CURVILINEAR

COORDINATES

Cartesian Co-ordinate System

A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each

point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the
signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines,
measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate
axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin,
usually at ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can also be defined as the
positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes,
expressed as signed distances from the origin.

For Cartesian co-ordinate system, the coordinates are represented by

x,y,z coordinates and the square of the distance between two points is given
by
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
and other vector operators are given by Gradient
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
∇ψ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Divergence
∂Vx ∂Vy ∂Vz
∇.V~ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Curl  
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 
∇ × V~ =  ∂x
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 

∂y ∂z 
 Vx Vy Vz 

Laplacian (∇.∇ψ)
     
∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
∇.∇ψ = + +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

Introduction to Curvilinear Co-ordinate System

The Curvilinear co-ordinates are the common name of different sets of co-
ordinates other than Cartesian coordinates. In many problems of physics
and applied mathematics it is usually necessary to write vector equations
in terms of suitable coordinates instead of Cartesian coordinates. First, we
develop the vector analysis in rectangular Cartesian coordinate to see the
fundamental role played by the vector-valued differential operator, ∇. All
objects of interests are constructed with the del operator ∇ - the gradient
of a scalar field, the divergence of a vector field and the curl of a vector
field. Later we generalize the results to the more general setting, orthogonal
curvilinear coordinate system and it will be a matter of taking into account
the scale factors h1 , h2 and h3 . Curvilinear coordinate systems are general
ways of locating points in Euclidean space using coordinate functions that
are invertible functions of the usual xi Cartesian coordinates. Their utility
arises in problems with obvious geometric symmetries such as cylindrical or
spherical symmetry.

Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

A cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional coordinate system

that specifies point positions by the distance from a chosen reference axis,
the direction from the axis relative to a chosen reference direction, and the
distance from a chosen reference plane perpendicular to the axis. The latter
distance is given as a positive or negative number depending on which side
of the reference plane faces the point. The origin of the system is the point
where all three coordinates can be given as zero. This is the intersection
between the reference plane and the axis. Cylindrical coordinates are useful

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in connection with objects and phenomena that have some rotational sym-
metry about the longitudinal axis, such as water flow in a straight pipe with
round cross-section, heat distribution in a metal cylinder, electromagnetic
fields produced by an electric current in a long, straight wire, accretion discs
in astronomy, and so on. The three coordinates (ρ, φ, z) of a point P are
defined as:

The radial distance ρ is the Euclidean distance from the z axis to the
point P. The azimuth φ is the angle between the reference direction on the
chosen plane and the line from the origin to the projection of P on the plane.
The height z is the signed distance from the chosen plane to the point P.

In Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System,

x = ρ cos φ

y = ρ sin φ

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 z=z

Unit vectors in Cylindrical co-ordinate system

ρ~ = xx̂ + y ŷ
ρρ̂ = cos φ x̂ + ρ sin φ ŷ
∴ ρ̂ = cos φ x̂ + sin φ ŷ
φ̂ = cos(90 + φ)x̂ + sin(90 + φ)ŷ
= − sin φx̂ + cos φŷ
ẑ = ẑ

Cartesian unit vectors in terms of cylindrical

unit vectors

we’ve
ρ̂ = x̂ cos φ + ŷ sin φ −→ (1)
φ̂ = −x̂ sin φ + ŷ cos φ −→ (2)
ẑ = ẑ
(1) × sin φ + (2) × cos φ
⇒

sin φρ̂ + cos φφ̂ = x̂ sin φ cos φ + ŷ sin2 φ − sin φ cos φx̂ + cos2 φŷ

ŷ = sin φρ̂ + cos φφ̂

(1) × cos φ − (2) × sin φ
⇒

cos φρ̂ − sin φφ̂ = x̂ cos2 φ + ŷ sin φ cos φ + x̂ sin2 φ − ŷ sin φ cos φ

x̂ = cos φρ̂ − sin φφ̂

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 ẑ = ẑ

The unit vectors ê1 , ê2 , ê3 are relabeled by ρ̂, φ̂, ẑ.
A differential displacement vector
~ = ρ̂ dSρ + φ̂ dSφ + ẑ dSz
dS

= ρ̂ dρ + φ̂ ρdφ + ẑ dz
Gradient
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
∇ψ = ρ̂ + φ̂ + ẑ
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
Divergence
 
~ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇.V = (ρVρ ) + (ρVφ ) + (ρVz )
ρ ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= (ρVρ ) + (ρVφ ) + (ρVz )
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ρ ∂z
Curl  
 ρ̂ ρ φ̂ ẑ 
1  ∂ ∂ ∂

∇ × V =  ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z

ρ 
Vρ ρ Vφ Vz 

Laplacian
1 ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
   
2 1 ∂ ∂ψ
∇ψ= ρ + 2 +
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ2 ∂z 2

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Spherical Polar Co-ordinate System

In Spherical Polar Co-ordinate System,

x = r sin θ cos φ

y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ
h1 = 1
h2 = r
h3 = r sin θ

Unit vectors in spherical polar coordinates

x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ

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 ~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ
rr̂ = r sin θ cos φx̂ + r sin θ sin φŷ + r cos θẑ
θ̂ = sin(90 + θ) cos φx̂ + sin(90 + θ) sin φŷ + cos(90 + θ)ẑ
θ̂ = cos θ cos φx̂ + cos θ sin φŷ − sin θẑ
 

 x̂ ŷ ẑ 

φ̂ =  sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ 

 cos θ cos φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ 

= x̂ − sin2 θ sin φ − cos2 θ sin φ +ŷ cos2 θ cos φ + sin2 θ cos φ +ẑ (sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ − sin θ cos θ

φ̂ = − sin φx̂ + cos φŷ

Cartesian unit vectors in terms of spherical po-

lar unit vectors.

We’ve
r̂ = x̂ sin θ cos φ + ŷ sin θ sin φ + ẑ cos θ −→ (1)
θ̂ = x̂ cos θ cos φ + ŷ cos θ sin φ − ẑ sin θ −→ (2)
φ̂ = −x̂ sin φ + ŷ cos φ −→ (3)
(1) × sin θ cos φ + (2) × cos θ cos φ + (3) × − sin φ
⇒

sin θ cos φr̂+cos θ cos φθ̂−sin φφ̂ = sin2 θ cos2 φx̂+sin2 θ sin φ cos φŷ+sin θ cos θ cos φẑ+

cos2 θ cos2 φx̂ + cos2 θ cos φ sin φŷ − sin θ cos θ cos φẑ + x̂ sin2 φ − ŷ sin φ cos φ
⇒
x̂ = sin θ cos φr̂ + cos θ cos φθ̂ − sin φφ̂
(1) × sin θ sin φ + (2) × cos θ sin φ + (3) × cos φ
⇒

sin θ sin φr̂+cos θ sin φθ̂+cos φφ̂ = sin2 θ sin φ cos φx̂+sin2 θ sinφ ŷ+sin θ cos θ sin φẑ+

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 cos2 θ sin φ cos φx̂ + cos2 θ sin2 φŷ − sin θ cos θ sin φẑ − x̂ sin φ cos φ + cosφ ŷ
Then
ŷ = r̂ sin θ sin φ + θ̂ cos θ sin φ + φ̂ cos φ
(1) × cos θ − (2) × sin θ
⇒

r̂ cos θ − θ̂ sin θ = x̂ sin θ cos θ cos φ + ŷ sin θ cos θ sin φ + ẑ cos2 θ−

x̂ sin θ cos θ cos φ − ŷ sin θ cos θ sin φ + ẑ sin 62θ

Then
ẑ = r̂ cos θ − θ̂ sin θ

Spherical polar coordinate scale factor hr , hθ

and hφ

x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ
Thus,
∂x ∂x ∂x
dx = dr + dθ + dφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂y ∂y ∂y
dy = dr + dθ + dφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂z ∂z ∂z
dz = dr + dθ + dφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
Then,
dx = sin θ cos φdr + r cos φ cos θdθ − r sin θ sin φdφ
dy = sin θ sin φdr + r cos θ sin φdθ + r sin θ cos φdφ
dz = cos θdr − r sin θdθ
⇒
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
= (sin θ cos φdr+r cos φ cos θdθ−r sin θ sin φdφ)(sin θ cos φdr+r cos φ cos θdθ−r sin θ sin φdφ)+

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(sin θ sin φdr+r cos θ sin φdθ+r sin θ cos φdφ)(sin θ sin φdr+r cos θ sin φdθ+r sin θ cos φdφ)+
(cos θdr − r sin θdθ)(cos θdr − r sin θdθ)
= sin2 θ cos2 φdr2 + r sin θ cos φ cos2 θdr dθ − r sin2 θ sin φ cos φdr dφ+
r sin θ cos θ cos2 φdr dθ + r2 cos2 θ cos2 φ dθ2 − r2 sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φdθ dφ−
r sin2 θ sin φ cos φdφdr − r2 sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φdθ dφ + r2 sin2 θ sin2 φdφ2 +
sin2 θ sin2 φdr2 + r sin θ cos θ sin2 φdr dθ + r sin2 θ sin φ cos φdr dφ+
r sin2 θ sin φ cos φdφ dr + r2 sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φdφ dθ + r2 sin2 θ cos2 θdφ2 +
cos2 θdr2 − r sin θ cos θdr dθ − r sin θ cos θdr dθ + r2 sin2 θdθ2
= dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θdφ2
Thus we’ve
ds2 = (h1 dq1 )2 + (h2 dq2 )2 + (h3 dq3 )2
= dr2 + (rdθ)2 + (r sin θdφ)2
Then
hr = 1
hθ = r
hφ = r sin θ

A line element
dr = r̂dr + θ̂rdθ + φ̂r sin θdφ
Gradient
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
∇ψ = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Divergence
 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇.V~ = 2 2


Vr r sin θ + (Vθ r sin θ) + (Vφ r)
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ

curl  
 r̂ rθ̂ r sin θφ̂ 
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∇ × V~ = 2
 ∂ ∂ ∂

 
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
r sin θ 
 
Vr rVθ r sin θVφ 

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Laplacian
      
1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ ∂ 1 ∂ψ ∂ 1 ∂ψ
∇.∇ψ = 2 r sin θ + r sin θ + r
r sin θ ∂r ∂r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂φ r sin θ ∂φ
      
1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ ∂ 1 ∂ψ
= 2 r sin θ + sin θ +
r sin θ ∂r ∂r ∂θ ∂θ ∂φ sin θ ∂φ

General form of operators

Gradient
We’ve
d~S = ê1 dS1 + ê2 dS2 + ê3 dS3
dSi = hi dqi
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
∇ ψ = ê1 + ê2 + ê3
∂S1 ∂S2 ∂S3
1 ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
= ê1 + ê2 + ê3
h1 ∂q1 h2 ∂q2 h3 ∂q3
Divergence
 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇.V~ = (V1 h2 h3 ) + (V2 h1 h3 ) + (V3 h1 h2 )
h1 h2 h3 ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3

Curl  
 ê h ê h ê h
1  1∂ 1 2∂ 2 3∂ 3

~

∇×V = 
h1 h2 h3  ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 
h1 V1 h2 V2 h3 V3 

Laplacian(∇.∇ψ)
      
1 ∂ 1 ∂ψ ∂ 1 ∂ψ ∂ 1 ∂ψ
∇.∇ψ = h2 h3 + h1 h3 + h1 h2
h1 h2 h3 ∂q1 h1 ∂q1 ∂q2 h2 ∂q2 ∂q3 h3 ∂q3

The area element

dσi j = dSi dSj

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 = hi hj dqi dqj
The volume element
dτ = dS1 dS2 dS3
= h1 h2 h3 dq1 dq2 dq3

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