the network shown to a single voltage source in series with a

resistance using source shifting and source transformation.

n
tio
Solution:-

lu
Use Source shifting property on both the sources and rewrite the circuit a
shown below,
So
U

Now using Source transformation we get,

After simplifying the above circuit and applying Source transformation

again, we get,

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n
tio
Which can be further simplified using Source transformation yet again,

lu15A
20V
20Ω
So
15Ω
U
VT

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n
tio
2) Find the voltage across the capacitor of 20Ω reactance of the network.

lu
So
Solution:- Using Source Transformation,
20 V
j5 ohm

j15 ohm
U

Vc 5V

-j20 ohm

-30 V
VT

-j5 ohm

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j20 ohm
15 V
Vc
-j20 ohm

30 V
-j5 ohm

n
tio
Vc
j20 ohm j3 A
-j20 ohm -j5 ohm
-j1.5 A

-20j/3 ohm
Z lu Ic

Vc
So
j1.5 A -j20 ohm

From the above circuit,

U
VT

Notes by: Prakash Tunga P.

Asst. Professor,
Department of ECE, RNSIT
Bengaluru-98.
Email: [email protected]

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n
tio
lu
So
U
VT

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Theorem 1: Norton’s Theorem

Statement :

Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal network can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current I N in parallel with a resistor RN , where

n
• RN is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off

tio
• I N is short circuit current through the terminals.

If the circuit consists of the dependent sources the Norton’s resistance has to
be found out as RN = Voc / Isc

lu
So
There can be two types of problems,

1. To find the Norton’s equivalent circuit across the open circuit terminals

2. To find a voltage or a current in the circuit by Norton’s Theorem.

Problems:

P1. Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit across the terminals a-b
VT

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Solution:

Steps to find out the Norton’s Resistance RN :

Step 1: Turn off the independent sources

(open-circuit the current source and short-circuit the voltage source)

n
tio
lu
So
Step 2: Find the equivalent resistance looking into the open circuit terminals

RN= 12 x 4 / 12 + 4
U

RN = 3 Ω

Steps to find out the Norton’s Current I N (Short circuit current):

Step 1: Short circuit the open circuit terminals and mark the I SC as shown.
VT

Step 2: Find the short circuit current by a suitable technique

n
By Node Analysis:

tio
lu
Applying KCL at node a :
So
Substituting Va = 0 V in the above equation implies

Isc= 9 A
U

Therefore the Norton’s equivalent circuit across terminals a-b is

P2. Find I 0 in the network shown, using Norton’s Theorem

n
tio
Solution:

Step 1: Separate the branch through which I 0 is flowing

Step 2: Find the Norton’s equivalent network across the open circuit terminals

lu
Step 3: Connect the branch separated, back to the Norton’s equivalent circuit to
find I 0
So
Step 1: Separate the branch through which I 0 is flowing
U
VT

Step 2: Find the Norton’s equivalent network across the open circuit terminals a-b

n
tio
Find the RN across the open circuit terminals a-b by short-circuiting12 V source

lu
So
RN = [ (6 K || 2 K) + 3 K ] || 4 K

RN = 2.12 K Ω

Find the I SC or I N through terminals a-b by short-circuiting a-b as shown

U
VT

By Mesh Analysis:

Mark i1, i2, i3 as shown

KVL to Mesh 1:

4Ki1+ 2K(i1 - i2 ) + 3K(i1 - i3) = 0

9K i1 – 2K i2 – 3K i3 = 0 ........Eq1

KVL to mesh 2:

n
-12 + 6K( i2 – i3 ) + 2K( i2 – i1)=0

tio
-2K i1 + 8K i2 – 6K i3 = 12........Eq2

KVL to mesh 3:

3K (i3 – i1 ) + 6K (i3 – i2)=0

lu
-3K i1 – 6K i2 + 9K i3 = 0.........Eq3

Solving Eq1, Eq2 and Eq3 we have,

i1= 3mA, i2=6mA, i3=5mA

So
Isc = i3 = 5mA

Therefore the Norton’s equivalent circuit across terminals a-b is

U
VT

Step 3: Connect the branch separated, back to the Norton’s equivalent circuit to
find I 0

n
tio
By Current Division Method

lu
P3. Find the Norton’s Equivalent network across the terminals a-b
So
U

Solution:
VT

Since the network consists of the dependent source (Dependant sources cannot
be turned off) the Norton’s resistance has to be found out as

RN = Voc / Isc

Step 1: To find out I SC ( I N )

Short Circuit the terminals a-b and mark I SC as shown

n
Va = Ia = 0

tio
lu
Since Va is connected to ground through short circuit terminals a-b Va=0.

Hence the circuit gets reduced to…

So
KVL: -12 + 6K i =0
U

i = 12/6K = 2 m A

I SC = i = 2 m A
VT

Step 2: To find out VOC

KCL at node a:

2000 Ia + 7 Va =12

n
tio
VOC = 4/3 V

Therefore RN = VOC / I SC = 667 Ω

lu
Therefore Norton’s equivalent circuit across the terminals a-b is given by
So
U
VT

Theorem 2: Thevenin’s Theorem

Definition :
Thevenin’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal network can be
replaced by an equivalent network consisting of an Voltage VT in
series with a resistor RT , where

n
• RT is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the

tio
independent sources are turned off
• VT is open circuit voltage across the terminals.

If the circuit consists of the dependent sources the Norton’s

resistance has to be found out as RT = Voc / Isc

P1. Find V
o

lu
by Thevenin’s Theorem
So
Solution:
U

Step 1: Remove resistor 2K Ω from the circuit across which VO is

dropping
Step 2: Find the Thevenin’s network across the open circuit terminals a-
VT

b
Step 3: Connect 2K Ω (Disconnected in Step 1) across the open circuit
terminals a-b and find VO.

Circuit can be visualized as,

n
Step 1: Remove resistor 2K Ω from the circuit across which VO is

tio
dropping and mark terminals a-b

lu
So
Step 2: Find the Thevenin’s network across the open circuit terminals a-
b
U

To find VOC:
VT

Mark VOC across the open circuit terminals as shown:

n
Mark Mesh currents i a and i b:

tio
By Observation:
Ia =4mA

Applying KVL to Mesh 1:

lu
- 12 + 6K ( ia- ib )+ 3K ia = 0
9K ia - 6K ib = 12
So
Sub. I a = 4 mA,
Ib =4mA
To find Voc apply KVL along the dotted path:
- 3K I a – 4K I b + Voc = 0
Sub. I a and I b,
U

Voc= 28 V

To find RT :
Deactivate the independent sources
VT

RT = (6K || 3K) + 4K
R =6K
T
Ω
Therefore the Thevenini’s network is

n
tio
Step 3: To find VO
lu
Now connect 2 K Ω across a-b to find VO
So
U

KVL gives,
-28 + 6K i + 2K i = 0
VT

i = 28/8K = 3.5 mA
Vo= 2K i1 = 7 V

P2. Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit across terminals a-b

Solution:

n
Since the dependant sources are involved R T is given by

tio
R =V /I
T oc SC

Step 1: To find VOC

lu
So
Applying KVL to LHS part:
-5 + 500 i + V ab = 0
500 i + V ab = 5
U

Applying KCL to RHS part:

10 i + V ab /25 = 0
VT

250 i + V ab = 0
Solving equations we have
i = 0.02 A V =-5V
ab

V = V = -5 V
oc ab

Step 2:To find I SC

n
tio
Short circuit terminals a-b and mark I SC as shown

Mark Vab

lu
Since Vab is connected to ground through a-b, Vab = 0

Since 25 Ω is in parallel with a short, 25 Ω is redundant

So
Therefore the circuit reduces to,
U

From LHS part, KVL gives

-5 + 500 i = 0
From RHS part,
I SC = - 10 i
and sub. i = 0.01 A

I = -0.1 A
SC

Therefore R T = V OC / I SC = -5 / -0.1

R = 50 Ω
T

Therefore the Thevenin’s network is,

n
tio
lu
P3. Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent network across terminals a-b
So
U

Solution:
Step1: To find Mark VOC (VT) across terminals a-b

Mark the branch currents i1 and i2 as shown

Applying KVL to mesh 1

-120 + 900 i1 + 600 i1 = 0

i1 = 0.08 A

n
Applying KVL to mesh 2

-120 + 1204 i2 + 800 i2 = 0

tio
i2 = 0.05988 A

To find VOC:

lu
So
Applying KVL along the pink path

- 900 i1 + 1204 i2 – VOC = 0

V = 0.095 V
OC
U
VT

Step 2: To find RT

Turning off 120 V source

n
tio
which can be visualized as

lu
So
RT = (900 || 600) + (1204 || 800)
U

RT = 840.638 Ω

Therefore Thevenin’s network is

Summary:

1. Thevenin’s network is a Voltage in series with a resistor

2. Thevenin’s voltage is VOC across the terminals

3. Thevenin’s resitance and Norton’s resistance are the same.

n
4. Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent networks can be obtained by source
trensformatiom.

tio
Theorem 3: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

lu
There are three cases to be considered in this
So
1. AC circuits with Impedance ( ZL ) as load

2. AC circuits with purely resistive load ( RL )

3. DC circuits with resistive load ( RL )

Conditions for Maximum Power Transfer :

U
VT

where,

ZT = RT + j XT

ZL = RL + j XL

n
KVL to closed path:

tio
-VT + ZT I + ZLI = 0

lu
The average power delivered to the load is
So
U
VT

Subtituting in equation in 1

For this P to be PMa x we can vary two parameters

– RL and XL in the load impedance.

Mathematically it can be done by differentiating P with respect to RL and XL

partially and equating it to zero respectively.

i.e,

n
tio
Performing results in

This implies
lu
So
U
VT

From equations 3 and 4

If the Load ZL is purely resistive then

XL = 0 and ZL = RL

n
Substituting XL = 0 in 2

tio
.................. 5

lu
Equations 4 , 5 and 6 are the conditions for which the maximum power would
be transferred to the load.
So
Highlights:

1. AC circuits with Impedance (ZL ) as load

U
VT

Pmax =| i |2 RL
2. AC circuits with Pure Resistive (RL ) load

n
Pmax =| i |2 RL

tio
3. DC circuits with Resistor (RL ) as the load

Pmax = i2 RL
lu
So
P1. Calculate the value of ZL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the
maximum power.
U
VT

Solution:

Step1. Remove the Impedance ZL

Step2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent network across the terminals a-b

Step3. Connect ZL=ZT* across the terminals a-b for the maximum power transfer.

Step4. Find Pma x = | I | 2 RL

Step1. Remove the Impedance ZL and mark terminals a-b

n
tio
Step2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent network across the terminals a-b.

lu
So
To find Thevenin’s Impedance ZL:

Deactivating the independent sources we have,

U
VT

ZT= 10 || (3 – j 4)

ZT= 2.97 – j 2.16 Ω

To find Thevenin’s Voltage VT or VOC:

n
tio
KVL implies: lu
So
(3-j4) i + 20 +10 i = 0

i = -1.405 - j 0.432

KVL along the dotted path to find V OC:

- 10 i – 20 + 10∟45 + VOC = 0
U

Substituting i

VT = -1.121- j 1.391
VT

= 11.44 ∟-95.62 V

Therefore Thevenin’s equivalent network is

n
Step3. Connect ZL=ZT* across the terminals a-b to find the maximum power

tio
transfer.

lu
So
KVL implies:

-11.44 ∟-95.62 + (2.9729)i + (2.9729)i = 0

i= -0.185 - j 1.916 A

i= 1.925 ∟-95.62 A
U

Step 4. To find Pma x

Pmax = | i | 2 RL
VT

= (1.925)2 x 2.9729

Pmax = 11 Watts
P2. Calculate the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the
maximum power.

n
Solution:

tio
Step1. Remove the Impedance ZL

Step2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent network across the terminals a-b

Step3. Connect ZL=| Z | across the terminals a-b for the maximum power transfer.

lu
Step4. Find Pma x = | I | 2 RL

From Step1 and Step2 (Refer P1), the Thevenin’s equivalent is

So
U

Step3. Connect RL=| Z |across the terminals a-b to find the maximum power
transfer.
VT

RL = 3.675 Ω

n
tio
KVL implies

-11.44 ∟-95.62 + (2.97 – j 2.16) i + 3.675 i = 0

i = 1.6377 ∟-77.62 A

Step 4. To find Pmax

Pmax = | i | 2 RL
lu
So
2
= (1.6377) x 3.675

Pmax = 9.85 W
U
VT

P3. Find the RL across the load for which maximum power will be transferred to
the load and hence find the maximum power

n
tio
Solution:

Step 1: Remove the resistor RL and mark terminals a-b as shown

lu
So
Step 2: Find the Thevenin’s network across the terminals a-b

To find VOC:
U
VT

By observation:

i1 = 10 A

KVL to mesh 2:

-20 + 3 i2 = 0

i2 = 20/3 A

n
tio
- 3i2 – 6i1 + VOC = 0

lu
KVL along the dotted path

VOC = 6 i1 + 3 i2
So
Substituting i1 and i2

VT= VOC= 80 V

To find RT:
U
VT

which can be visualized as

n
Since 3 Ω is in parallel with the short, it is redundant.

tio
Therefore RT= 6 Ω
Therefore Thevenin’s network is

lu
So
Step 3: To find Pmax
Connect RL = RT across the terminals a-b
U
VT

KVL implies:

- 80 + 6 i +6 i = 0

i = 20/3 A

Pmax = i2 RL = (20/3)2 x 6 = 266.66 W

Summary:

n
1. Maximum power transfer theorem is the extention of Thevenin’s theorem.
2. The coditions for Maximum power to be transferred to the load are

tio
i) For AC circuits if load is impedance then Z L=ZT*

ii)For AC circuits if load is purely resistive then RL=| ZT |

iii)For DC circuits RL=RT

lu
3. Power is always a real entity and therefore for power calculations always
real part of ZL (i.e.,RL) is used.
So
U
VT

Theorem 4: Superposition Theorem

Statement:

In any Linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, a current or a

voltage at any point in the circuit can be calculated as algebraic sum of Individual

n
contributions of each source when acting alone.

Problems:

tio
P1. Find io by Super position theorem.

lu
So
Solution:

Let i0 = i01 + i02

where,

i01 is the contribution of 6 V source when acting alone and

i02 is the contribution of 4mA source when acting alone

Steps:
VT

Step 1 : To find io1 which is the contribution of 6 V acting alone

Deactivating the 4mA source the circuit becomes

n
tio
lu
So
Applying KVL to mesh 1:

12K ia + 12K (ia – ib ) + 6 = 0

24K ia - 12K ib = -6 ......................Eq1

Applying KVL to mesh 2:

12K (ib - ia ) + 12K ib + 12K ib - 6 = 0

-12K ia + 36K ib = 6................Eq2

Solving equations Eq1 and Eq2,

ia = -0.2 mA

ib = 0.1 mA

io1 = ia - ib = - 0.3 mA

Step 2 : To find io2 which is the contribution of 4mA source acting alone

Deactivating the 6 V source the circuit becomes

n
tio
lu
So
Constraint equation:

i3 – i2 = 4mA

Applying KVL to mesh 1:

12K i1 + 12K (i1 – i2) = 0

24K i1 - 12K i2 = 0
VT

Applying KVL to Supermesh:

12K( i2 – i1) + 12K i2 + 12K i3 = 0

–12K i1+ 24K i2 + 12K i3 = 0

Applying KVL to mesh 1:

12K i1 + 12K (i1 – i2) = 0

24K i1 - 12K i2 = 0

Solving equations 1, 2 and 3

n
i1 = -0.8 mA; i2 = -1.6 mA; i3 = 2.4mA

tio
io2 = i1 - i2 = 0.8 mA

Step 3 : To find io

By Super Position Theorem,

i0 = i01 + i02
io= -0.3m + 0.8m
lu
So
io = 0.5 m A

P2. Find Vo by Super position theorem.

U
VT

Solution:

Let V0 = V01 + V02 + V03

where,

V01 is the contribution of 12V source when acting alone

n
V02 is the contribution of 6V source when acting alone

tio
V03 is the contribution of 2mA source when acting alone

Step 1: To find Vo1

Deactivate 6V and 2mA sources

lu
So
KVL to mesh2:

2K ib + 2K ib =0
U

ib = 0

Vo1 = - 2K ib = 0V
VT

Step 2: To find Vo2

Deactivate 12V and 2mA sources

n
tio
KVL to mesh2:

2K iy + 6 +2K iy =0

iY = -1.5mA

VO2= - 2K iY = 3 V

Step 3: To find Vo3

lu
Deactivate 12V and 6V sources
So
U
VT

i1 = i2 = 1mA

VO3 = 2K i1 = 2V

Step 4:

By Super position Theorem

V0 = V01 + V02 + V03

V0 = 0 + 3 + 2

n
V0 = 5 V

tio
P3. Find i by Super position theorem.

lu
So
Solution:

Let i = i1 + i2

where,

i1 is the contribution of 24V source when acting alone

i2 is the contribution of 7A source when acting alone

The dependant voltage source cannot be deactivated - keep it as it is.

Step 1: To find i1

Deactivate 7A source

Applying KVL:

-24 + 3 i1+ 2 i1+ 3 i1= 0

i1= 3 A

Step 2: To find i2

n
Deactivate 24V source

tio
lu
So
Constraint equation:

-iX + iY = 7A
U

KVL to Supermesh:

3 iX + 2 iY + 3 i2 =0
VT

Sub. i2 = iX

3 iX + 2 iY + 3 iX=0

6 iX + 2 iY =0

Solving the equations

-iX + iY = 7A

6 iX + 2 iY =0

Implies,

iX = -1.75 A and iY =5.25A

i2 = ix = -1.75A

n
Step 3:

tio
By Super position Theorem

i = i1 + i2

i = 3 – 1.75

i = 1.25 A
Summary:
lu
So
1. Superposition theorem is applicable to circuits with multiple independent
sources only.
2. Dependant sources can be present.
3. At a time only one independent source should be acting, which gives its
individual contribution.
4. Algebraic summation of the individual contributions gives the actual
current/voltage in a circuit.
U

5. It is as good as cutting down complex problems into simpler ones.

Theorem 5: Reciprocity Theorem

Statement:

In any Linear Bilateral single source circuit, the ratio of Excitation to Response is constant when
the positions of Excitation and Response are interchanged.

n
Problems:

P1. Find VX and verify Reciprocity theorem.

tio
Solution:

lu
Step 1: To find the response VX
So
U

Mark the branch currents i 1 and i2

By current Division Rule:

Therefore VX is given by,

n
Step 2: Interchange the Excitation and Response

tio
To find VX1 :

lu
So
By Observation:
U

KVL to Mesh1:
VT

(5+j5) i1 +2 i1 – j2 (i1-i2) = 0
Sub.

KVL along the dotted path:

- VX1 – (5+j5) i1=0

n
tio
Since VX = VX1, Reciprocity Theorem is Verified .

lu
P2. Find I and verify Reciprocity theorem.
So
Solution:

Step 1: To find the response I

U
VT

KCL at node 1:

3V1 – V2=20 ........Eq1

n
tio
KCL at node 2:

lu
So
-V1 + 4V2=0 .......Eq2
Solving equations 1 and 2
V1=7.27 V ; V2=1.8181V
U

Step 2: To find the response II

Interchange the positions of Excitation and Response

KCL at node 1:

n
3V1 – V2=0 -----------Eq A

tio
KCL at node 2:

lu
So
-V1 +4V2=40 ............Eq B
Solving equations 1 and 2
V1=3.6363 V ; V2=10.9V
U

Since I = II, Reciprocity Theorem is Verified.

P3. Find The current through the ammeter and verify

Reciprocity theorem.

n
tio
Solution:

lu
Step 1: To find the Ammeter current
So
U

KVL at mesh 1:
VT

5 i1 + 1 (i1-i2) + 10 (i1-i3) = 0

KVL at mesh 2:

1 (i2-i1)+ 5 i2 + 20 (i2-i3) = 0

KVL at mesh 3:

10 (i3-i1)+ 20 (i3-i2)- 50 = 0

Which give,

n
16 i1 - i2 + 10 i3 = 0

tio
- i1 + 26 i2 - 20 i3 = 0

- 10 i1 - 20 i2 + 30 i3 = 50

lu
Solving the above for i1, i2 and i3

i1 = 4.59 A , i2 = 5.4098 A and i3 = 6.8 A

So
I A = i2 – i = 0.8 A Flowing upwards
I
Step 2: To find the response IA
U

Interchange the positions of Excitation and Response

n
tio
KVL at mesh 1:

lu
5 ia + 50 + 10 (ia-ic) = 0

KVL at mesh 2:
So
-50 + 5 ib + 20 (ib-ic) = 0

KVL at mesh 3:
U

10 (ic-ia)+ 20 (ic-ib)+ 1 ic = 0

Which give
VT

15 ia - 10 ic = -50

25 ib - 20 ic = 50

- 10 ia - 20 ib + 31 ic = 0

Solving the above for ia, ib and ic

ia = -2.8 A , ib = 2.64 A and ic = 0.8 A

n
I’A = ic = 0.8 A
I

tio
Since IA = I A, Reciprocity Theorem is Verified

lu
So
Theorem 6: Millman’s Theorem

Statement:

If ‘n’ generators of EMFs E1,E2,….En with internal impedances Z1, Z2,…Zn are
connected in parallel then the EMFs and the impedances can be combined to give
a single EMF E with internal Impedance Z, where
U
VT

and

Proof:

n
Note that Z1, Z2……Zn are the internal impedances

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Consider,

KCL at node E: lu
So
U
VT

Since all the internal impedances are in parallel,

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lu
So
Problems:

P1. Find the current through 10 Ω by Millman’sTheorem.

U
VT

Step 1: Remove 10Ω and mark terminals a-b

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Step 2: To find E and Z

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lu
So
U
VT

Therefore by Millman’s Theorem

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tio
Step 3: To find i through 10 Ω

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Connect 10 Ω across terminals a-b
So
KVL:

- 10.125 + 1.875 i +10 i = 0

P2. Find R such that the maximum Power delivered to the load is 3mW
VT

Solution:

Step 1: Remove RL and mark the terminals a-b

n
Step 2: Using Millman’s Theorem obtain one generator of emf E and internal

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impedance Z across a-b

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So
To find E:
U
VT

To find Z:

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tio
lu
So
Therefore by Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, for Maximum Power to be
transferred to the load in DC circuits RL = RT
U
VT

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Applying KVL:

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To find R for Pma x = 3mW
So
U
VT

Therefore 1KΩ Resistor has to be connected as the load resistor for maximum
power of 3mW to be delivered to the load.

MODULE-III

Syllabus:
Transient behavior and initial conditions: Behavior of circuit elements under switching
condition and their Representation, evaluation of initial and final conditions in RL, RC
and RLC circuits for AC and DC excitations.
Laplace Transformation & Applications: Solution of networks, step, ramp and impulse
responses, waveform synthesis.

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Text Books:
1. M.E. Van Valkenberg (2000), “Network analysis”, Prentice Hall of India, 3rd edition,

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2000, ISBN: 9780136110958.
2. Roy Choudhury, “Networks and systems”, 2nd edition, New Age International
Publications, 2006, ISBN: 9788122427677.

Reference Books:
1. Hayt, Kemmerly and Durbin “Engineering Circuit Analysis”, TMH 7th Edition, 2010.
2. J. David Irwin /R. Mark Nelms, “Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis”, John Wiley, 8th
ed, 2006.

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3. Charles K Alexander and Mathew N O Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits”,
Tata McGraw-Hill, 3rd Ed, 2009.
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Transient behavior and initial conditions

Objectives:
• To know why initial conditions are important.
• To understand behavior of circuit elements under switching condition and their
representation.
• To evaluate initial and final conditions in RL, RC and RLC circuits.
U

An electric switch is turned on or off in some circuit (for example in a circuit

consisting of resistance and inductance), transient currents or voltages will occur for a
short period after these switching actions. After the transient has ended, the current or
voltage in question returns to its steady state situation. Duration of transient phenomena
are over after only a few micro or milliseconds, or few seconds or more depending on the
VT

values of circuit parameters (like R, L and C).The situation relating to the sudden
application of dc voltage to circuits possessing resistance (R), inductance (L), and
capacitance (C) will now be investigated in this chapter. We will continue our discussion
on transients occurring in a dc circuit. It is needless to mention that transients also occur
in ac circuit but they are not included in this chapter.

There are many reasons for studying initial conditions:

• The most important reason is that initial conditions must be known to evaluate the
arbitrary constants that appear in the general solution of the differential equations.

• The initial conditions give knowledge of the behavior of the elements at the
instant of switching.
• Knowledge of the initial values of derivatives of a response is helpful in
anticipating the nature of response.
• It gives a better understanding of non linear switching circuits.

What are Initial Conditions:

• Finding the value of selected variables when one or more circuit switches are

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moved from one position to another.
• t=0- represents time just before switch changing the position.
• t=0 represents the time when switch changes its position.

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• t=0+ represents time just after switch changing the position.
• Initial conditions focuses on currents and voltages of energy storing elements
(Inductor and capacitor) as these determine the behavior of the circuit at t>0.
• Past history of the circuit is shown up using capacitor voltage and inductor
current.

The evaluation of all voltages and currents and their derivatives at t =0+, constitutes the

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evaluation of initial conditions.
Sometimes we use conditions at t = ∞; these are known as final conditions.

V-I Relationships of Network Elements:

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Element Voltage Current

v(t)=R.i(t) i(t) = v(t)/R

v(t)= L di(t)/dt i(t) = ∫v(t) dt

v(t) = (1/C) ∫i(t) dt i(t) = C dv(t)/dt

Initial Conditions in Network Elements:

1. Resistor

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The current voltage relation for a resistor is given by:- v(t)=i(t)*R.
From the above relation it can be said the instantaneous value of current depends
on instantaneous value of voltage and vice versa.
Past value of current or voltage does not affect present value of current or voltage

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i.e. the behavior of resistance remains same irrespective of past value of current and
voltage.

2. Inductor

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When switch is closed at t = 0, the current through an inductor cannot change
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instantaneously. As a result, closing of a switch to connect an inductor to a source of
energy will not cause current to flow at that instant and inductor will act as an open
circuit.
The current through inductor is given by
U
VT

Hence the current at 0+ is equal to the current at 0-. So if i(0-)=0, then i(0+)=0 also.
So it acts as open circuit as shown.

If a current of I0 amps flows in the inductor at the instant of switching takes place,
that current will continue to flow & for the initial instant the (t=0+) inductor can be
considered as a current source of I0 amps

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3. Capacitor

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Voltage across capacitor is given by
So
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If v(0-)=0, then v(0+)=0 also, so it acts as short circuit at t=0+

If v(0-)=V0 volts, then capacitor acts as a constant voltage source at t=0+ as shown below

Behavior of the elements at t=0+ and at t=∞

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• lu
Procedure for Evaluating Initial Conditions
• Find the current through inductor and voltage across the capacitor before
switching i.e. at t=0- find i(0-) and v(0-) [ i.e. History of the network]
Draw the circuit at t=0+ using equivalent for each circuit element.
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• Determine i(0+) and v(0+)
• Draw the general circuit after switching.
• Write the integro-differential equation for the circuit.
• Obtain an expression for di/dt or dv/dt
• Using initial conditions like i(0+) find di(0+)/dt or using v(0+) find dv(0+)/dt
• Obtain an expression for d2i(0+)/dt2 or d2v(0+)/dt2
• Using initial conditions like i(0+) , di(0+)/dt, find out d2i(0+)/dt2 or Using v(0+) ,
dv(0+)/dt, find out d2v(0+)/dt2 .
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Numerical Examples:

1. In the network shown below, If at t=0, switch ‘K’ is closed, Find the values of i,
di/dt and d2i/dt2 at t =0+. Assume V= 100V, R= 1000Ω and L= 1H.
VT

Solution:
• Before the switch is closed i(0-) =0
• Draw the circuit immediately after switching, Inductor acts as open , as inductor
won’t allow current to change instantaneously Hence i(0+) = 0
• Draw general network after switching and writing KVL
V= Ri + L di/dt
• Obtain an expression for the first derivative
di/dt = (V – R(i) )/L, substituting the values we get

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di/dt = 100 A/s
• Obtain an expression for the second derivative:
d2i(0+)/dt2 = - R/L di/dt , substituting the known values we get
d2i(0+)/dt2 = -100000A/s2

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2. In the network shown below, If at t=0, switch ‘S’ is closed with no initial charge on
the capacitor, Find the values of i, di/dt and d2i/dt2 at t =0+. Assume V= 100V, R=
1000Ω and C= 1µF.

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Solution:
• Before switch is closed Vc(0-) = 0 , i(0-)=0
• Capacitor acts as a short circuit after switching therefore i(0+)=V/R = 0.1 A
• Draw the general network after switch is closed
• V= Ri + 1/c ∫i dt
• Differentiate : 0 = R di/dt + i/c
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di(0+)/dt= - i(0+)/RC, substituting the values we get

di(0+)/dt= – 100 A/s
• Differentiate again to obtain second derivative
d2i(0+)/dt2 = - (1/RC) di(0+)/dt , substituting we get
d2i(0+)/dt2 = + 100000 A/s2
VT

3. In the circuit shown, switch ‘k’ is opened at t=0. Find the values of v, dv/dt,d2v/dt2 at
t = 0+.

Solution:
At t=0-

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v(0-) = 0, iL(0-) = 0 and iL(0+) = 0 since current through the inductor cannot change
suddenly.

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At t=0+

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v(0+) = i x R =2x1000=2000V
• Apply KCL to the given circuit at t = 0+, we get
v/R+(1/L)⌠vdt = 2 ………..…(1)
So
• Differentiate equation (1) with respect to t, we get
(1/R)dv/dt +(1/L)v = 0….. (2)
At t = 0+, equation (2) becomes
(1/R) dv(0+)/dt +(1/L)v(0+) = 0
dv(0+)/dt = - (R/L)v(0+)
= (-1000/1) x 2000
= -2x106 V/S
• Differentiate equation (2) with respect to t, we get
(1/R)d2v/dt2 +(1/L)dv/dt = 0 ....(3)
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At t = 0+, equation (2) becomes

(1/R)d2v(0+)/dt2 +(1/L)dv(0+)/dt = 0
d2v(0+)/dt2 = -(R/L)dv(0+)/dt
= - (1000/1)x(-2x106)
VT

= 2x109 V/S2

4. In the circuit shown, switch ‘k’ is opened at t=0. Find the values of v, dv/dt, d2v/dt2 at
t = 0+.

Solution:
At t=0-
v(0-)=0

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At t=0+

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v (0+) = 0 since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

• Apply KCL to the given circuit at t = 0+, we get

V/R+ C dV/dt = 10 ............ (1)
So
At t = 0+, equation (1) becomes
dV(0+)/dt = (10/C) – v(0+)/RC
= 10/(1x10-6) – 0
=107 Volts/sec
• Differentiate equation (1) with respect to t, we get
(1/R) dV/dt + cd2v /dt2 = 0 .............(2)
At t = 0+, equation (2) becomes
cd2V (0+)/dt2 = - (1/R) dV(0+)/dt
d2V(0+)/dt2 = -(1/RC)dv(0+)/dt
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= - [1/(100x1x10-6)]x107)
= -1011 V/s2

5. In the given circuit, switch ‘K’ is closed at t=0 with capacitor uncharged and zero
current in the inductor. Find di(t)/dt and d2i(t)/dt2 at t = 0+
VT

Solution:
• At t=0- switch is open so i(0-)=0.
• At t=0+, the inductor will act as an open circuit and capacitor will act as an short
circuit, so i(0+)=0.
• Applying KVL, V (t)= R i(t) + L di(t)/dt +1/C ∫ i(t)dt ……..(1)
V (0+)= R i(0+) + L di(0+)/dt +1/C ∫ i(0+)dt
100 = 100x0 +1x di(0+)/dt +(1/1x10-6) 0 dt
Therefore di(0+)/dt=100 A/S

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• Differentiate equation (1) with respect to t, we get
0 = Rdi(t)/dt + L d2i(t)/dt2 +i(t)/C ………..(2)
0 = Rdi(0+)/dt + L d2i(0+)/dt2 + 0
Therefore d2i(0+)/dt2 = - (R/L)di(t)/dt = (100/1)x100

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= -10000A/S2
6. In the network shown below, the switch ‘K’ is opened at t=0 after the network has
attained a steady state with the switch closed.
Find (a) the expression for the voltage across the switch at t =0+
(b) If the parameters are adjusted such that i(0+)=1 and di(t)/dt = -1, what is
the value of the derivative of the voltage across the switch dVk(0+)/dt =?

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Solution:
• Initially switch is closed indicates that the voltage across R1 and C is zero,
inductor acts as short circuit as steady state having been reached, Therefore
i(0-) = V/R2 , voltage across cap =0,
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• Switch is opened at t=0

Inductor acts as a current source of value V/R2, capacitor acts as short
• Hence: i(0+)= V/R2 only as inductor does not allow any sudden change in current.
• Now general network after switching:
VT

V= R1i+ 1/c∫idt + R2i + L di/dt

But the voltage across the switch Vk= R1. i + (1/C) ∫ idt
• At t=0+ , (1/C) ∫ idt=0
Therefore Vk= R1x i(0+)= R1 xV/R2= Vx(R1/R2)
dVk/dt = R1 di/dt + i/c = 1/C - R1

7. In the following circuit with switch ‘k’ is closed, steady state has been reached. At
t=0, the switch is open. Find di(t)/dt, d2i(t)/dt2 and d3i(t)/dt3 at t = 0+ also Find
Vk(0+) and d2Vk (0+)/dt2 .

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Solution:
Just before opening the switch i.e. at t=0-, the capacitor is redundant and inductor is
shorted so

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i(0-) = V/R= 2/1= 2A = i(0+)
Apply KVL to the circuit, we get
V= (1/C)∫idt +Ldi/dt +Rxi ....................(1)
At t=0+ , 2 = 0 + 1 di(0+)/dt +1x i(0+)
di(0+)/dt=2- 1x i(0+)=2-(1x 2)
= 0 A/S
Differentiate equation (1) w. r. t. t, we get

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0 = i/C + Ld2i/dt2+ R di/dt
At t=0+, d2i(0+)/dt2=-(R/L) di(0+)/dt –i(0+)/LC
= 1/1 di(0+)/dt – i(0+)/[1x(1/2)]
= 0 –2x 2
So
= -4 A/S2
Differentiate equation (1) twice w. r. t. t, we get
0= (1/C) di/dt + L d3i/dt3+ R d2i/dt2
At t=0+,
d3i(0+)/dt3=-2di(0+)/dt –d2i(0+)/dt2
= -2x0-(-4)
= 4 A/S3
From (1)
Vk+Ldi/dt +Rx i=2 (since (1/C) ∫idt= Vk
Differentiate above equation twice w. r. t. t, we get
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d2 Vk /dt2 + Ld3i/dt3+Rd2i/dt2=0
At t=0+,
d2Vk(0+)/dt2 = - Ld3i(0+)/dt3-Rd2i(0+)//dt2
= -1x 4-1x(-4)
VT

=0 V/S2

8. Position of the switch is changed from 1 to 2 at t=0. Steady state was achieved at
position 1 determine i(t), di/dt and d2i/dt2 at t=0+.

Solution:
• At t=0-, the circuit is as shown
• Inductor in steady state assumed as short circuit.
• So the current through it is
IL(0-)=20/10=2A.
Vc(0-)=0V

• At t=0+, the inductor behaves as current source of 2A and capacitor as short

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circuit so, IL(0+)=2A and Vc(0+)=0V
• For t>=0+, the circuit is as shown.
• By applying KVL in the circuit above we get.

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So
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9. In the network shown below, a steady state is reached with the switch K open. At t =
0, the switch is closed. For the element values given, determine the values of Va(0-)
and Va(0+).
VT

Solution:
• At t=0-
Req=10||(10+20)= 7.5Ω
IT=5/Req = 0.667A
I=IT *10/(10+30) = 0.167A
Va(0-) = 20*I= 3.34V
Since iL(0-) = IT= 0.667A = iL(0+)

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• At t=0+
Applying KCL at Node a
(Va-5)/10+ Va/10+(Va-Vb)/20 = 0

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0.25Va-0.05Vb=0.5………(1)
Applying KCL at Node b
(Vb-5)/10+(Vb-Va)/20+0.667=0
-0.05Va+0.15Vb-0.167=0……(2)
Solving equations 1 and 2 we get
Va=1.904V & Vb=-0.479V
Therefore
Va(0+) = 1.904V

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10. In the circuit shown below, the steady state is reached with switch ‘k’ is open. At t=0,
switch ‘k’ is closed. For the element values given, determine the value of Va(0-) and
Va(0+).
So
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Solution:
• At t=0-
Va(0-)=Vb(0-)=5 V
Vb(0-)=5V= Vb(0+)
• At t = 0+,
VT

Apply KCL to the given circuit, we get

(Va-5)/10 + (Va/10) + (Va -Vb)/20 = 0 .....(1)
(Vb-5)/10 + (Vb-Va)/20 + CdVb/dt = 0 …..(2)
From (1), At t = 0+,
[Va(0+) -5]/10 + [Va(0+)] /10 + [Va(0+) -Vb(0+)]/20 = 0
[Va(0+) -5]/10 + [Va(0+)] /10 + [Va(0+) -5]/20 = 0
[2Va(0+) -10 + 2Va(0+) + Va(0+) -5]/20 = 0
[5Va(0+) -15]/20 = 0
Va(0+) = 15/5=3V0lts

11. In the given circuit, switch ‘k’ is opened at t=0. Find the values of v1, v2, dv1/dt and
dv2/dt at t = 0+.

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Solution:
At t= 0- v1(0-) = 0 and v2(0-) = 0

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At t= 0+

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v1(0+) = ixR1 = 10x10=100V
v2(0+) = 0 and i2(0+) = 0
So
Apply KCL to the given circuit at t = 0+, we get
v1/R1+ (1/L)⌠( v1- v2)dt = 0....... (1)
v2/R2 +(1/L)⌠( v2- v1)dt + c dv2/dt = 0.... (2)
Differentiate equation (1) with respect to t, we get
(1/R1) dv1/dt +(1/L)(v1- v2) = 0
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At t = 0+,
(1/R1) dv1(0+)/dt + (1/L)v1(0+) - (1/L )v2(0+) = 0
dv1(0+)/dt = -R1/L v1 (0+) +(R/L )v2(0+)
= -(10/1)x 100 + (10/1) x 0
= -1000 volts/sec
VT

From equation (2)

v2(0+)/R2 + iL(0+)+ Cdv2(0+)/dt = 0
0 + 0 + cdv2(0+)/dt = 0
Cdv2(0+)/dt = 0 volts/sec

12. Steady state reached with switch k open, Switch is closed at t=0. V=100V, R1=10 Ω,
R2=R3=20Ω, L=1H, C=1μF. Find voltage across C, initial values of i1, i2, di1/dt, di2/dt at
t=0+ and also find di/dt at t=∞.

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Solution:
Switch k is opened : Steady State being established

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Inductor acts as short circuit: capacitor acts as open:
I1(0-)= V/R1+R2 = 3.33 A, I2(0-)=0;
Vc(0-)= i1*R2 = 66.67V
At t=0 switch is closed: hence R1 becomes redundant.
Inductor acts as a current source of value 3.33 A, Vc(0+)= 66.67 V
I2(0+) = (100 – 66.67)/20 = 1.67A
I1(0+)= 3.33 A

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General network after switching :
V=i1R2 + L di1/dt-------------------(a)
V=i2 R3 + 1/c ∫i2dt -----------------(b)
di1(0+)/dt = (V-i1R2) /L = 33.3A/s
diff eqn (b) we get
So
di2(0+)/dt=- i2(0+)/R3C = -83500 A/s

13. In the network shown , switch K is changed from position a to b at t=0, steady state
being established at position a. Show that i1(0+)=i2(0+)= -V/(R1+R2+R3), i3(0+)=0
U
VT

Solution:
Steady state being established at position a, Means inductors act as short circuit,
capacitors act as open circuit
Switch being at position a, we can see that
i1(0-)=0, i2(0-)=0 i3(0-)=0
and
Vc1(0-)=0, Vc2(0-)=0 and Vc3(0-)=V.
When switch is moved to position b, Only C3 will act as a voltage source, No current
i1, i2 and i3 hence inductor L1 and L2 acts as open and Vc3 = V
We get i3(0+)=0 And i1=i2= -V/ R1+R2+R3

Laplace Transformation and Applications

Objectives:
• To Know What is Laplace Transform
• What are advantages of Laplace Transform
• Laplace Transforms of Standard Functions
• Initial and Final Value Theorems
• Applications of Laplace Transform

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• Waveform Synthesis

What is Transform?

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A mathematical conversion from one way of thinking to another to make a
problem easier to solve is called as transform.

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Laplace Transform:
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VT

It’s a transformation method used for solving differential equation, which transforms
signal from time domain t to complex frequency domain S.
It is defined as
L[ f (t )]  F ( s)   f (t )e dt
  st
0

Where S is the complex frequency

Inverse Laplace Transform is defined as

1   j

L [ F ( s)]  f (t ) 
1
 F ( s )e ds
ts

2 j   j

Advantages of Laplace Transform

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• The solution of differential equation using LT, progresses systematically. We use
Laplace transform to convert equations having complex differential equations to
relatively simple equations having polynomials which are easier to solve.

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• With Laplace transform nth degree differential equation can be transformed into
an nth degree polynomial. One can easily solve the polynomial to get the result
and then change it into a differential equation using inverse Laplace transform.
• Initial conditions are automatically specified in transformed equation.
• The method gives complete solution in one operation. (Both complementary
function and particular Integral in one operation)

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Standard Functions

The three important singularity functions employed in circuit analysis are:

• Unit Step Function [u(t)]
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• Delta function [δ(t)]
• Ramp Function [r(t)]

They are called singularity functions because they are either not finite or they do not
possess finite derivatives everywhere.

Unit Step Function [u(t)]

• The unit step function, u(t)
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– Mathematical definition

0 t0
u (t )  
1 t 0
VT

• A more general unit step function is u(t-a)

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• The gate function can be constructed from u(t)
– a rectangular pulse that starts at t= and ends at t=  +T

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– like an on/off switch

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So
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VT

Delta function [δ(t)]

The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse function δ(t).

The unit impulse may be visualized as very short duration pulse of unit area.

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0 t t
 (t  t )   0

1 t t
0

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So
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VT

An important property of the unit impulse function is what is often called the sifting
property; which is exhibited by the following integral:

Ramp function [r(t)]

Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp function r(t).

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So
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VT

• Relation Between Three Singularity Functions:

Functional Laplace Transforms

1. Unit Step Function [u(t)]

0 t0
u (t )  
1 t 0

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1
Lu (t )  F ( s)  

 st
1e dt 

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0 s
2. Unit Impulse Function [δ(t)]

0 t0

lu (t )  
1

L (t )  F ( s)    (t )e dt  1
t 0

  st
So
0

3. Unit Ramp Function [r(t)]

0 t0
r (t )  
t t0

Lt u t    te dt

 st
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0

 1


  1  

 t  e  st
 1
    e dt
 st

 s   s 
VT

0
0

1 

 0 e  st
dt
s 0

1 1


 1
  e  st
 
s s  s0
2

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Laplace Transform Properties

Theorem Property (t) F(s)

1 Scaling A (t) A F(s)

2 Linearity 1(t) ± 2(t) F1(s) ± F2(s)

1 s

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3 Time Scaling (a·t)
F  a0
a a
-s·t0
4 Time Shifting (t-t0) u(t-t0) e F(s) t00

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-a·t
6 Frequency Shifting e (t) F(s+a)

9 Time Domain d f (t ) s F(s) - (0)

Differentiation dt
7 Frequency Domain t (t)  d F ( s)
Differentiation ds
10

11
lu Time Domain
Integration

Convolution
0
t
0
t
f ( ) d

f1 ( ) f 2 (t   ) d
1
s
F (s)

F1(s) F2(s)
So
Laplace Transforms of some important functions

1. Exponential Function:
U
VT

2. Sinusoidal Function:

(e  e )

jwt  jwt

L[sin( wt )]   e dt  st

0
2j
1  1 1 

n
 
2 j  s  jw s  jw 

tio
w

s w 2 2

3. Cosine Function:

lu
L[cos(wt )]  
(e  e )

1 1
2


e dt
0

1 
jwt  jwt
 st
So
  
2  s  jw s  jw 
s

s w 2 2

4. Find L[e-at cos(wt)]:

Let f(t) = cos(wt)

Then
s
VT

F (s) 
s w 2 2

( s  a)
and F ( s  a ) 
( s  a)  w 2 2

5. Laplace Transform of cosh(at) and sinh(at)

n
tio
lu
So
Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions

• If f(t) is periodic with period T then

 f t e dt
T
 st

Lf t   0

1 e  sT
U

Initial and Final Values

The initial-value and final-value properties allow us to find the initial value f(0) and
f(∞) of f(t) directly from its Laplace transform F(s).

Initial-value theorem

f (0)  lim sF ( s)
s 

n
tio
lu
So
Example:
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VT

Final-value theorem

f ()  lim sF ( s)
s0

n
tio
lu
So
U

x()  lim sX ( s)s0

Example:
VT

Waveform Synthesis:

1.Find the Laplace transform of x(t), shown in Figure below

n
tio
Given waveform can be split into two as shown below

lu
So
U

2.Find the Laplace transform of the staircase waveform shown in Figure below
VT

n
tio
lu
3.Express the current pulse in Figure below in terms of the unit step.
So
Find a) L{i(t)} b) L{∫i(t)dt}
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VT

The given waveform can be split into three parts

i(t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t)
i(t)= 5u(t) – 10u(t-2) + 5u(t- 4)
Taking Laplace Transform we get

Let f(t) = ∫i(t)dt

then f(t) = ∫[5u(t)-10u(t-2) + 5u(t-4)]dt
= 5r(t)- 10r(t- 2) + 5r(t- 4)

n
4.Obtain the Laplace Transform of saw tooth waveform shown in Figure below

tio
lu
The above saw tooth signal can be split into three parts i.e. initial ramp of slope A/T,
ramp of slope –A/T and a step from A to zero.
So
f(t)= A/T tu(t) - A/T(t-T)u(t-T) – Au(t-T)
Taking LT we get
F(s) = A/TS2 -A/TS2e-ST -A/Se-TS
= A/TS2[1 -e-ST - STe-TS ]

5.Find the Laplace Transform of the periodic signal x(t) shown below
U
VT

• The given signal is a periodic signal with period T= 2 sec

• Let x1(t) be the signal x(t) over one period which may be viewed as multiplication
of xA(t) and g(t) as shown below

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tio
lu
So
6.Using standard waveforms express the waveform given (periodic) in Figure below and
obtain its Laplace transform.
U

• The one cycle of above waveform can be split into three parts a step of 4V at t=1,
ramp of slope -4 at t=2 and ramp of slope +4 at t=3.
VT

7.Refer the circuit shown below and Find i(0) and i(∞) using initial and final value
theorems.

n
tio
Applying KVL we get
iR + Ldi/dt = v(t)
i + 2di/dt = 10
Taking LT we get

lu
I(s) + 2[sI(s) – i(0-)] = 10/s
I(s)[1 + 2s] = 10/s + 2
I(s) = (10 +2s)/s(1+2s)
So
= (5+s)/s(s+1/2)
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VT

8.For the circuit shown below (a) write a differential equation for the inductor current
iL(t). (b) Find IL(s) the Laplace transform of iL(t) (c) Solve for iL(t).

n
tio
lu
So
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VT

9.In the circuit shown in figure, steady state is reached with switch K open. Obtain the
expression for current when switch K is closed at t=0. Assume R1=1Ω, R2=1 Ω, L=1H
V=10V

Applying KVL, with the switch is closed

Taking Laplace transform of the above equation yields

n
tio
lu
Substituting the values of R1, L and i(0-)
So
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VT

MODULE-4
RESONANCE CIRCUITS
Introduction:
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive
Reactance’s are equal in magnitude, there by resulting in purely resistive impedance. If a
sinusoidal signal is applied to the network, the current is out of phase with the applied
voltage. Under special condition, impedance offered by the network is purely resistive and

n
frequency at which the net reactance of the circuit is zero is called resonant frequency. It is
denoted by f0. At resonance, the power factor is unity and energy released by one reactive
element is equal to the energy released by the other reactive element in the circuit and the
total power in the circuit is the average power dissipated by the resistive element.

tio
At resonance, the impedance Z offered by the circuit is equal to resistance of the circuit. Net
reactance is equal to zero.
There are two types of resonance:
• Series resonance
•
Resonance Parameters:
1. Z = R
2.
lu
Parallel resonance
So
3.

4. Power factor = 1
5. Quality factor
U

Series Resonance
VT

A series resonance circuit consists of an inductance L, resistance R and capacitance C,

the RLC circuit is supplied with a sinusoidal voltage from an AC source. The resonance
condition in AC circuits can be achieved by varying frequency of the Source. The current
flowing through circuit is I, impedance is Z.

………………………………………………. (1)

The current flowing through the circuit is ………………………………. (2)

The circuit is said to be at resonance when the net reactance of the circuit is zero or
inductive reactance is equal to capacitive reactance. By varying frequency of source, X L is
made equal to XC. From (1), reactance part will become zero and Z=R.

n
tio
lu
So
To Derive Expression for Resonant Frequency:
At Resonance, XL = XC, f = f0, ω = ω0
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VT

Current at Resonance

Power factor = 1 at resonance

Expressions for fL and fC:

Frequencies at which voltage across inductor and capacitor are maximum are fL and
fC .

Voltage across the capacitor (VC) is:

n
Substituting I from equation 2,

tio
lu
The voltage across the capacitance (Vc) is maximum at frequency (fC). We calculate
So
the frequency by taking the derivative of equation 5. We take square of the equation to make
the computation easier.
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VT

Voltage across the capacitor (VL) is:

fL can be computed by equating the derivative of equation 9. We take square of the

equation to make the computation easier.

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tio
At resonance, VL=VC in magnitude, but are out of phase. If R is extremely small,
frequencies fL and fC are ≈ f0. The below figure shows voltage variation with frequency:

lu
So
U

Problem:
Q: A series RLC circuit has R = 25Ω, L = 0.04H, C=0.01µF. If 1V sine signal of same
frequency as the resonance frequency is to be applied to the circuit, calculate
frequency at which voltage across inductor and capacitor are maximum. Also
VT

calculate voltage across L and C, at resonant frequency.

Ans: Resonant frequency of RLC series circuit is,

The frequency at which voltage across inductor is maximum is,

The frequency at which voltage across capacitor is maximum is,

At resonance, Z = R= 25Ω.

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Quality Factor of an Inductor:
lu
Let Vm be the peak voltage of applied signal, Im be the peak current through the circuit.
So
The maximum energy stored in L is

The RMS power dissipated in R is

The energy dissipated in resistor per cycle is power × time period of one cycle.
E = P.T but

Therefore, energy dissipated in R is

Substitute (1) and (3) in Q,

Quality Factor of Capacitor:

Quality Factor at Resonance Q0

The quality factor of a series resonance circuit is quality factor of an inductor or
quality factor of capacitor at resonant frequency.

f = fo Q = Q0

w.k.t

n
tio
Voltage Magnification Factor:
At resonance, the magnitude of voltage across the inductor and capacitor will be same and
magnitude will get amplified by the quality factor (Q)

lu
Where V is applied voltage.
So
Hence, voltage across capacitor and inductor gets amplified by quality factor.

Cut-Off Frequencies:
U
VT

In series resonance, the current falls to times the maximum current Io. The
corresponding frequencies are called cut-off frequencies f1 and f2 .
At resonance, Z = R, which is the maximum current and maximum power is
when current falls to times maximum value, there are 2 frequencies at .

At lower cut-off frequency, power is half the maximum power

At upper cut-off frequency too, power is half the maximum power

Cut-off frequencies are also called Half Power Frequencies.

n
Bandwidth:
The frequency range between the cut-off frequencies f1 and f2 is called bandwidth.

tio
HZ
Where = f2 – f0 or f0 – f1

Selectivity:
lu
At resonance frequency, impedance is minimum, current is maximum. Impedance
varies with frequency. Thus, a series RLC circuit possesses selectivity.
Selectivity of the circuit is defined as the ability of the circuit to distinguish between desired
So
and undesired frequency. It is ratio of resonant frequency to the bandwidth.
U

If Q0 is very high, frequency response becomes sharper or narrower and BW reduces.

Q) Derive Expression for cut-off Frequencies of a Series RLC Circuit

n
tio
The current flowing through circuit is

lu
So
At resonance, Z = R

At cut-off points,
U

Substitute in (1)
VT

Squaring on both sides,

The equation shows that at half power or cut-off frequencies, the reactive part = resistive part.
This equation is quadratic in which gives 2 values of and .

At upper cut-off frequency, f = f2, .

At lower cut-off frequency, f = f1, .

From (3),

n
tio
lu
So
From (4),
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VT

Q) Show that the resonance frequency fo of a series resonance circuit is equal to

geometric mean (GM) of the two cut-off frequencies.

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tio
At resonance, Z = R

At cut-off frequencies,

lu
So
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At upper cut-off frequency f = f2,

At lower cut-off frequency, f = f1,

Add equations (4) and (5)

n
Taking square root on both sides,

tio
W.k.t, resonant frequency . Therefore,

This shows that fo is the GM of the cut-off frequencies.

lu
Establish the relation between Quality Factor and Bandwidth in a Series Resonance
Circuit and Thereby Prove That
So
At resonance, because Z = R

At cut-off frequencies,
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VT

At upper cut-off frequency f = f2,

At lower cut-off frequency, f = f1,

(1) - (2) gives

n
tio
lu
So

Substitute (3) in ,
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VT

Problems:
1. A series RLC circuit with R=10Ω, L=10mH, C=1µF has an applied voltage of 200V
at resonance frequency fo. Calculate fo, VL, VR, VC at resonance and also find Q and
BW.

n
tio
Solution:

w.k.t lu
So
At resonance, Z = R. Current (I) is maximum.

At resonance, |VL| = |VC| = QoV

Voltage across L and C is , |VL|=|VC|=2000V
VR=200V [XL=XC]
U

300V

200V
VT

100V

0V
10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(L1:2)
Frequency

2. A series RLC circuit has R=10Ω, L=0.01H, C=0.01µF and is connected across 10mV
supply. Calculate fo, Qo, BW, f1, f2, Io.
Solution: At resonance,

n
tio
For high quality factor [Qo > 5]

lu
So
3. In a series RLC network at resonance, Vc=400V, impedance Z=100Ω, BW=75Hz
with an applied voltage of 70.7V. Find R, L, C.
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VT

Solution:
At resonance, Z = R = 100Ω
VR = 70.7V
At resonance, |VC| = QoV

To calculate ,

n
tio
600V

400V

200V
lu
So
0V
10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(L1:2)
Frequency

4. A series RLC circuit has R=4Ω, L=1mH, C=10µF. Find Q, BW, fo, f1, f2.
U
VT

Solution:

Since Q < 5

BW = f2 - f1 => f2=f1+BW=1940.11Hz

n
As Qo<5,

tio
600V

400V

200V
lu
So
0V
10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(L1:2)
Frequency

5. A 220V, 100Hz AC source supplies a series RLC circuit with a capacitor and a coil.
If the coil has 50mΩ and 5mH inductance, find at fo=100Hz, the value of capacitor.
Also calculate Q0, f1, f2.
U
VT

Solution:

n
tio
Since Qo > 5
lu
So
BW =
U

15KV
VT

10KV

5KV

0V
10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz
V(L1:2)
Frequency

6. It is required that a series RLC circuit should resonate a 1Mhz. Determine the
values of R, L, C if BW=5kHz, Z=50Ω at resonance.fo=1MHz, BW=5kHz
40KV

30KV

20KV

n
10KV

tio
0V
100KHz 300KHz 1.0MHz 3.0MHz 10MHz
V(L1:2)
Frequency

Solution:

lu
At resonance, Z = R = 50Ω
So
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VT

7. An RLC circuit has R=1k, L=100mH, C=10µF. If a voltage of 100V is applied

across the circuit, find fo, Q factor, half power frequencies.
Solution:

For Q < 5

n
tio
lu
8. A series RLC circuit has R=10Ω, L=0.01H, C=0.01µF and it is connected across
10mV supply. Calculate fo, Qo, BW, f1, f2, Io.
Solution:
So
U

Since Q0 > 5
BW =
VT

Current at resonance,

Parallel Resonance (Anti-Resonance)

Loss-Less Capacitor:
Q 1) Derive the expression for Resonance frequency of a circuit with loss less capacitor
in parallel with a coil of Inductance ‘L’ and Resistance ‘R’.
A Parallel Resonant or Anti resonant circuit consists of an inductance ‘L’ in parallel
with a capacitor ‘C’. A small Resistance ‘R’ is associated with ‘L’.

n
‘C’ is assumed to be loss less. The tuned circuit is driven by a voltage source. I is the
current flowing through the circuit. IC & IL are the currents through the Capacitor and
Inductor branch respectively.

tio
a)
lu b)
So
a) Parallel resonance circuit with lossless capacitor b) phase diagram
Admittance of (inductance) branch containing R & L is given by (On rationalization)
U

The admittance of branch containing capacitor ‘C’ is

Total admittance of the circuit is

At Anti Resonance, the circuit must have unity power factor i.e. at resonance f = far
and the imaginary part of the admittance or the susceptance will be zero (Inductive
Susceptance = Capacitive Susceptance at anti resonance).

At resonance f = far or ω=ωar.

On simplifying we get,

n
tio
Or Anti resonant frequency or parallel resonance frequency is

lu
This parallel resonance is possible iff otherwise “far” will be imaginary. It
So
can be expressed by:

far can be expressed in another form (In terms of )

For series resonance,
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VT

Quality factor at resonance is

From equation (6)

In term of series resonant frequency ‘ ’ where ,

For 10, as 1.

The equation shows the anti-resonant frequency differs from that of series resonant
circuit with the same circuit elements by the factor .This factor shows that if <1
then, the frequency of parallel resonance because imaginary.

n
Admittance of anti-resonance circuit at Anti-resonance ‘far’:

tio
Admittance of parallel resonance circuit is

To get the admittance at anti resonance the susceptance part is considered as zero and
consider only real part at anti resonance BL=BC or BL − BC = 0.

lu
∴ At anti-resonance,
So
We have,

At resonance far, this is called dynamic resistance of the parallel resonant circuit at
U

resonance.
Zar terms of Q:
At anti-resonance ω =
VT

We have,

This is the impedance at anti-resonance and is also called dynamic resistance. For
high ‘Q’, Rar = RQo2 . When the coil resistance is small, Zar becomes high with the current
will be minima at resonance frequency .Parallel tuned circuit is a rejecter circuit. Current at
Anti resonance is:

From equation (3), , the impedance at anti resonance is a pure resistance;

n
which indicates that Rar is a function of the ratio and Rar can be large if inductors of low
resistance are employed. In terms of ‘Q’ and Resonance frequency .

tio
Multiply and divide by ,

Similarly,
lu
So
Quality Factor:
In a parallel - tuned circuit, the quality factor at resonance

Bandwidth:
U

B.W = f2 – f1
VT

(Variation of reactance with frequency)

SELECTIVITY AND BANDWIDTH:

n
tio
The half power frequency points f1& f2 for a parallel resonant circuit are obtained
when the impedance ‘Z’ of the circuit becomes equal to 0.707 times the value of maximum
impedance “Zar” at resonance.
At anti resonance

lu
In terms of ‘Qo’:
So
Impedance of parallel resonance circuit in terms of ‘Q0’:

Fractional frequency deviation,

The condition for half power frequencies is given as = 0.707

Hence, =

From equations (1) & (3) =

Comparing imaginary terms we get,

At upper half power frequency f = f2, (f > far & )

Similarly, at lower half power frequency f = f1 , (f < far & = − )

Adding equations (4) and (5),

n
tio
The higher the value of ‘Q’, the more selective will the circuit be and lesser will be
the BW. At resonance, quality factor:

Selectivity:
lu
So
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VT

EFFECT OF GENERATOR RESISTANCE ON B.W AND SELECTIVITY:

n
tio
At resonance Impedance Z =Rar , with generator resistance ‘Rg’.At anti resonance then total
impedance is Rar Rg

lu
Q factor is decreased by a factor .
So
U

For matched condition and to get maximum power transfer condition Rg is selected as Rar .
VT

CURRENT AMPLIFICATION FACTOR:

At anti resonance current through capacitor is IC = Qo*I
I= at resonance. Similarly, the current through inductor is IL = Qo*I

∴ Since Qo >1 the current through inductor and capacitor is Q times the total current at
resonance.

n
GENERAL CASE – RESISTANCE PRESENT IN BOTH BRANCHES:
Q1) Derive the expression for the resonance frequency in parallel resonant circuit
containing resistance in both branches.

tio
lu
So
Admittance of the Inductive branch is

By rationalizing
U

The admittance of capacitance branch is

Total admittance Y = YL+YC

At resonance the Susceptance (imaginary part of Y) becomes zero

Substituting for and and we get:

n
Anti-resonant frequency is

tio
Q2) Prove that the circuit will resonate at all frequencies if RL= RC =

lu
So

When net Susceptance of the circuit is zero with

In this case, the circuit acts as a pure resistive circuit irrespective of frequency i.e. the
VT

circuit resonates at all frequencies. The admittance of the circuit is

With

Substitute R4 for in denominator

n
Take common from denominator and simplifying, we get:

tio
Therefore, Impedance of the circuit at resonance is Z = R = . So, circuit is purely resistive,

lu
hence circuit resonates at all frequencies.
So
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VT

PROBLEMS:

1. Determine RL and RC for which the circuit shown resonates at all frequencies.

n
tio
Solution:

On substituting we get,
lu
2. For the network shown find the resonant frequency and the current ‘I’ as indicated
So
in the figure.
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VT

SOLUTION:

On substituting the values, we get

far = 722.93 Hz

n
3. In the circuit shown, an inductance of 0.1 H having a Q of 5 is in parallel with a
capacitor. Determine the value of capacitance & coil resistance at resonant
frequency of 500 rad/sec.

tio
lu
So
Solution:

Or
U

∴ C = 3.84 x 10-5 = 38.4 µF

We have , therefore

4. Determine the RLC parallel circuit parameters whose response curve is shown.
What are the new values of & bw if ‘C’ is increased 4 times.

n
tio
Solution:
From the resonance curve, we have
Zar = = 10 Ω
BW = 0.4 rad/sec

We have,
lu
War = 10 rad/sec
Q factor = = = 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
So
=R , ∴ R=

R= = 0.01597 Ω . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)

We have
Zar =

= = 10x0.01597= 0.1597
U

Or
L = (0.1597) x C . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
By definition,
VT

= *

Squaring on both sides and rearranging the eqn

LC = * = 9.984 x 10-3 . . . . . . . . . . . (4)

Substituting eq (3) in (4)

(0.1597C)C= 9.984 x 10-3
∴ C = 0.25 F
From eq (3) L = (0.25) (0.1597) = 0.0399 H

Therefore, to achieve resonance at 10 rad/sec & to have BW of 0.4 rad/sec the RLC
parameters are

R = 0.01597 Ω
L = 0.0399 H
C = 0.25 F

If ‘C’ is increased 4 times i.e. C'= 4C = 4x0.25 = 1 F

n
Then the new Anti-resonant frequency is

tio
lu
So
BW = 0.4 rad/sec
5. A two branch anti-resonant circuit contains L= 0.4 H, C= 40 µF, resonance is to
achieved by variation of RL & RC . Calculate the resonant frequency far for the
following cases :
i) RL = 120 Ω, RC = 80 Ω ii) RL = RC = 100 Ω
Solution:
U

Case 1:
VT

Hence resonance is not possible.

Case 2:

Hence resonance is possible at all frequencies.

6. For the circuit shown. Find the resonant frequency ωar, Q and band-width, if R=
25Ω; L= 0.5H, C= 5 µF.

n
tio
Solution:

lu ωar = 630.49 rad/s

Q = 12.61 rad/s
So

7. For the parallel resonant circuit, Find IC,IL, IO, fO & dynamic resistance.
U
VT

SOLUTION:

fO = ; On substituting we get

fO = 5.03 x 106 Hz.

At resonance dynamic resistance

ZO = = 10000 Ω

IO= = 0.01 A

Q= = = 31.6

n
IL= IO*Q = 31.6 x 0.01 = 0.316 A

tio
IC= IO*Q = 31.6 x 0.01 = 0.316 A

8. Find the value of RL for which the circuit is resonant.

lu
So
U

SOLUTION:
The admittance of the ckt at resonance is the real part of Y.
VT

At resonance, the imaginary part of ‘Y’ is zero.

5.1 Introduction

• A two-port network is an electrical network with two separate ports for input and output.

Fig(a) –Single Port Network

Fig(b) –Two Port Network

n
tio
There are several reasons why we should study two-ports and the parameters that describe them.

Most of the circuits which we come across have two ports. Usually an input signal is connected in
one port and an output signal is obtained from the other port.

The parameters of a two-port network completely describes its behaviour in terms of the voltage


lu
and current at each port. Thus knowing the parameters of a two port network permits us to
describe its operation when it is connected into a larger network.

Two-port networks are also important in modeling electronic devices and system
components.
So
 In electronics, two-port networks are employed to model transistors and op-amps.,
 Electrical circuits are modeled by two-ports are transformers and transmission lines.

Four popular types of two-ports parameters are examined:

• Impedance

• Admittance

• Hybrid
U

• Transmission.

In the later part of discussion, usefulness of each set of parameters, demonstration of how they
are related to each other and in the end how two-port networks can be interconnected (parallel,
VT

series, series-parallel and cascade).

Impedence parameters:

n
V z I z I
1 11 1 12 2

V z I z I

tio
2 21 1 22 2

Impedance Parameters, z lu
So
U

z11 = Open-circuit input impedance

z12 = Open-circuit transfer impedance from

port 1 to port 2
z21 = Open-circuit transfer impedance from
port 2 to port 1
z22 = Open-circuit output impedance

Impedance Parameters, z

n
tio
lu
So
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VT

Impedance Parameters, z

n
Example

tio
lu
So
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VT

5.3 Admittance Parameters, y

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tio
I Y V Y V
1 11 1 12 2

I Y V Y V
2 21 1 22 2

lu
So
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Admittance Parameters Y
VT

y11 = Short-circuit input admittance

y12 = Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 1 to port 2

y21 = Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 2 to port 1

y22 = Short-circuit output admittance

Fig.

n
tio
Obtain the y parameters for the Π network shown in Fig.

lu
So
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VT

Determine the y parameters for the T network shown in Fig.

n
tio
lu
So
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VT

5.4 Hybrid Parameters, h

V h I h I
1 11 1 12 2

I h I h V
2 21 1 22 2

n
tio
Hybrid Parameters, h

lu
So
h11= Short-circuit input impedance

h12 = Open-circuit reverse voltage gain

h21 = Short-circuit forward current gain

h22 = Open-circuit output admittance

Inverse Hybrid Parameters, g

U
VT

I g V g I
1 11 1 12 2

V g V g I
2 21 1 22 2

Inverse Hybrid Parameters, g

n
g11 = Open-circuit input impedance

g12 = Short-circuit reverse voltage gain

tio
g21 = Open-circuit forward current gain

g22 = Short-circuit output admittance

H-Parameters applied to Common Emitter Transistor Configuration

lu
So
U
VT

• Determine the Thevenin equivalent at the output port of the circuit in Fig.

Solution: To find ZTH and VTH

n
tio
lu
So
U
VT

n
tio
5.5 Transmission Parameters,T (ABCD Parameters)

V AV BI
1 2 2

lu I CV DI
1 2 2
So
Transmission Parameters, T
U

A = Open-circuit voltage ratio

B = Negative short-circuit transfer impedance

C = Open-circuit transfer admittance

D = Negative short-circuit current ratio

Inverse Transmission Parameters, t

a = Open-circuit voltage gain

n
b = Negative short-circuit transfer impedance

c = Open-circuit transfer admittance

tio
d = Negative short-circuit current gain

AD−BC=1, ad−bc=1

Example 5.7

lu
• Find the transmission parameters for the two-port network in Fig.
So
U
VT

n
tio
Example 5.8

lu
So
U
VT

n
tio
Condition for Reciprocity and Symmetry

•
lu
A network is said to be reciprocal , if the ratio of the response transform to the excitation
transform is invariant to an interchange of the positions of the excitation and response in
So
the network

• A two-port network is said to be symmetrical if the ports of the two-port network can be
interchanged without changing the port voltages and currents
U
VT

Relationship Between Two-Port Network Parameters:

Any two-port network parameter can be expressed in terms of other. For example, if the Z -
parameter for given two port network is computed by solving the network, the remaining Y,
h and ABCD can be established without solving the network again. This provides an
opportunity for the designer to choose the required combination in interconnecting more
than one two port network and forming larger systems.

n
tio
Relationship Between Two-Port Network Parameters

lu
So
U
VT

Example Problem: Find [z] and [g] parameters of a two-port network if

Solution:

n
tio
lu
Example Problem: • Obtain the y parameters of the op amp circuit in Fig. Show that the circuit has
no z parameters.
So
Solution:

Since no current can enter the input terminals of the op amps, I1 = 0, which can be expressed in
terms of V1 and V2 as
U
VT

n
tio
lu
So
Interconnection of Networks

• The series connection

V1a=z11I1a+z12I2a
U

V2a=z21I1a+z22I2a

V1b=z11I1b+z12 I2b

V2b=z21I1b+z22 I2b
VT

I1 =I1a=I1b, I2=I2a=I2b

V1=V1a+V1b

= (z11a+z11b)I1 +(z12a+z12b)I2

V2 =V2a+V2b

= (z21a+z21b)I1+(z22a+z22b)I2
[Z]=[Z ]+ [Z ]
a b

I =y V +y V
1a 11 1a 12 2a

I =y V +y V
2a 21 1a 22 2a

n
I =y V +y V
1b 11 1b 12 2b

tio
I =y V +y V
2b 21 1b 22 2b
V = V = V ,V = V = V
1 1a 1b 2 2a 2b
I = I +I
1 1a 1b
=(y + y )V +(y + y )V
11a
I2 = I2a +I2b
11b 1

= (y21a+ y21b)V1+(y22a+ y22b)V2

12a 12b 2
lu
So
[y]=[ya]+ [yb]
U
VT

Example Problem: Evaluate V2 /Vs in the circuit in Fig.

This may be regarded as two-ports in series.

For Nb,

z12b =z21b =10 =z11b =z22b

Thus,

[z] =[za]+[zb]

n
tio
But

V1 =z11I1 +z12I2 = 22I1 +18I2

V2 =z32I1 +z22I2 =18I1 +30I2

lu
So
U

Example Problem: : Find the y parameters of the two-port in Fig.

Solution:

n
tio
Example Problem: Find the transmission parameters for the circuit in Fig.

lu
So
U
VT

Thus, for the total network in Fig. ,

n
tio
ApplicationsTransistor Circuits

lu
So
U

Transistor Circuits
VT

hi = h11, hr = h12, hf = h21, ho = h22

hie = Basic input impedance

hre = Reverse voltage feedback ratio

hfe = Basic-collector current gain

hoe = Output admittance

Fig:

n
Vb = hieIb +hreVc
Ic = hfeIb +hoeVc

tio
Fig.

lu
So
U
VT

Transistor Amplifiers

n
Series-parallel Connection: Useful for H-parameter interconnection

tio
lu
So
U
VT

For the combined network connected in series -parallel model resultant matrix is:

Practice problem: Evaluate the Z parameters verify symmetric and reciprocity property

n
tio
Solution:

V 1=Z11I1+Z12I2

V 2=Z21+Z12I2
lu
So
with I2=0=>Z11 = and Z21=

with I1=0=>Z11 = and Z21=

On applying KVL at the input port

V 1=I1(8+6) Z11= =14 Ω

At output port V 2=I1 Z21= = 6 Ω

On writing circuit with I 1=0

V2= I1 Z22 = =6 Ω
VT

V1= I2 Z12 = =6 Ω

Z12=Z21, the given circuit is reciprocal

Z11 22 the given circuit is not symmetrical

Find the H parameter for the same network and Verify the reciprocity and symmetry property

V 1=h11I1+h12V 2

I2=h21I1+h22V 2

Short Circuit the output port V 2 =0

h11= and h21 =

V 1=8 I1 h11= 8Ω

n
I2=-I1 , h21= = -I1

Open circuit the input port

tio
I1= 0.7,h21 = h22 =

V 1=V 2=6I2 h12 = = 1 and

h22= =

reciprocal h12 =-h21

Symmetric h11 h12- h12h21 = 1

8 (1) (-1) 0
lu
So
[Hence the given circuit is not symmetric]

Expressing h – parameters in terms of Z parameters

h11= = =8 Ω

h12= = =1
U

h21= = = -1

h22= = S
VT

ABCD Parameters expressed in terms of Z parameters:

ABCD parameters eq.

V 1= AV 2– BI2-------------- (1)

I1= CV 2– DI2-------------- (2)

Z parameters eq.

V 1= Z11 I1 +Z12 I2---------(3)

V 2= Z21 I1 +Z22 I2---------(4)

Comparing equation (4) with (2) the variables also remain same

Rearranging equation (4) in such a way that I 1 is on one side

Z21I1 = V 2 – Z22 I2

I1 = V2- I2 --------(5)

On comparing eq(5) and eq(2)

C= and D =

Now, on substituting the value of I 1 , from eq(5) in eq(3)

n
V 1= Z11[ ]+Z12 I2

tio
V1= V 2 -[ ] I2

V1= V2- I2

A= ,B=

CV 2= I1+ DI2

V 2= I1+ I2---------(6)
lu
Now we can also express Z- parameters in terms of ABCD parameters.
So
On comparing eq(6) with eq(4)

Z21 = and Z22 =

By substituting for V 2in eq(1)

V 1 = A[ ]- BI2

= +[ ]I2
U

= +[ ]I2

= + I2 ------------ (7)
VT

Comparing eq(7) with eq(3)

Z11=

Z12=

ABCD Parameters in terms of Z ; considering the following example network

with evaluated values for Z11=60Ω, Z12=60Ω, Z21=60Ω and Z22=60Ω

Expressing ABCD parameters in terms of Z

A= ,B=

C= ,D=

We know that,

V 1= AV 2- BI2

I1= CV 2- DI2

n
With output port open circuit,

I2 = 0 , A =

tio
Applying KVL at input port

V 1= (20+40)I1

V 2 = 40 I1

Now,

A=
,AC=

=
lu
So
C= =

B=-

D=-

Now with output SC V 2=0

V 1= 20 I1+ I

= 20 I1+ [ ]

= I1
VT

I2 = - = I1 = c

B= = B= =

From ?

D=- D=

H – parameters in terms of Z
Express h parameters in terms of Z-parameters

h11 =

h12=

h21=

n
h22=

we know that

tio
V 1=h11I1+h12V 2

I2=h21I1+h22V 2

We have already computed Z-parameters : [

lu [ ]

]
So
With output port short circuit V 2= 0

h11 =

h21 =

V 1=20 I1 + 40
U

V 1=20 I1 + 40 [ ]

V 1=[ ]
VT

h11= =

Now, I2= -I1 = -I1

h21 = =- -

with input port open circuit, I 1=0

h12 = and h22 =

on applying KVL at output port,

V 2= (40+30)I2

h22= S

but,

h22= = S

on__________

V 1= 40I2

Now

n
h12= = =

tio
h21= =

lu
Considering - network which is solved as example problem earlier to
determine Y-Parameter:
So
U

[ ]=[ ] [ ]
VT

Let us find the Z parameters for the same circuit

With I2=0, i.e. open circuit the output port

V 1= Z11 I1 +Z12 I2

V 2= Z21 I1 +Z22 I2

At the input port

V 1 = Ix 4

I x= I 1

V 1 = I1 4

Similarly

V 2 = Iy 8

Iy= I1 =

n
V 2 = I1 4

tio
With I1=0, open circuit the input port

V 2 = Ix 8

I x= I 2

V 2 = I2 8=
lu =
So
Similarly

V 1 = Ix 4

Iy = I2 =

V 1 = I2 4
U
VT

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