The Coating

Reference
Handbook
Please note:
Our ISO 9001-Certificated QA-system requires us to inform you that your
possession of this handbook is not registered at Hempel.

Hempel, therefore, cannot take responsibility for the accuracy and update
of any information given in the handbook at any time of its use and you are
requested to seek such confirmation yourself.

The original English version

of this Coating Reference Handbook
is edited by
Gil Dolon and Henning Olsen
Hempel Academy

Layout by
ESSENSEN®

12th edition
© Hempel A/S, December 2015
Dear paint user

This updated edition of Hempel’s Coating Reference Handbook has been put together to help
you get the best possible performance from Hempel’s paints.

Originally developed as a tool for our own Coating Advisors by Hempel’s Centre for Applied
Coatings Technology, we hope a wider audience can benefit from the practical advice, data,
references, procedures, equipment and standards used within the coating industry.

Our own Coating Advisors use Hempel’s Coating Reference Handbook every day and we hope
that you will also be able to put it to frequent good use in getting the best out of your daily work
with paint and coatings.

Coatings and Paint Technology Team

Hempel Academy

1
Table of Contents
1 Substrates 7

1.1 Substrates 8
1.2 Stainless steel types 9
1.3 Aluminium 10
1.4 Galvanizing 11
1.5 Metallising 12
1.6 Concrete 13

2 Standards 15

2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Commonly used standards 17-20

3 Equipment 21

3.1 Inspection equipment 22
3.2 Basic (carry-on) equipment 23-24
3.3 On-supply inspection equipment 25
3.4 Special equipment 26
3.5 Your safety equipment 27
3.6 A proposal for a medicine box 28
3.7 How to adjust your Electronic DFT gauge 29
3.8 How to adjust your electronic temperature gauge 30

4 Checkpoints 31

4.1 Substrate: Steel
4.1.1 Preparation for surface preparation 32
4.1.2 During surface preparation 32
4.1.3 Finalising surface preparation 33
4.1.4 Preparation for paint application 33
4.1.5 During paint application 34
4.1.6 Finalising paint application 34
4.1.7 Final survey 34

4.2 Substrate: Concrete
4.2.1 Preparation for surface preparation 35
4.2.2 During surface preparation 35
4.2.3 Finalising surface preparation 36
4.2.4 Preparation for paint application 36
4.2.5 During paint application 37
4.2.6 Finalising paint application 37
4.2.7 Final survey 37

2
 5 Individual checkpoints 39
5.1.1 Steel surface (salts, pittings, anti-spatter agent) 40
5.1.2 Steel surface (laminations, sharp edges, dents/burrs) 41
5.1.3 Steel surface (mill scale, rust grade, shopprimer) 42
5.2.1 Welds (spatters, slag, smoke, burn-back) 43
5.2.2 Welds (irregularities, undercutting, porosity) 44
5.3 Concrete 45
5.4 Concrete surface 46
5.5 Oil and grease 47
5.6 Lighting 48
5.7 Access 49
5.8 Preparation grade, steel 50
5.9 Preparation grade, concrete 51
5.10 Surface profile 52
5.11 Dust 53
5.12 Water-soluble salts 54
5.13 Blasting equipment 55
5.14 Mechanical cleaning equipmen 56
5.15 Water jetting equipment 57
5.16 Paint application equipment 58
5.17 Quantity of paints 59
5.18 Paint, qualities 60
5.19 Shelf-life 61
5.20 Curing agent 62
5.21 Thinner 63
5.22 Thinning 64
5.23 Stirring 65
5.24 Wet film thickness 66
5.25.1 Coated surface before overcoating (contamination) 67
5.25.2 Coated surface before overcoating (paint defects) 68
5.25.3 Coated surface before overcoating (film thickness) 69
5.26 Air temperature 70
5.27 Surface temperature 71
5.28 Dew point 72
5.29 Paint temperature 73
5.30 Ventilation 74
5.31.1 Coated surface, final acceptance (adhesion, cohesion) 75
5.31.2 Coated surface, final acceptance (paint defects) 76
5.31.3 Coated surface, final acceptance (film thickness) 77

3
 6 Indicative guidelines to processes and procedures 79

6.1.1 Open nozzle abrasive blasting (capacity, air requirement) 80
6.1.2 Open nozzle abrasive blasting (hoses, pressure loss) 81
6.2.1 Abrasives, recyclable 82-83
6.2.2 Abrasives, spendable (or non-recyclable) 84
6.2.3 Abrasives, grain size distribution test 85
6.2.4 Abrasives, grain size distribution report 86
6.3.1 Detection of oil and grease, chalk test 87
6.3.2 Detection of oil and grease, hydrocarbon test 88
6.4.1 Preparation grade relations, primary 89
6.4.2 Preparation grade relations, secondary 90
6.5.1 Surface roughness, comparator relations 91
6.5.2 Surface roughness, the R-values defined and illustrated 92
6.6.1 Water soluble-salts, conductivity measurements 93
6.6.2 Water soluble-salts on surface, test method 94
6.6.3 Salts in mineral abrasives, conductivity 95
6.6.4 Salts in mineral abrasives, test method 96
6.7.1 Shopprimers, general characteristics 97-98
6.7.2 Shopprimers, secondary surface preparation 99
6.7.3 Shopprimers, film thickness 100
6.8 pH-Value 101
6.9.1 Taking technical pictures, general guidelines 102
6.9.2 Taking technical pictures, dry docking 103
6.10 Identifying the existing coating 104
6.11 Overcoating intervals 105
6.12 Antifouling compatibility 106
6.13 Impressed current cathodic protection 107
6.14 Tank ventilation 108
6.15 True surface area 109
6.16 Dead volume 110
6.17 Water cleaning, definitions and standards 111-112
6.18.1 DFT rules, general 113
6.18.2 DFT rules, sampling plan 114
6.19 Dry service temperature resistance of paints 115
6.20 Estimating size of affected areas 116
6.21 Corrosion categories (ISO 12944) 117
6.22 Wind scales 118
6.23 Disinfection of tanks 119
6.24 Phonetic alphabet 120

4
 7 Conversion tables and practical references 121
7.1 Common units and conversion factors 122
7.2 Temperature conversion table 123
7.3 Wet film thickness 124
7.4 Volume Solids after thinning 125
7.5 Dew point table 126
7.6 The Mollier (IX) diagram 127
7.7 Airless spray – comparative nozzle designations 128-129
7.8 Airless spray – nozzle diagram 130
7.9 Airless spray – pressure loss in hoses 131
7.10 Surface area estimates – ships 132
7.11 Surface area estimates – ship’s ballast tanks 133
7.12 Surface area estimates – steel plates 134
7.13 Surface area estimates – beams and profiles 135
7.14 Surface area estimates – containers 136
7.15 Surface area estimates – simple shapes 137
7.16 Filters – sieve scale 138
7.17 Calculation of practical paint consumption 139

8 Communications 141

8.1 Hempel worldwide offices 142-143
8.2 Extra – web pages and apps 144

5
1.
Substrates

7
1.1 Substrates

During your work, you may run into a number of different substrates that need to be coated.
Below is a list of the most common ones and a brief discussion on how to treat those.

Ordinary steel types

Construction steel Consider all these types similar
Cast iron Same surface preparation according to ISO 8501-1
Cor-ten steel (weathering steel) Cast iron may exhibit porous surface. Therefore, zinc
silicates are not recommended to be used as primer
Stainless steel types
Muffler grade steel Muffler grade is low quality stainless steel which should
always be painted
Stainless steel
Seawater resistant stainless steel The other types are the same when it comes to painting

Aluminium
Extruded sheets and profiles All types to be treated similarly
Cast Cast Aluminium should always be abrasive blasted

Metal coated steel

Hot-dipped galvanized steel, fresh All unexposed surfaces to be treated similarly.
Weathered surfaces are usually easier to paint
Hot-dipped galvanized steel, weathered
Electrolytic galvanized steel
Zinc-Aluminium galvanized steel

Metallising
Aluminium All surfaces to be treated similarly
Zinc-Aluminium

Concrete
All types Surface preparation and sealing depend on later exposure

When meeting other substrates or in doubt, always consult your Technical Service Department.

8
 1.2 Stainless steel types
Most commonly used stainless steel types are:
Type Alloying elements Common use
Muffler grade 8-12% Chromium Side and roof panels on containers
Stainless steel 18-21% Chromium Chemical tanks and equipment
+8-11% Nickel Side and roof panels on reefer
containers
Panels on transportation equipment
Seawater resistant steel As stainless steel + 2-3% Various minor equipment in stainless
Molybdenum in contact with seawater (filters, etc.)

Surface preparation
Surface preparation is always determined by the environment the item is exposed to.
The more severe the environment, the more thorough the surface preparation required.
For these substrates, ISO 8501-1 does not apply since mill scale nor rust are not present
on the surface. What matters more is to obtain the necessary adhesion of the coating.

Later performance Minimum surface Primer type Total DFT

exposure preparation
Mild Degreasing 1, 2, 3 or 4 80-110 microns
Medium Degreasing 1, 2, 3 or 4 110-150 microns
(+phosphating or
abrasive sweeping)
Severe Abrasive sweeping to Standard epoxy 150-300 microns
a dense profile barrier coating
Immersion Abrasive sweeping to Standard epoxy 250-300 microns
a dense profile barrier coating

Subsequent coats Primer type (recommended)

1. Alkyds Hempel’s Uni Primer 13140
2. Physically drying, Solvent-borne Hempadur 15553
3. Epoxies and Polyurethanes Hempadur 15553
4. Acrylics, Waterborne Hemucryl 18200 or Hemucryl 18032

Note Indicated Hempel primers may not necessarily be found in the Hempel Book.

9
1.3 Aluminium

Most commonly used Aluminium types are:

Type Common use
Extruded sheets and profiles Structural elements, facade panels, side and roof panels on reefer,
aluminium hulls, superstructures, containers and on transportation
equipment
Anodized aluminium Sheets and profiles treated chemically to increase oxide layer
Cast aluminium Various minor equipment

Surface preparation
Surface preparation is always determined by the environment the item is exposed to.
The more severe the environment, the more thorough the surface preparation required.
What matters is to obtain the necessary adhesion of the coating. Anodized aluminium cannot
be painted directly. The anodizing must be removed beforehand by mechanical methods
(abrasive sweeping).

Later performance Minimum surface Primer type Total DFT

exposure preparation
Mild Degreasing 1, 2, 3 or 4 80-110 microns
Medium Degreasing 1, 2, 3 or 4 110-150 microns
(+phosphating or
abrasive sweeping)
Severe Abrasive sweeping to Standard epoxy 150-300 microns
a dense profile barrier system
Immersion Abrasive sweeping to Standard epoxy 250-300 microns
a dense profile barrier system

Subsequent coats Primer type (recommended)

1. Alkyds Hempel’s Uni Primer 13140
2. Physically drying, Solvent-borne Hempadur 15553
3. Epoxies and Polyurethanes Hempadur 15553
4. Acrylics, Waterborne Hemucryl 18200 or Hemucryl 18032

Indicated Hempel primers may not necessarily be found in the Hempel Book.
Note Where possible, avoid copper-containing antifouling paints on immersed areas of
aluminium hulls.

10
 1.4 Galvanizing
Most commonly painted Galvanizing (Metal Coating) types are:
Type Common use
Hot-dipped galvanizing, fresh Structural elements, light poles, handrails, road
guards, side and roof panels on reefer containers
Hot-dipped galvanizing, weathered As fresh, hot-dipped galvanizing
Electrolytic galvanizing Sheets, bolts, and minor equipment
Zinc-Aluminium Galvanizing (Sendzimir) Sheets, facade panels

Surface preparation
Surface preparation is always determined by the environment the item is exposed to. The more
severe the environment, the more thorough the surface preparation required. What matters is
to obtain the necessary adhesion of the coating.

Later performance Minimum surface Primer type Total DFT

exposure preparation
Mild Degreasing1 1, 2, 3 or 4 80-110 microns
Medium Degreasing 1, 2, 3 or 4 110-150 microns
(+phosphating 2 or
abrasive sweeping)
Severe Abrasive sweeping to Standard epoxy 150-300 microns
a dense profile barrier system
Immersion Not recommended

¹ On weathered galvanizing, white rust formation must be removed mechanically.

2
Some trade names for phosphating solutions are LITHOFORM and T-WASH.

Subsequent coats Primer type (recommended)

1. Alkyds Hempel’s Uni Primer 13140
2. Physically drying, Solvent-borne Hempadur 15553
3. Epoxies and Polyurethanes Hempadur 15553
4. Acrylics, Waterborne Hemucryl 18200 or Hemucryl 18032

Note Indicated Hempel primers may not necessarily be found in the Hempel Book.

11
1.5 Metallising

Most commonly painted Metallising types are:

Type Common use
Zinc metallising Structural steel in heavy duty environment
Aluminium metallising Structural steel in heavy duty environment
and exposed to high temperatures
Zinc-Aluminium metallising Structural steel in heavy duty environment

Surface preparation
Metallised surfaces should be overcoated as soon as possible to avoid zinc and aluminium
salts to form from the very active surfaces. If this is fulfilled, no further surface preparation is
required.

If already exposed, high pressure hosing and removal of zinc or aluminium salts by stiff brushes
or in severe cases by abrasive sweeping is required.

Metallised surfaces like zinc silicate surfaces will exhibit popping when overcoated.
An application using the mist coat/flash coat technique is highly recommended.

Later performance exposure Total DFT

Mild 80-110 microns
Medium 110-150 microns
Severe 150-300 microns
Immersion NOT RECOMMENDED

Sealer type (recommended)

For Alkyds NOT RECOMMENDED
For Physically drying, Solvent-borne Hempadur 15553 or preferably flash coat technique
For Epoxies and Polyurethanes Hempadur 15553 or preferably flash coat technique
For Acrylics, Waterborne Hemucryl 18200 or Hempadur 18032

Note Indicated Hempel primers may not necessarily be found in the Hempel Book.

12
 1.6 Concrete
Most commonly painted Metallising types are:
Type Common use
Straight, unreinforced low strength concrete Buildings
Straight, reinforced low strength concrete Buildings, concrete elements, swimming pools,
general purpose
Reinforced high strength concrete Bridges, structural elements in buildings, silos,
water treatment plants

Surface preparation
Concrete surface must be fully cured (minimum 28 days for Portland cement type concrete)
before painting. Uncured concrete is called “green concrete” and is very alkaline.

Surface preparation always depends on later performance exposure. The more severe,
the more thorough surface preparation is required.

Later performance Minimum surface Primer type Total DFT

exposure preparation
Mild 1 1, 2, 3 or 4 60-120 microns
Medium 2 2, 3 or 4 80-150 microns
Severe 3 3 100-200 microns
Immersion 3 3 250-500 microns

Minimum surface preparation

1. Degreasing + dedusting
2. Degreasing + high pressure water jetting or high pressure water
hosing with abrasive addition or abrasive sweeping
3. Degreasing + dry or wet abrasive blasting

Primer/Sealer type (recommended)

1. Alkyds Hempel’s Uni Primer 13140 (thinned 25-30%)
NB: Only for Mild exposure.
2. Physically drying, Solvent-borne Hempel’s Acrylic Primer Sealer 26630
3.
Epoxies and Polyurethanes Hempadur Sealer 05970
4. Acrylics, Waterborne Hemucryl 28820

Note Indicated Hempel primers/sealers may not necessarily be found in the Hempel Book.

13
14
2.
Standards

15
2.1 Introduction
Standards are established to assist in defining procedures and results concerning:

• conditions of surfaces
• selection of methods
• how to carry out methods selected
• the quality of the final result

Standards thus establish the basis on which the control work can be carried out, ensuring that
all parties involved understand the requirements in the same way. In the coating advisers’ field
a number of standards are used. These can be divided into the following groups:

• internationally recognized standards

– should be known to every coating adviser

• national and association standards

– should be known to coating adviser operating in that specific country

• yard standards
– should be known to coating adviser working at the particular yard

Standards, both international and national, can usually be obtained through the National
Bureau of Standards, whereas association standards and yard standards normally are
obtainable at the source only.

The following tables give a survey of internationally recognized standards and some national
standards of interest together with comments.

Remember to be specific when making reference to a standard in the specifications. General

references to standards such as SSPC, ASTM or similar may at times be ambiguous and will
probably lead to discussions once the paint work has been started.

When surveying, only make use of the standards stated in the specification. If another standard
becomes relevant at a later stage, then all involved parties have to agree to its use.

Note Standards are updated at regular intervals.

You should be aware of the version(s) referred to in the painting specification.

16
 2.2 Commonly used standards
Most commonly used standards are:
Checkpoint Standard Comments
Rust grade of new steel ISO 8501-1:2007 Photographic standard plus text

Only raw steel with mill scale/rust

Rust grades A, B, C, D
SSPC US standard
Previously coated surfaces The European Photographic rating from Re 0
Scale of Degree (no breakdown) to Re 9 (complete
of Rating for Anti- breakdown)
corrosive Paints
Quite old but still very much used in
container inspections (2003)
ISO 4628-3:2003 Photographic rating from Ri 0
(no breakdown) to Ri 5 (40-50%)
ASTM D 610 Photographic rating from 10
(no breakdown) to 1 (40-50%
breakdown)
Approximate equivalents are
ISO 4628-3 EuropeanRust ASTM D 610
Scale
Ri 0 Re 0 10
Ri 1 Re 1 9
Ri 2 Re 2 7
Ri 3 Re 3 6
Ri 4 Re 5 4
Ri 5 Re 7 1-2
Oil/grease No recommended See Sections 6.3.1 and 6.3.2
standard available
Blistering/Cracking/Peeling ISO 4628-2, -4, Photographic standard for assessment
-5:2003 of defects

ASTM D 714 and Can be of value in evaluation of existing

family coating condition

17
2.2 Commonly used standards (continued)
Most commonly used standards are:
Checkpoint Standard Comments
Soluble salts on the surface SSPC SP12/NACE Defines three levels for high pressure
No.5 water jetting

See Section 6.17

ISO 8502-6:2006 Bresle sampling method
ISO 8502-9:1998 Conductivity measurements
Preparation grade ISO 8501-1:2007 Photographic standard plus text

See also Section 6.4.1 and Preparation grades St 2, St 3, Sa 1,

6.4.2 Sa 2, Sa 2 ½ , Sa 3

Only visible contaminations (no soluble

salts) are considered. Interpretation
may be necessary on surfaces blasted
with other abrasives than quartz sand
and steel grit/shot

Also on shopprimed steel and

previously coated surfaces,
interpretation is necessary
ISO 8501-2:1994 Text plus photographic examples
of preparation of shopprimed and
previously coated surfaces
ISO 8501-4:2006 Water jetting standard
SSPC-SP series US standard – see Section 6.4.1

Preparation grades SP-5, SP-10, SP-6,

SP-7, SP-3, SP-2, SP-11-Corresponds
approximately to ISO 8501-1 but
differences exist
SPSS, Japan 1975 Other standards comparable to
ISO 8501-2 – See Section 6.4.2
SSPC SP 12/NACE Standard for preparation by high
No.5 pressure water jetting

Deals with physical as well as water

soluble salt cleanliness

18
 2.2 Commonly used standards (continued)
Most commonly used standards are:
Checkpoint Standard Comments
Roughness Rugotest No.3 Comparator type for visual and finger
touch evaluation
See also Section 6.5.1
ISO 8503-1, Includes comparator types for visual
-2:2012 and finger touch evaluation
ASTM D 4417-14 Includes Keane-Tator comparator,
Testex (Replica) tape and Needle gauge
Soluble salts See SSPC SP12/NACE No.5,
ISO 8502-6 and 9

See also Sections 6.6.1/2/3/4

Dust ISO 8502-3:1992 Tape method classifying dust
contamination in 5 ratings

Apply only if specified and limits of

acceptance have been agreed on
beforehand

For containers, also refer to Hempel’s

Code of Practice no. 9501-1
Dry film thickness ISO 2808:2007 This standard only sets demands to
instruments to be used and how to
adjust them
Hempel’s COP Please DO NOT adjust on steel surface
0209-1 with roughness. Use Hempel method in
Section 3.7 instead
ISO 19840:2004 Standards describing adjustment
methods of measurements, sampling
SSPC-PA 2, May 1, plans and decision rules
2004
Use of these standards have to be
specified and agreed upon before
the survey is started

Please observe special requirements

in ISO 19840 regarding steel surface
roughness compensation

19
2.2 Commonly used standards (continued)
Most commonly used standards are:
Checkpoint Standard Comments
Adhesion ISO 2409:2007 Cross cut test, not relevant for dry film
thickness above 250 microns
NOTE: For all methods, coatings ISO 16276-2
must be fully dry and cured Cross cut and X-cut test. Referring to
before the test, preferably 1-2 ISO 2409 for cross cut and defining
months old. X-cut and its evaluation
ASTM D 3359-09 Cross cut and X cut, for dry film
thickness up to 125 microns and above
125 microns, respectively
ISO 4624:2002 Pull-off test method – Lab test

ISO 16276-1:2007 Pull-off test method – Field test

All above test methods are not

recommended for zinc silicates

1 MPa = 1 N/mm² = 10 kgf/cm²

Porosity ASTM D 5162-08 Low voltage wet sponge tester can be
used to detect full penetrating porosity.
NACE RP 0188-99 (9V, 67V and 90V)

ISO 29601:2011 High voltage spark testers are to be

used only on critical jobs where a
completely pore-free surface is a must.
Extent is then 100% and all pores
repaired

Too high voltage may be destructive to

intact, safe and sound coating. Always
agree on voltage, extent and pore
acceptance level beforehand

20
3.
Equipment

21
3.1 Inspection equipment
The primary tools of the Coating Adviser are his eyes, his sense of touch and his mind.

Although electronic instruments and computers are in rapid development, it should always be
remembered that such instruments can only supplement and assist – not replace – careful
observations and logical thinking, planning and recording.

All instruments have their limitations. Their accuracy are only within limits of geometry and
temperature and resultant readings often have to be interpreted.

When correctly adjusted and used, they serve as valuable tools for documentation. On the
other hand, when incorrectly adjusted and used, they lead to wrong conclusions and in worst
cases lead to early failure of the coating.

The equipment used for the job of coating application survey must be carried in a way
that provides a safe movement around during the survey – and protects the often fragile
instruments.

A hard bag approximately 35 x 30 x 15 cm with minimum three compartments (one for papers,
one for fragile instruments and one for hard items) preferably with straps for the shoulder to
carry – to allow free hands operation – is recommended. Such a bag also qualifies as a hand
luggage and you should of course always carry your valuable equipment as hand luggage when
traveling by air.

The equipment available for the inspection of coating job can be conveniently divided
into three groups:

• What you the inspector must have

(Everyday equipment)

• What should be provided if necessary

(Equipment for specific purposes and more precise measurements)

• What can be made available

(When specification calls for it or for example, a failure analysis requires it)

Modern electronic equipment needs frequent adjustments. Follow the guidelines on the
respective pages for electronic DFT gauge (Section 3.7) and electronic temperature gauge
(Section 3.8).

22
3.2 Basic (carry-on) inspection equipment
Equipment Type Comments
DFT gauge Small, electronic Accuracy of these instruments is usually 3-5 %

Keep probe clean and free of wet paint and

iron fillings. Measurements should not be
made too close to edges and corners to avoid
possible reading errors caused by magnetic field
distortions (ISO 19840 recommends 15 mm
distance from edges, corners, holes and welding
seams for the use of magnetic gauges)
WFT gauge Metallic Do not use plastic types and discourage their use

Do not clean gauge with grinding paper or similar

mechanical action

Always clean immediately after each

measurement, for example, with thinner

Measurements should be made immediately

(within seconds) after application

NOT APPLICABLE on shopprimers and be careful

with solvent borne physically drying paints

Sling psychrometer With two fixed Make sure that the wet thermometer is moist
thermometers preferably with distilled water

Sling for two minutes, read (wet thermometer

first), sling for another half a minute, read. Repeat
– stop only when two consecutive readings give
the same results
Dew point calculator Disc type is Consists of two overlapping discs with the same
recommended rotation centre
Surface Mechanical or Both types to be checked with a glass-type
thermometer electronic standard thermometer regularly (at least once
a month)
Flash magnifier 5-10X magnification
pH paper Universal , pH 0-14 Both paper and strips are usable
Knife High quality steel, sharp
Marking chalk Yellow or white Non-grease

23
3.2 Basic (carry-on) inspection equipment (continued)

Equipment Type Comments

Filling knife (spatula) Keep clean and sharp
Camera Digital Higher megapixels are preferred

Do not forget to include the overall view of the

same area when close-up photos are taken

Never distribute photographs or reports with

photographs without the relevant description of
any shot taken

An item of recognizable size included in the

picture helps interpretation

See also Section 6.9.1

Flashlight Powerful illumination types preferably using
(or torch light) halogen or white LED bulb
Angle mirror
Notebook and pen Hempel Notebook Use waterproof pens for writing
(or pencil)
Marking pens Black, red and green Permanent ink, thick felt, ethanol-based types

24
 3.3 On-supply inspection equipment
Equipment Type Comments
DFT gauge Magnetic and A straightforward non-electronic model should be
electronic available for jobs requiring non-spark equipment. A
memory and statistical DFT gauge should be available
for heavy documentation jobs like tank coatings
and containers, which would otherwise be too time
consuming
ISO 8501-1 Surface preparation grades. Being a pictorial standard,
a copy must be available to you in case of disputes
about your evaluation
ISO 8501-2 Preparation grades for other steel surface conditions
than ISO 8501-1, that is, shopprimed surfaces and
old painted surfaces. Note that text descriptions are
important. Photos are mostly examples
Rugotest No. 3 or Surface roughness comparators
ISO 8503 or Keane-
Tator Comparator Being a comparator standard, a set must be available
to you in case of disputes about your evaluation

Usually only the most relevant in your area is

necessary. See also Section 6.5.1
Pocket microscope Magnification approximately 7X with light
Thermohydrograph To be used for monitoring application and curing
(ºC + %RH) with one conditions, for example, at tank coating work – one
week run week’s run

When in use, protect against contamination from

blasting and painting
Cross and X-cut In accordance with ISO 2409/ASTM D 3359
template
Measuring tape Approximately 25 meters

Conductivity meter For evaluation of soluble salts in abrasives and on the
surface
Bresle samplers For evaluation of possible surface contamination

For use see Section 6.6.2 and ISO 8502-6 and -9

standards
Spare parts for Batteries, bulbs, thermometers, pH-paper, marking
personal kits chalk, note books, small plastic bags for samples,
filters for respiratory masks, protective skin cream,
working gloves, replenishment for medicine box

25
3.4 Special equipment
Equipment Type Comments
Adhesion tester Saeberg Adhesion Only to be used if specification calls for it
Tester Coating to be fully dry/cured usually 1-2 months
HATE 108 before testing
Acceptable pull-off strength and type of failures
to be agreed beforehand
High Voltage Spark 0-15 kV Only to be recommended if coating is to be
Tester adjustable DC absolutely pore-free
Inspection thus 100% and all pores to be marked
and repaired
Testing voltage to be agreed beforehand
Too high voltage may be destructive to otherwise
sound coating
Guidelines for Testing Voltage
DFT (microns) Testing Voltage (kV)
<200 DO NOT TEST
200-300 1
300-400 2
400-500 3
500-600 4
600-700 5
700-800 6
800-900 7
900-1000 8
Low Voltage 9V-90V Voltage to be used shall be agreed beforehand
Sponge Tester Acceptable number of pores to be agreed on
be­fore­hand. Only to be used if specification calls
for it
BSRA-AHR Instrument for assessing roughness of ship’s
Roughness Gauge hull bottoms
Requires special training
Surftester ISO 8503 Instrument may assist in the few cases where
a surface roughness comparator may not be
sufficiently precise for estimation of abrasive
blasting roughness
A set of sieves For establishing grain size distribution of abrasives
Standard colour cards BS, RAL, NCS

26
 3.5 Your safety equipment
You are an important person because you are performing an important job. Do what you think
is best to take care of your health and life.

Equipment Type Comments

Safety helmet Any, approved by local authority
Pair of safety goggles Any, approved by local authority
Pair of safety boots/shoes Any, approved by local authority
Boiler suit, coverall
Pair of gloves Avoid touching blast cleaned steel with your
bare hands

Keep gloves clean of dirt, oil and grease

Respiratory protective mask The mask should protect against dust as well
as organic solvent vapours

Always bring a spare cartridge

Tube of skin protective cream
Medicine box A proposal for contents is given on Section 3.6

Safety first
Note For special jobs like tank surveys and tank coating jobs, particular precautions must
be taken and particular equipment must be available and used.

27
3.6 A proposal for a medicine box
For Hempel’s Danish Coating Advisers, our company doctor has composed the following
medicine chest, which should carry only legal types of medicine, that is, no drugs or other
illegal substances.

Some of the names may be Trade Names, but usually chemists are able to identify such,
and offer you identical types.
Medicine Against
1. Antistina Privin Irritation or allergy in the eyes
2. Brentan Creme Skin irritation
3. Ciloprin Ear ache
4. Diproderm Sun rash and allergy
5. Fenoxcillin Infection in throat and lungs
6. Fusidin Wound infection
7. Imodium Diarrhea
8. Chloramphenicol Infection in the eyes
9. Codimagnyl Pain
10. Lucosil Infection of the urinary tract
11. Pronoctan Sleeping pills

Other
2 pcs. Injection syringes
Water repellant plasters

Administration of the medicine is not indicated as it may vary from brand to brand. Hence, it is
important to read and follow the instructions along with the medicine very carefully.

Hempel undertakes no responsibility for any possible non-compliance of the

Note
medicine indicated above with any local regulations prevailing.

28
 3.7 How to adjust your Electronic DFT Gauge
Why?
It is important for interpretation of measurement results that the same procedures and
methods are used. Dry film thickness is the item causing the most disputes about results.
Hempel always recommends the adjustment procedure described below.
Hempel’s working specifications are based on this procedure – Hempel CoP 0902-1.

How?
1. You must have in your possession a smooth steel plate, free from oil, grease and mill scale
and of a thickness not less than 3 mm for general steel and 1.5-2 mm for containers.
If the plate gets rusty, clean it with fine #200 sandpaper.

2. Your calibrated shims must be clean and undamaged. Do not rely completely on
the supplier’s DFT indication. Have the shims measured with a suitable micrometer.

3. Place the DFT gauge probe directly on the smooth steel plate and adjust to zero.

4. Select the shim which is closest to but above the specified DFT. Place this on the steel plate
and adjust the DFT gauge to the indicated shim’s value.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until both adjustments show correctly.

Now the Electronic DFT gauge is correctly adjusted.

Note Check adjustment of electronic

DFT gauge daily or all ways when
changing the measurement range
(DFT)

• Always adjust at the

temperature where
measurements will be taken

• Keep the steel plate clean and

free from rust

• If you attach shims to the plate

with adhesive tape, check
the plate below the shims
every 14 days

29
3.8 How to adjust your electronic temperature gauge

Why?
Misreading of more than 0.5 ºC can severely affect your judgment of the possibility of
condensation on the surface to be painted. Therefore your gauge must show right within this
limit. Electronic gauges tend to drift while glass thermometers are usually stable.

How?
1. Find a correctly showing glass thermometer. The one in your sling psychrometer will usually
fit the purpose.

2. In your office (no wind), place your electronic temperature gauge right next to the dry bulb
thermometer and leave them next to each other for at least five minutes. Compare the
readings and note down the difference.

3. Find a cool or hot place (depending on where you are in the world but always in the shade)
and repeat step 2.

4. If the difference exceeds 0.5 ºC and not more than 1 ºC, you can use your temperature
gauge. Just note down the difference and remember to add or subtract the difference in
your future readings.

5. If the difference exceeds more than 1 ºC, send your gauge to the supplier for adjustment –
and check again on return. You should not try to adjust the instrument yourself unless
a clear instruction is given with the supplier’s “How to Use Manual”.

Note Repeat your check every six months!

30
4.
Checkpoints
4.1 Substrate: Steel
4.1.1 Inspection Phase: Preparation for surface preparation

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Steel surface 5.1.1-5.1.3
Welds 5.2.1-5.2.2
Oil and grease 5.5
Blasting equipment 5.13
Mechanical cleaning equipment 5.14
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6
Quantity of paints 5.17
Paint qualities 5.18
Thinner 5.21
Shelf life 5.19

4.1.2 Inspection Phase: During surface preparation

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Preparation grade 5.8
Surface profile 5.10
Steel surface 5.1.2
Oil and grease 5.5
Water-soluble salts 5.12
Blasting equipment 5.13
Mechanical cleaning equipment 5.14
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6

32
 4.1 Substrate: Steel
4.1.3 Inspection Phase: Finalising surface preparation

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Preparation grade 5.8
Surface profile 5.10
Steel surface 5.1.2
Oil and grease 5.5
Dust 5.11
Water-soluble salts 5.12

4.1.4 Inspection Phase: Preparation for paint application

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Preparation grade 5.8
Dust 5.11
Oil and grease 5.5
Welds 5.2.1-5.2.2
Water-soluble salts 5.12
Painted surface 5.25.1-5.25.3
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Paint temperature 5.29
Application equipment 5.16
Ventilation 5.30
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6
Quantity of paints 5.17
Paint qualities 5.18
Curing agent 5.20
Thinner 5.21
Thinning 5.22
Mixing/stirring 5.23

33
4.1 Substrate: Steel
4.1.5 Inspection Phase: During for paint application

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Paint temperature 5.29
Application equipment 5.16
Ventilation 5.30
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6
Quantity of paints 5.17
Paint qualities 5.18
Curing agent 5.20
Thinner 5.21
Thinning 5.22
Mixing/stirring 5.23
Wet film thickness 5.24

4.1.6 Inspection Phase: Finalising paint application

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Application equipment 5.16

4.1.7 Inspection Phase: Final survey

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Air temperature 5.26
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Painted surface 5.31.1-5.31.3

34
 4.2 Substrate: Concrete
4.2.1 Inspection Phase: Preparation for surface preparation

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Concrete 5.3
Concrete surface 5.4
Oil and grease 5.5
Waterjetting equipment 5.15
Blasting equipment 5.13
Mechanical cleaning equipment 5.14
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6
Quantity of paints 5.17
Paint qualities 5.18
Thinner 5.21
Shelf life 5.19

4.2.2 Inspection Phase: During surface preparation

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Preparation grade 5.9
Concrete surface 5.4
Oil and grease 5.5
Waterjetting equipment 5.15
Blasting equipment 5.13
Mechanical cleaning equipment 5.14
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6

35
4.2 Substrate: Concrete
4.2.3 Inspection Phase: Finalising surface preparation

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Preparation grade 5.9
Concrete surface 5.4
Oil and grease 5.5
Dust 5.11

4.2.4 Inspection Phase: Preparation for paint application

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Preparation grade 5.9
Dust 5.11
Oil and grease 5.5
Painted surface 5.25.1-5.25.3
Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Paint temperature 5.29
Application equipment 5.16
Ventilation 5.30
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6
Quantity of paints 5.17
Paint qualities 5.18
Curing agent 5.20
Thinner 5.21
Thinning 5.22
Mixing/stirring 5.23

36
 4.2 Substrate: Concrete
4.2.5 Inspection Phase: During for paint application

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Dew point 5.28
Paint temperature 5.29
Application equipment 5.16
Ventilation 5.30
Access 5.7
Lighting 5.6
Quantity of paints 5.17
Paint qualities 5.18
Curing agent 5.20
Thinner 5.21
Thinning 5.22
Mixing/stirring 5.23
Wet film thickness 5.24

4.2.6 Inspection Phase: Finalising paint application

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Application equipment 5.16

4.2.7 Inspection Phase: Final survey

Checkpoints Checkpoint No.

Air temperature 5.26
Surface temperature 5.27
Painted surface 5.31.1 -5.31.3

37
38
5.
Individual
checkpoints

39
5.1.1 Steel surface
Why?
Certain “contaminants” may not be sufficiently removed or cleaned out by the surface
preparation specified:

• Salts
• Pittings
• Anti-spatter Agents

Salts are not removed by mechanical methods. Their presence will cause osmotic blistering of
the coating, reduced adhesion and under-rusting. Pittings invariably contain salts, see above.
Also pitted areas receive less DFT when sprayed, causing premature rusting through.
Anti-spatter agents may be incompatible with the coating, resulting in adhesion failure
and osmotic blistering later on with peeling and premature rusting/fouling as a result.

Corrective actions
Salts must be removed by water. Recommend high pressure fresh water hosing or water hosing
at the same time using stiff brushes. For excessive pittings the water hosing must be done
during or after the pits have been cleaned up. Recommend wet abrasive blasting or dry blasting
followed by high pressure hosing followed by dry blasting again.

Water-soluble anti-spatter agents must be removed by water. Other types must be removed
by solvent cleaning.

Preventive actions
Storage of items under cover or a shelter will limit the amount of salts on the surface whilst
proper fresh water cleaning before the material is used will remove any salts on the surface.

For pittings, advise manufacturers to avoid using pitted, old steel in high performance areas.
For refurbishment / dry dockings recommend to include a freshwater hosing /wet blasting
in the working procedure as described above under Corrective actions.

Discourage the use of anti-spatter agents or recommend a cleaning procedure as described

above under Corrective actions.

How to detect?
Visually.
ISO 8501-1.

Salts are difficult to detect. Usually extended exposure to marine or industrial outdoors
environment will mean salt contamination.

For CARGO TANK COATINGS and other critical jobs consult the specification and Sections
6.6.1/2/3

40
 5.1.2 Steel surface
Why?
Three additional potential defects of a steel surface are important:

• Laminations
• Sharp edges
• Dents / burrs

None of these are removed or smoothened sufficiently by abrasive blasting.

Laminations are over-rolled steel from the milling process. A crevice with mill scale and
contaminants are formed below the surface. Paint cannot penetrate, but water at a later stage
will have plenty of time to do so, causing premature corrosion.

Sharp edges and the contour of dents and burrs produce too low paint film thickness and thus
cause premature corrosion as well.

Corrective actions
Laminations must be ground off, in severe cases followed by re-welding. NOTE: Some
laminations are difficult to see on raw plates, therefore check also after abrasive blasting has
been carried out.

Sharp edges must be rounded off by grinding. Dents and burrs must be smoothened by
grinding.

Areas may require stripe-coat.

Preventive actions
Laminations do occur, even on well rolled plates, but are more frequent from poor steel rolling
mills. You cannot do much about it, except correct as given above.

Some sharp edges may arise from poorly maintained cutting tools. Talk to QC about such.

Dents and burrs may be caused by careless handling of plates or malpractice. Again talk to QC
about it. For tank coatings do not accept markings.

How to detect?
Visually, with your knife or spatula and by finger touch. Unless otherwise specified, edges
should not feel sharp by the touch of your finger and be without irregularities
As-rolled edges are normally OK.

ISO has developed a standard for steel surface condition in connection with coatings. This
standard is ISO 8501-3.

41
5.1.3 Steel surface
Why?
The general condition of the steel surface may be different from that being the background for
the specification, thus influencing the specified surface preparation’s possibility of achieving
the expected result:

• Millscale
• Rustgrade
• Type and condition of shopprimer

Mill scale is more noble than steel. If insufficiently removed it will create galvanic corrosion
between steel and mill scale causing the mill scale to peel off together with any coating on top
of it.

Knowledge of the rust grade is necessary to select correct picture for later assessment of the
preparation grade.

If shopprimer is not correctly selected and applied (See Section 6.7.1/.2/.3) saponification,
flaking or excessive salting below the paint film may occur causing blistering, peeling and
premature corrosion/fouling of the coating on top.

Corrective actions
Mill scale must be removed by a suitable method, generally abrasive blasting, to a preparation
grade necessary for the coating system and later exposure environment.

Preventive actions
Report about the conditions observed so that these conditions can be taken into
considerations in the future.

How to detect?
Visually.
ISO 8501-1.
Yard/Contractor’s shoppriming specification.
Dry film thickness gauge.

DFT of a shopprimer cannot be measured directly on abrasive blasted steel.

Note See Sections 6.7.1/2/3 for guidance.

42
 5.2.1 Welds - Contamination
Why?
Welds can be contaminated from the welding process itself. Important checks for this are:

• Spatters
• Slag
• Smoke
• Burn-back

Spatters are not removed totally by abrasive blasting. The contour of a spatter will produce both
a too low DFT and a shading effect upon paint spraying. Slag is formed because of the high
temperature during welding. Certain mechanical cleaning methods e.g. wire brushing do not
remove slag. Smoke, especially from alkaline electrodes may deposit an alkaline water soluble
substance that can cause osmosis. Burn-back means the applied shopprimer or other coat
deteriorates along or on the rear side of welded areas. The primer loses its adhesion, is partly
destroyed, charred and oxidized, which may require more extensive surface preparation than
specified.

Corrective actions
Spatter must be removed by chipping or grinding.

Slag must be removed by the use of a chipping hammer.

If alkaline smoke has been exposed to open weather more than one month, no correction is
required. Otherwise high pressure hose the welds carefully with fresh water.

Burn-back should be cleaned carefully to min St 3, ISO 8501-1, if no better surface preparation
is specified.

Preventive actions
Excessive spatter is often caused by the weld operators working too fast and with wrong weld
parameters. You cannot instruct them, but talk to paint foreman or QC-Department about
consequences for surface prep workers.

Welding in shopprimer may be the cause of porosity, when doing MIG/MAG welding. Grinding to
reduce DFT or remove shopprimer at weld lines may be a solution. Some manual weld positions
(vertical) will cause irregular welds.

Slag should be removed by the welder. It is an agreed part of his job. Burn-back and smoke is
not possible to prevent.

How to detect?
Visual and by touch.
ISO has developed a standard for steel surface condition in connection with coatings.
This standard is ISO 8501-3.
43
5.2.2 Welds - Irregularities
Why?
Welds are irregular areas along more even areas. Important checks for suitability to be
protected are:

• Irregularities
• Undercutting
• Porosity

Irregularities, i.e. wire residues, protrusions etc. are not removed totally by abrasive blasting.
The contours may produce a local low dry film thickness upon paint application resulting in
premature local rusting and blistering on submerged areas.

Undercutting produce a deep sharp edged valley in the steel next to the weld. Similar to
irregularities this cannot easily be covered with sufficient paint.

Porosities may contain mill scale and weld flux residues that are not cleaned by mechanical
methods incl. blasting. Paint cannot penetrate and cover such porosity.

Corrective actions
Irregularities must be ground smooth, so that they do not feel sharp or protruding, by feeling
with your finger, or as specified in the working specification.

Undercutting must be ground smooth or welded again if too deep.

Porosity must be removed by grinding, or welded again. If later exposure is of low corrosivity,
a suitable filler is acceptable.

Preventive actions
Excessive undercutting, porosity and irregularities are often caused by the weld operators
working too fast and with wrong weld parameters. You cannot instruct them, but talk to paint
foreman or QC-Department about consequences for surface prep workers.

Welding in shopprimer may be the cause of porosity, when MIG/MAG welding. Grinding to
reduce DFT or remove shopprimer at weld lines may be a solution. Some manual weld positions
(vertical) will cause irregular welds.

How to detect?
Visual and by touch.
ISO has developed a standard for steel surface condition in connection with coatings.
This standard is ISO 8501-3.

At tank coating jobs it may be advantageous to have the welds blasted before the
Note inspection of the steel surface. Some porosity and under-cutting do not show up
until after blasting.
 5.3 Concrete
Why?
Unlike steel, the “inside” condition of concrete may influence coating performance.
Before coating – especially with high performance coatings – the concrete should be:

• Fully cured
• Free from water & capillary action
• Sufficiently strong

Uncured concrete is strongly alkaline, which may saponify especially alkyd coatings, leading to
poor adhesion and peeling.

Too much water – more than 4 % w/w – lead to loss of adhesion and consequently to peeling.
Subsoil capillary action may continuously attract water above this level. A weak concrete may
have too low internal strength to carry a heavy duty coating leading to flaking in the concrete
and peeling during service.

Corrective actions
If uncured you will have to wait until the concrete is cured. Any paint applied should be removed
by blasting.

Normal Portland cement cures in 28 days at 20°C/68°F.

If water content is in excess of 4 % w/w or capillary action is discovered contact Hempel for
advice in each separate situation. If the strength of the concrete is not up to specification
contact Hempel for advice in each separate situation.

Preventive actions
Advise contractor to plan paint application according to the time specified for full cure of the
cement used for the concrete.

Inform the contractor about findings of too high water content, any discovered capillary action
or too low strength and ask him to take action.

How to detect?
Record date of casting and compare to date of painting. Casting date can be obtained from
contractor.

Special equipment is necessary for measurement of water content. Professional contractors

should have such equipment available, otherwise contact Hempel. Capillary action can be
revealed by placing a rubber matt on the surface for 1 day. After removal, there should not be
humid concrete underneath.

Concrete strength may be determined using the pull-off test method. Acceptable strength must
be specified beforehand.
45
5.4 Concrete surface
Why?
Certain “contaminants” may not be sufficiently removed or cleaned out by the surface
preparation specified:

• Laitance
• Form oil
• Efflorescence (White Exudation)

Laitance is a cementitious sludge layer often formed on concrete surfaces during casting. It
has low internal strength and easily peels together with any paint on it.

Form oil (slip agent) is used in casting forms to allow easy removal after the casting of the
concrete. It has properties similar to oil and grease, see Section 5.5

Efflorescence means water soluble salts brought to the surface by water moving from the
interior of the concrete. It has the effect of salts, see Section 5.1.1

Corrective actions
Laitance should be removed by high pressure water hosing with abrasive addition or high
pressure water jetting. Small areas may be mechanically cleaned.

Form oil is removed by emulsifier cleaning. The concrete surface should be saturated with fresh
water before applying the emulsifier. The latter to be removed again with fresh water hosing.

Efflorescence should be removed by high pressure hosing (minimum 150 bars). Small areas
may be mechanically cleaned or hydrochloric acid treated (Careful with this!).

Preventive actions
All three occurrences above are usually related to the manufacturing and casting procedures,
decided upon by the contractor.

Make sure you notify him of the observations including the consequences for extra surface
preparation needed.

How to detect?
Visually.

For laitance also scraping with a good knife.

For form oils also “Water-on-Goose” test.

46
 5.5 Oil and grease
Why?
Oil and grease are not removed by mechanical surface preparation methods. It will very likely
contaminate recycled abrasives and tools and as a consequence will contaminate further areas
when used.

Oil and grease prevent adhesion of subsequent coat to be applied, later resulting in poor
mechanical resistance and peeling of the paint film.

Corrective actions
Areas affected must be degreased before continuing. Large areas should be cleaned with
emulsifier followed by high pressure fresh water hosing, alternatively stiff brushes and flushing
with fresh water.

Spots may be cleaned with solvent and clean rags.

Preventive actions
Locate sources of oil spillage. Influence repair of leakage and manners of the working force,
that is, no spillage and oily boots.

How to detect?
Visually, often appears as dark spots.

“Water-on-Goose” test.

Chalk-test:
Chalk will often slide on oil, leaving much less of a chalk line than on surrounding oil-free
surface. See Section 6.3.1 and 6.3.2

47
5.6 Lighting
Why?
Improper lighting makes it impossible for the operator to see the area and the surface to be
treated properly and therefore to achieve a proper result of the job. Also the inspector will not
be able to check the outcome satisfactorily.

The result will be insufficient surface preparation and/or insufficient film formation and
extremely variable dry film thickness of the coating system leading to mill scale and rust
residues, locally insufficient roughness of the substrate, pinholes in the paint film in some
places and solvent retention and sagging in others.

The final consequence will be early rusting and fouling, low chemical resistance and poor
aesthetical appearance.

Proper lighting means being able to read normal newspaper print at any area of the
construction to be treated. Local shadows should be avoided.

Corrective actions
Rearrange lighting to areas affected to fulfill above requirement. Inspect treated substrate and
retreat areas not acceptable.

In case of excessive film thickness, sagging or severe pinholing remove affected paint by
grinding before repainting.

Preventive actions
Rearrange lighting to fulfill above requirement.

Optimum lighting is often achieved by a combination of stationary general lighting for safety and
orientation, combined with moveable lighting for precise adjustment to the area being treated
at any time.

How to detect?
Visually.

Lighting sources should be protected with replaceable protective sheets, for example,
Note
clear plastic for protection against spray dust.

Low voltage lamps are to be used in confined spaces.

It is strongly advised to form an impression of safety of lighting at the same time also
for your own safety.

48
 5.7 Access
Why?
Improper access to a surface to be painted makes it impossible for the operator to achieve
a proper result of the job and for the inspector to evaluate the outcome.

The result will be insufficient surface preparation and/or insufficient film formation and
extremely variable dry film thickness of the coating system leading to mill scale and rust
residues, insufficient roughness of the substrate, pinholes in the paint film in some places
and solvent retention and sagging in others.

The final consequence will be early rusting and fouling, low chemical resistance and poor
aesthetical appearance.

Proper access means a distance of approx. 30 cm (1 foot) from the working tool to the
substrate at any location of the construction.

Corrective actions
Rearrange access to area affected to fulfill above requirement. Inspect treated substrate and
retreat areas not acceptable. In case of excessive film thickness, sagging or severe pinholing
remove affected paint by grinding before repainting.

Preventive actions
Rearrange access to fulfill above requirement to distance to substrate surface. Extension poles
for spraying may be used, but remember that the painter should have full visual contact to
all surfaces to be painted, that is, only to be used on smooth surfaces like ships hulls and oil
tanks exterior.

How to detect?
Visually.

It is strongly advised to form an impression of safety of scaffolding or staging and

Note
other types of access at the same time also for your own safety.

49
5.8 Preparation grade – steel
Why?
Insufficient cleanliness (preparation grade) will result in mill scale and rust residues.

Mill scale residues are more noble than steel and will cause galvanic corrosion. As the steel
corrodes, the mill scale residues will flake-off together with any coating applied on top of it.

Rust is mechanically weak and porous and may flake thus taking with it any coating applied on
top of it. It is also sensitive to mechanical impact.

Old rust may contain water-soluble salts and may result to blistering of the coating due to
osmosis.

Corrective actions
Areas insufficiently cleaned must be re-blasted or mechanically cleaned to the standard
specified in the working specification.

Pitted areas which may contain salts may need a fresh water wash before blasting.
See also Section 5.1.1

Preventive actions
Instruct operators of proper preparation grade, i.e. set standard. Evaluate if working conditions
(light, access) are suitable for the work.

How to detect?
Visual.

ISO 8501-1 (for abrasive blast cleaning and mechanical cleaning).

The pictures in the older standard SIS 055900-1967 can still be used for evaluation.
Other standards are used such as SSPC (USA) and SPSS (Japan).

ISO 8501-4 (for water jetting).

See also Sections 6.4.1 and 6.4.2

For repair of zinc-rich paints and heavy duty systems by mechanical cleaning, SSPC-SP 11 is
recommended.

50
 5.9 Preparation grade – concrete
Why?
Insufficient cleanliness (preparation grade) will result in laitance, efflorescence, form oil or
contaminants being left on the surface.

Laitance is a weak cement sludge layer formed on the surface during casting. Due to its low
strength it will peel off together with any coating applied on top of it.

Efflorescence are salts coming from the inside of the concrete. It will cause blistering of the
coating due to osmosis.

Form oil or other slip agents are used to ease the removal of casting forms after the casting.
They act like oil and grease impairing adhesion of the coating.

Corrective actions
Areas insufficiently cleaned for laitance must be cleaned once again using a method which can
remove laitance, for example, abrasive blasting, mechanical cleaning, and water jetting or acid
treatment.

Efflorescence must be removed by mechanical cleaning (small areas only) or by high pressure
hosing.

Form oil must be removed by degreasing.

Preventive actions
Instruct operators of proper preparation grade, i.e. set standard. Evaluate if working conditions
(light, access) are suitable for the work.

How to detect?
Visually.

Acid treatment involves the use of strong acids which are severe etching solutions
Note
giving off fumes as well.

Proper disposal of acid solutions must be followed.

It is recommended to avoid acid treatment whenever possible.

51
5.10 Surface profile
Why?
Three factors of blasting profile are important:

• Height
• Shape
• Density

Too low height, too round shape and lower density prevents proper adhesion of the coating to
be applied. Consequence will be poor adhesion resulting in sensitivity to mechanical impact
and peeling to steel, possible even spontaneous peeling and thus early corrosion.

Too high profile may lead to profile peaks protruding the coating resulting in early pinpoint
rusting.

Corrective actions
Areas showing too low height, too round profile or lesser density must be re-blasted with
coarser abrasive (too low profile), grit type abrasive (too round) or just re-blasted (too low
density).

Areas with too high profile should be given one extra coat of thickness corresponding to
difference in roughness Rz-value between specified and observed roughness.

Preventive actions
For spendable abrasives, replace these with coarser abrasives (too low profile), with finer
abrasives (too coarse profile), with angular abrasives (too round abrasive) and advise blasting
foreman of required density (too low density).

For recycling abrasives, check that working mix is topped up frequently. If this does not help,
follow guidelines above on spendable abrasives.

How to detect?
Visually with comparators according to specification, for example:

• ISO 8503 Comparator

• Rugotest No. 3 Comparator
• Keane-Tator Comparators

More information are found in Sections 6.5.1 and 6.5.2

52
 5.11 Dust
Why?
Although paint adheres well to dust, the dust does not adhere to the surface. This results in
loss of adhesion of the coating and further makes it more sensitive to mechanical impact which
eventually leads to early failure, for example, corrosion.

Corrective actions
Areas insufficiently cleaned must be cleaned again. Using clean dry compressed air may be
a possibility outdoors, while vacuum cleaning will be necessary in confined spaces.

Preventive actions
Instruct operators of proper de-dusting requirement, that is, set the standard. Evaluate if
working conditions (light, access) are still suitable for work.

How to detect?
Visual and by touch.

Use of a white cloth will assist easy detection.

Tape test:
This test normally will show some residues.

The amount acceptable must be agreed upon beforehand.

Please also refer to the standard ISO 8502-3.

53
5.12 Water-soluble salts
Why?
Water-soluble salts are not removed by mechanical surface preparation methods.
On the contrary they may be embedded into the surface.

Water-soluble salts under the paint film will be able to absorb water through the paint film due
to osmosis and this will lead to blistering and penetration of corrosion products.

Corrective actions
Salts must be removed by water. Recommend high pressure fresh water hosing or water hosing
at the same time using stiff brushes. Always from up towards down.

Preventive actions
To protect substrates against salts, give advice to store under shelter or to establish
a procedure of fresh water cleaning before it is taken into manufacture.

How to detect?
Salts are difficult to detect. Usually, extended exposure to marine or industrial exterior
environment will mean likely salt contamination.

Bresle sampling + Conductivity measurement according to either The Hempel Method or

alternatively ISO 8502-6 as briefly described below:

Soluble salts on the surface are dissolved in distilled water, using a Bresle sampler.
The amount of dissolved salts are measured by a conductivity gauge.

For details on procedure, refer to Section 6.6.2 or ISO 8502-6.

For CARGO TANK COATINGS and other critical jobs always consult the specification
and Sections 6.6.1/2/3

54
 5.13 Blasting equipment
Why?
Insufficient capacity or dimensions of abrasive blasting equipment will result in either
insufficient production speed, that is, delays or insufficient preparation grade and/or surface
profile at the required production speed.

Lack of oil and water separators between compressor and blasting pot may result in oil drops
hitting the blasted surface and water impairing the flow of abrasive through the blasting hose.

All equipment should be fully functional and appear well maintained to avoid stoppage once the
job has been started and thus delays due to break down.

Corrective actions
Recommend increased compressor capacity with extra compressors if necessary. Blasting
hoses should be as short as possible and minimum 1 1/4 inch internal diameter.

Oil and water separators should be fitted. If not present, recommend to fit them.

If capacity cannot be increased, check and recommend correct dimensions of existing

equipment and have new works-schedule calculated for approval by owner’s representative.

Preventive actions
If contractor/yard is inexperienced with the kind of job at hand, discuss with him
the requirements, particularly the ones related to the quality of the surface.

How to detect?
Visually.

For guidelines on capacity and consumption, nozzle sizes and air requirements, see Section
6.1.1 and 6.1.2

55
5.14 Mechanical cleaning equipment
Why?
Insufficient capacity or condition of mechanical cleaning equipment will result in either
insufficient production speed i.e. delays, or insufficient preparation grade and/or surface profile
at the required production speed.

Lack of oil and water separators between compressor and equipment may result in oil drops
being deposited on the surface.

Bristles of wire brushes should be sharp and straight to avoid polishing of the surface.

Grinding discs and sanding paper should be of suitable grain size for the job at hand and not
clogged with paint residues and debris.

All equipment should be fully functional and appear well maintained, to avoid stoppage once
the job has been started and thus delays due to break down.

Corrective actions
Oil and water separators should be fitted. If not present, recommend to fit them. Replace
unsuitable or worn out equipment: wire brushes; grinding discs; sanding paper.

Preventive actions
If contractor/yard is inexperienced with the kind of job at hand, discuss with him the
requirements, particularly the ones related to the quality of the surface.

How to detect?
Visually.

Note The use of chipping hammers should always be followed by grinding to remove burrs.

56
 5.15 Water jetting equipment
Why?
Insufficient capacity or condition of water jetting equipment will result in either insufficient
production speed, that is, delays, or insufficient preparation grade at the required production
speed.

Leakage, too low pressure or wrong execution technique will result in insufficient removal of
rust, contaminants or old paint from the surfaces.

All equipment should be fully functional and appear well maintained, to avoid stoppage once
the job has been started and thus delays due to break down.

Corrective actions
Leakage should be repaired. Equipment too small for keeping specified pressure during
operation should be replaced.

Nozzles for the hosing should correspond to equipment and be replaced if worn.

Preventive actions
If contractor/yard is inexperienced with the kind of job at hand, discuss with him the
requirements, particularly the ones related to the quality of the surface.

Also point out the importance of correct distance during execution.

How to detect?
Visually.

See Section 6.17

Water pressure drops very quickly, when the water has left the water jetting nozzle.
Note
Correct distance to obtain full effect is therefore 5-10 cm only.

57
5.16 Paint application equipment
Why?
Insufficient capacity and/or wrong type of application equipment will result in uneven and/or
insufficient film formation of the paint film.

A too low capacity may not be able to atomize the paint properly, resulting in fingering, slow
drying, sagging and the painters over-thinning the paint.

Wrong application equipment may result in too low film thickness of e.g. high-build
and solvent-free paints and also in poor wetting of the substrate and pinholes.

All equipment should be fully functional and appear well maintained, including clean filters and
unworn nozzles to avoid stoppage once the job has started and thus delays due to break down.

Corrective actions
Recommend suitable size of equipment, pressure and capacity. Reduce spray hoses to
minimum length and recommended 3/8 inch internal diameter hoses. Position conventional
spray pots for zinc silicate at the same level as sprayer. Check special requirements that may
be stated in APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS.

Preventive actions
If contractor/yard in inexperienced with the kind of job at hand, discuss with his relevant
responsible person(s) the requirements, particularly the ones related to achieving correct film
thickness and correct film formation.

How to detect?
Visually.

58
 5.17 Quantity of paints
Why?
The available quantity of paints are important to know for two reasons:

• If quantity of any paint in the specification is insufficient, the specified film thickness of that
coat cannot be achieved and therefore the specification i.e. the agreement cannot be kept

• In order to establish paint consumption for the job, and thus to be able to have the required
consumption agreed, it is necessary to know the amount of paint available at the start

In certain situations, for example, some dry dockings, final area estimates cannot be made until
after the ship has entered dry dock. Final requirement for paint quantities cannot be calculated
before areas have been estimated.

Corrective actions
Extra paint if necessary should be ordered immediately, Hempel’s representative on site will be
able to assist upon written request. Remember that a delivery period can exist.

If the necessary paint cannot be supplied on time, find out which paints are available on site
and in which quantities, and contact the Hempel sales person for a possible change
in specification.

Preventive actions
Lack of sufficient paint quantity may be due to wrong estimate of deterioration and breakdown.

Accurate reporting of the vessel condition will improve estimates, and may help improve
the accuracy of future estimates.

How to detect?
Visually.

Counting of cans and drums of each paint, curing agent and thinner.

59
5.18 Paint, qualities
Why?
The painting specification specifies certain qualities of paint in a certain sequence. To obtain
the Intended performance properties of the painting specification, and these properties may
not be completely known to you, the qualities and the sequence must be kept.

Applying incorrect qualities is a violation of the agreement between the parties involved and
may result in a performance different from that designed.

Corrective actions
If already applied paint is incompatible with the coating system or the performance
requirements, it must be removed completely, even if this causes damage to underlying correct
coatings. Blasting should be recommended on larger areas while grinding may suffice on small
(a few square meters) areas. Avoid using paint removers.

If paint has been applied that is compatible, contact Hempel’s representative for possible
consequences of this change of specification. If not yet applied, return to stock and replace
with correct quality.

Preventive actions
Storekeeper should know the specification in order to hand out correct paint. If necessary give
him a copy of the specification.

Check that correct qualities are issued, especially before any coating application takes place.

How to detect?
Visually.

Compare labels on cans with the specification.

60
 5.19 Shelf-life
Why?
Paints are “living” materials just like ourselves. When they get old in the can several things
can happen. Some are physical, for example, settling. Others are chemical, causing chemical
reactions to take place in the can rendering the properties different from those intended, for
example gelling in silicate binders.

Physical changes can usually be remedied by intensive stirring of the paint whereas chemical
changes cannot be remedied.

Shelf life of Hempel paints is indicated only if 1 year or less at 25°C, when stored under cover
in original unopened cans. If no specific limits are given one-component paints should not be
stored more than 5 years (25°C). Correspondingly two-component paints should not be stored
more than 3 years from date of production.

If paints are very old, their condition may need to be verified by Hempel before use.

Corrective actions
If the Product Data Sheet specifically states a shorter shelf life, the paint may need to be
discarded. If so have it removed from the work site, so that other painters may not accidentally
use it. If the paint is gelled or discolored discard it and remove it.

Otherwise, try to stir up the paint. If this succeeds and the paint thereafter is sprayable without
extra thinning, forms a proper film at specified DFT and dries/cures properly it may be used.

Remember to replenish discarded paint.

Preventive actions
Emphasize the principle of “First in – First out“. Also store paint under cool conditions, 15-25 °C.

How to detect?
Visually.

Reading the batch numbers and consulting the Product Data Sheet.

Hempel does not generally accept to take back paints with exceeded shelf life.
Note Hempel’s General Conditions of Sale, Delivery and Service refers.

61
5.20 Curing agent
Why?
The curing agent reacts with the base in two component paints to form the paint film and give
the designated properties.

The correct curing agent must therefore be used, added to the base in the correct proportions
and they must be uniformly mixed together.

If incorrectly selected, added or mixed, the paint will either partially cure or not cure at all.

Thereby its resistance to mechanical impact/abrasion, its water resistance and its resistance
to chemicals will be reduced or even lost, resulting in peeling of subsequent coats, softening
and severe wear, dissolution in chemicals supposed to be resisted, and prematurely breakdown
with corrosion and/or fouling as consequence.

Corrective actions
Paint that has been wrongly mixed must not be used.

Do not try to adjust wrong mixing ratio. The chance of reaching the correct ratio is too little.
Too much curing agent is as bad as too little.

Mark wrongly mixed paint clearly and have it removed from site immediately so that others will
not use it by mistake.

If already applied, the areas must be re-blasted and repainted.

Preventive actions
Go through the Product Data Sheet with the foreman to make sure he is aware of the correct
curing agent for each two-component paint and the correct mixing ratio.

Ensure only to issue sets of the two component paints and try to mix only whole sets.

How to detect?
Visually.

Refer to Product Data Sheet.

62
 5.21 Thinner
Why?
When supplied, the paint contains the correct types and amounts of solvents that secure
proper film formation and drying when applied at or around 20°C.

If further thinning is required then the correct thinner must be used. Using the wrong thinner
may lead to slow drying, solvent retention, phase separation, crystallization of the paint during
application or drying. It may also result in gelling or lumping (binder kick out).

Problems may be caused with application – with filters and nozzles blocking due to gelling,
crystallization or lumping.

Other defects may not be seen immediately, but the paint may dry slowly and/or remain soft.
Phase separation and crystallizing will impair film formation and reduce adhesion of further
coats to be applied. The result will be peeling of the upper coats and/or premature rusting/
fouling.

Corrective actions
Paint that has been thinned with the wrong thinner and shows gelatinization or lumping must
not be used. Do not try adding the right thinner to correct it. Mark such wrongly thinned paint
clearly and have it removed from site immediately so that others will not use it by mistake.

Paint that has been thinned with the wrong thinner but looks all right must not be used until you
have received approval from your Hempel representative on-site.

If already applied your Hempel representative must approve the coat before further coats are
applied. If approval is not given, the areas must be re-blasted and repainted.

Preventive actions
Go through the Product Data Sheet with the foreman to make sure he is aware of the correct
thinner for each paint. Avoid wrong (or unknown) thinner in the vicinity of the working site.

How to detect?
Visually.

Refer to Product Data Sheet.

63
5.22 Thinning
Why?
When supplied, the paint is containing the types and amount of solvents that secure proper
evaporation and film formation, when applied at 20°C and according to the Product Data
Sheet. Further thinning may be required under certain conditions.

Too little thinning will result in fingering during spray application and poor flow of the paint film
due to high viscosity resulting in over thickness (high consumption) and/or poor film formation,
solvent retention and long drying times. The film will appear uneven and have reduced chemical
and corrosion resistance.

Too much thinning will give the paint a low viscosity, resulting in sagging and running and too
low film thickness, the consequence being an uneven surface and premature corrosion or
fouling due to the film thickness being too low in relation to specification.

Corrective actions
Adjust the thinning ratio to that required for proper application: Do not exceed ratio indicated
in the Product Data Sheet or in the Painting Specification. In case extra thinning beyond this is
required, obtain approval from your Hempel representative. Too heavily thinned paint can be
“mixed” with un-thinned paint.

Preventive actions
When correct thinning ratio has been established, make sure the paint foreman is informed
about it.

How to detect?
Visually.

Refer to Product Data Sheet.

64
 5.23 Stirring
Why?
Before application the paint must be completely uniform throughout the can. Otherwise the
paint film will not have the correct composition on the surface, and problems may also arise
with blockage of nozzles.

Incorrect paint film composition will lead to insufficient curing, poor visual appearance,
premature corrosion and fouling.

Particularly paints with heavy particles, like zinc-rich paints and anti-fouling paints
and solvent-free or solvent-less paints need a very good initial stirring to make sure
that the paints are fully uniformly mixed.

Corrective actions
If not yet applied, continue stirring until completely uniform. If already being applied, stop
application. For two-component paints, including zinc-rich paints, re-blasting should be
recommended.

For one-component paints, including anti-fouling paints, the coat should be disregarded as
counting in the specification, but removal is normally not necessary. Thus an extra coat will
have to be considered.

Preventive actions
Specify mechanical stirrers and survey the stirring.

How to detect?
Visually.

Use a paint stick or stirrer.

65
5.24 Wet film thickness
Why?
Wet film thickness (WFT) is directly related to resulting dry film thickness, when thinning ratio
is known.

Thus too low WFT will result in too low DFT and too high WFT will result in too high DFT.
Too low WFT results in poor flowing together and thus poor film formation.

Too high WFT results in solvent retention, prolonged drying time and minimum overcoating
interval, overconsumption of and related risk of shortage of paint.

Please also see Section 5.31.3, for further consequences on long term performance.

Corrective actions
If too low, build up film thickness to that specified by applying an extra coat. Make sure that
a uniform pinhole-free film is achieved.

If too high, evaluate if a longer drying time/overcoating interval is needed change overcoating /
drying times in the specification to reflect this. It is important to follow up to ensure that these
modified times are adhered to.

For shopprimers, a too high film thickness is detrimental to cohesion. For zinc silicates,
the effect is also similar. In these cases abrasive sweeping/blasting is necessary when later
exposure is severe atmospheric or immersion.

If possible adjust total film thickness of anticorrosive system and possible antifouling system by
lower film thickness of the following coats.

Preventive actions
Make sure that equipment is in working order. Check air supply for leaks and if thinning is
necessary ensure that thinning is as specified. Painters must have their WFT gauge and be
instructed to use them – and be informed about the correct WFT.

Subdivide areas to be painted and distribute paint as relevant for each subdivided area.
Frequent check of WFT and control of consumption will help.

How to detect?
Wet Film Thickness gauge.

Area / Consumption calculation and control.

66
 5.25.1 Coated surface before overcoating
Why?
Contamination of the coated surface may hinder adhesion of the coat to be applied:

• Moisture
• Salts
• Oil spillage
• Foreign matter and/or dust

Moisture can not always be seen, why the dew point must be known.

Salt contamination may occur during foggy periods where objects are close to a marine
environment or heavy industry. It will cause osmotic blistering of the coating, losing adhesion,
causing peeling and premature corrosion/fouling. Oil/grease spillage as well as other foreign
matter/dust prevents adhesion, causing peeling and consequently also premature corrosion/
fouling.

Corrective actions
Moisture can be avoided by heating the object or the moisture content of the air can be
lowered by dehumidification.

Salt contamination must be removed using clean fresh water. High pressure fresh water hosing
is recommended, alternatively use water hosing combined with the use of stiff brushes.

Oil/grease must be removed on larger areas by emulsion cleaning. Small spots may be removed
by clean rags and thinner.

Never use alkaline cleaners or other chemicals at this stage of curing/drying. Other loose
foreign matter and dust must be wiped off. Scrape and clean if the dust has settled firmly.

Preventive actions
For salts advice to store under shelter or to establish a procedure of fresh water cleaning
before overcoating.

Repair any oil leakage and influence instruction of other trades not to walk on areas being
painted.

Try to avoid blasting and other operations that create dust in the vicinity of painting.

How to detect?
Visually.

For critical areas see Sections 6.6.1/2/3

Salts are difficult to detect. Usually extended exposure to marine or industrial outdoors
environment will mean salt contamination. Also fog tends to deposit salts. 67
5.25.2 Coated surface before overcoating
Why?
Abnormalities in film formation of the coat to be overcoated may hinder adhesion and correct
properties of the coat to be applied:

• Spray Dust
• Exudation/Sweating
• Holidays and pinholes

Spray dust acts similar to other dust, preventing or reducing adhesion causing peeling and
premature corrosion/fouling. Exudation/sweating is the separation of binders or other material
to the surface of the applied coating. Consequence is loss of adhesion of the coat to be
applied and subsequent peeling and premature corrosion/fouling.

Holidays and pinholes cause lack of dry film thickness build-up. Also certain coats are applied
to obtain certain properties. Insufficient film thickness may influence the final coatings behavior.
Pinholes may blow their way through subsequent coats.

Corrective actions
Spray dust must be scraped away and de-dusted.

Exudation/sweating may need a thinner- or a water-wash. However, always contact your Hempel
representative.

Holidays must in case of primers, sealers and topcoats be touched-up before overcoating. For
intermediates extra thick application of next coat may suffice to compensate for lack of dry film
thickness. Pinholes if very few are generally not considered except in tanks. If many, ask your
Hempel representative for solution to the specific case.

Preventive actions
Influence the application technique and shelter against heavy winds/ high temperatures to
reduce/ avoid dust spray. Exudation normally only occurs when the temperature is too low, the
thickness too high, the ventilation is too poor, and/or on early exposure to rain or condensation.
Influence the application to ensure that the conditions are correct and within the specified limits.

Influence application technique and stripe coating to avoid holidays and avoid too low film
thickness causing possible pinholing in next coat.

How to detect?
Visually.

Exudation often shows as a discoloration of the painted surface or an oily/ greasy layer on top
of the coating.

68
 5.25.3 Coated surface before overcoating
Why?
Variations in film thickness influence drying and the protective properties of the coating:

• Too low film thickness

• Too high film thickness

Too low film thickness may cause poor flow together of the film and result in pinholing through
the next coat and so on. Result will be an open film of low dry film thickness resulting in
premature blistering/pinpoint rusting.

Too high film thickness prolongs drying time, and may cause sagging/ running. If the increased
drying/overcoating time is not respected there will be a risk of sagging in the next coat and
solvent retention which will reduce the coatings corrosion protection properties and the
mechanical and chemical resistance.

For anti-fouling paints, cold flow may occur.

For zinc silicates mud-cracking/flaking may occur.

Corrective actions
For too low film thickness in primers, sealers or top coats, apply an extra coat of the same
paint. In the case of intermediates, it may be possible to increase the thickness of the next
coat. It is very important that a uniform pinhole-free paint film is achieved.

For too high film thickness allow an increase in the drying time before overcoating or taking
into use. Provide good ventilation to all surfaces affected during this period. For zinc silicates
mud cracked areas must be blasted once again or scraped depending on size of the areas and
repainted.

Preventive actions
Instruct in the right film thickness and how to measure frequently during application (WFT
gauge). Recommend areas to be subdivided and assist in calculating the amount of paint to be
applied on each area.

Recommend stripe-coating of areas difficult to spray.

How to detect?
Dry film thickness gauge.

Observe that the gauge may penetrate into soft and uncured coatings leading to too low
readings. Therefore, only use the measurements as guideline.

69
5.26 Air temperature
Why?
A too high air temperature during application may lead to dry spraying and thus poor film
formation of the coating, with premature rusting as a consequence.

A too low temperature will usually also affect the substrate temperature negatively leading to
slow drying, risk of solvent retention, sagging and for two-component paints insufficient cure
and correspondingly risk of side reactions and sweating/exudation of one or more components
of the paint material, e.g. curing agent, plasticizer, etc.

The result may be insufficient corrosion resistance, poor chemical resistance, poor adhesion of
subsequent coats, and for anti-fouling paints, “cold flow”.

Corrective actions
Areas with dry spray and poor film formation due to high temperature must be scraped or
sanded to remove dust spray and applied an extra coat. It is very important that the extra
application secures a uniform paint film free of porosities. In severe cases remove damaged
coating by blasting.

Areas affected by too low temperatures must for physically drying paints be allowed longer
drying time before overcoating or taken into use.

For chemically curing paints, provisions must be arranged for increasing temperature to
acceptable range (see the Product Data Sheet) and protection against rain and condensation
arranged. Before overcoating, check for possible sweating/exudation.

Preventive actions
For too high temperature look for possibility for sheltering, cooling or painting in nighttime.
Try to determine a suitable amount of thinner to allow optimum spraying. It is possible that,
at high temperatures, this may exceed the recommendations on the products data sheets.
Consult Hempel in this case, however, always use the recommended thinner.

For too low temperature, rearrange painting schedule according to prevailing temperature.
For two-component paints, provisions must be made for increasing temperature that is, in tanks
and confined spaces, heaters to be installed and insulation to be provided.

How to detect?
Visually.

Thermometer, for example, dry bulb on the sling psychrometer.

Note Do not change the specification unless agreed with Hempel representative.

70
 5.27 Surface temperature
Why?
A too high substrate temperature during application will lead to too quick drying of the coating
film resulting in poor film formation, with poor adhesion and premature rusting as
a consequence. A too low substrate temperature may cause condensation on the substrate
preventing adhesion of the coat to be applied, with subsequent peeling as a consequence.

Also slow drying, risk of solvent retention, sagging and for two-component paints insufficient
cure and correspondingly risk of side reactions and sweating/exudation of components of
the paint material can occur. The result may be insufficient corrosion resistance, poor chemical
resistance, poor adhesion of subsequent coats, and for anti-fouling paints, “cold flow”.

Corrective actions
Areas with dry spray and poor film formation due to high temperature must be scraped or
sanded to remove dust spray and applied an extra coat. It is very important that the extra
application secures a uniform paint film, free of porosities. In severe cases, remove damaged
coating by blasting, scraping or sanding as relevant. Where a coat has been applied on areas
with condensation, then carry out reblasting leaving a sound well adhering system and reapply
the system.

Areas affected by too low temperatures must for physically drying paints be allowed longer drying
time before overcoating or taken into use. For chemically curing paints provisions must be arranged
for increasing temperature to acceptable range (see the Product Data Sheet) and protection
against rain and condensation arranged. Before overcoating, check for possible sweating.

Preventive actions
For too high temperature look for possibility for sheltering, cooling or painting at nighttime. Try
to determine a suitable amount of thinner to allow optimum spraying, it is possible that, at high
temperatures, this may exceed the recommendations on the products data sheets. Consult
Hempel in this case, however, always use the recommended thinner. For too low temperature,
rearrange painting schedule according to prevailing temperature. For two-component paints,
provisions must be made for increasing temperature that is, in tanks and confined spaces,
heaters to be installed and insulation to be provided.

How to detect?
Surface thermometer.

Additionally for establishing dew point: Sling psychrometer; dew point calculator.

See Section 7.5 for Dew point Calculation.

Note Do not change the specification unless agreed with Hempel representative.

71
5.28 Dew point
Why?
The dew point of the air tells about the humidity and the risk of condensation. If the dew
point of the air is higher than the substrate temperature, condensation will take place on the
substrate.

Paint applied to substrates with condensation will, unless a specially formulated paint is utilized
(reference is made to the Product Data Sheet or the specification), not achieve adhesion.

The consequence of applying paint to a substrate with condensation will thus be poor adhesion
and later peeling, leading to premature corrosion and/or fouling.

Corrective actions
Areas where a coat has been applied on a surface with condensation must be re-blasted,
scraped or ground, whichever is relevant, to a sound adhering surface and repainted from
there on.

Preventive actions
Establish dew point and steel temperature at the location of application before the application
starts. Steel temperature must be over the dew point temperature of the air or according to the
specification.

Dew point temperature does not change by heating the air, only by dehumidifying. Alternatively,
increase substrate temperature, for example, by planning application to proceed during
daytime. Condensation happens most frequently during evening and night time.

Beware of local variations in steel temperature, for example, caused by not emptied water tanks
and local differences in dew point/humidity such as under flat bottoms in a dry dock.

How to detect?
Sling psychrometer.

Dew point calculator.

Additionally for establishing substrate temperature: Surface thermometer.

See Section 7.5 for Dew point Calculation.

Note Do not change the specification unless agreed with Hempel representative.

72
 5.29 Paint temperature
Why?
A too high paint temperature during application may lead to dry spraying and thus poor film
formation of the coating, with premature rusting as a consequence. Also a too high temperature
will result in a dramatic reduction in two-component paints’ pot-life.

A too low temperature will lead to high viscosity making the paint difficult to stir up properly and
impossible to atomize correctly. Over thinning may be the painter’s solution, resulting in slow
drying and poor sagging resistance and consequently, too low dry film thickness being applied
with premature rusting and fouling as a result.

Corrective actions
Areas with dry spray and poor film formation due to high temperature must be scraped or
sanded to remove dust spray and applied an extra coat. It is very important that the extra
application secures a uniform film, free of pinholes. In severe cases, remove damaged coating
by blasting.

Areas with sagging may be grinded and together with areas of too low dry film thickness must
receive extra coats of paint to bring the DFT up to the specified.

Preventive actions
For too high temperature, look for the possibility of sheltering or cooling. Try to determine
a suitable amount of thinner to allow optimum spraying, it is possible that, at high
temperatures, this may exceed the recommendations on the products data sheets.
Consult Hempel in this case, however, always use the recommended thinner.

For too low temperature, take the paint into a heated room in sufficient time before application
to get it heated (24 hours suggested). Do not bring it out to the application site until the last
minute before it is to be used.

How to detect?
Thermometer.

Note Optimum paint temperature for most paints is 15-25 ºC .

Solvent-free paints already have a very short pot-life. At high temperatures (>25°C),
it may be necessary to cool down the paint in a reefer container before the
application process.

73
5.30 Ventilation
Why?
Solvents need to evaporate from the paint after application. This is valid for solvent-borne
paints as well as for water-borne. For evaporation ventilation is needed. The only exception to
this is solvent-free paints.

Incorrect ventilation (including wind) can be either:

• Too poor (insufficient) or

• Too Heavy (excessive)

Too poor ventilation leads to too slow drying and risk of solvent retention Thus overcoating
intervals may have to be extended and solvent retention may cause reduced mechanical and
chemical resistance including water resistance and cold flow of anti-fouling paints.

Too heavy ventilation may result in dry spraying, increased consumption and skin drying.
The latter will also cause solvent retention giving similar negative performance effects
as described above.

Corrective actions
Allow applied coating to dry for an extended period before overcoating.

Scrape spray dust which has occurred and allow the coating longer time to dry through before
overcoating.

Preventive actions
Insufficient ventilation is seldom occurring during painting outdoors. In confined spaces and
during workshop painting, painting must be stopped until mechanical ventilation has been
established. For local areas, ventilators may suffice.

In cases of excessive ventilation, the application should be stopped to avoid over consumption.

In installations with mechanical ventilation, reduce ventilation or shield-off the application area
from the direct ventilation.

How to detect?
Visually and by judgment and observing application process.

Beware that locally you may find areas e.g. in a tank, exposed to either insufficient or
Note
excessive ventilation.

Solvent vapours are heavier than air. Ventilation exhaust must therefore always take
place from the lowest parts of the construction, for example, tanks.

74
 5.31.1 Coated surface final acceptance
Why?
Integrity of the coating in the service environment is necessary to secure that the coating
remains on the substrate. Important factors are:

• Adhesion
• Cohesion (Internal Strength)

Both poor adhesion to the substrate or between coats and poor cohesion may lead to blistering
and peeling of the coating thus reducing film thickness and giving poor cosmetic appearance
and poor mechanical and chemical resistance. Consequence will be premature corrosion/
fouling and unsatisfactory appearance of the coating.

Corrective actions
Insufficient adhesion and cohesion cannot be remedied by further coating application. Thus
insufficiently adhering or cohering coatings have to be removed by abrasive blasting or other
mechanical methods and coatings reapplied from damage and upwards to full film thickness.

Never use alkaline cleaners or other chemicals at this stage of curing/drying.

Preventive actions
Analyze possible causes for insufficient adhesion/cohesion using checkpoints to find out why
cause has not been discovered before. Ensure that these checkpoints are used in the future.

How to detect?
Visually and by the use of a knife.

More advanced adhesion methods exist. However a value can never be employed or accepted
until a Hempel-approved minimum value for the result of the test has been obtained.

Requirement to adhesion and cohesion depend on later exposure and is therefore considered
in a Hempel specification. Therefore use adhesion/cohesion tests only if observations warrant
it or if it is called for in the specification.

During drying/curing, adhesion/cohesion may not be complete to full strength.

Note Therefore, always consider results as a guidance. Contact your Hempel
representative in case of doubt.

A properly applied coating according to approved Hempel specification will always

have adhesion/cohesion properties, which are characteristic for the particular
coating system.

75
5.31.2 Coated surface final acceptance
Why?
Abnormalities in film formation influence the appearance and protective properties
of the coating:

• Spray Dust
• Orange Peel
• Holidays and pinholes

Spray dust and orange peel provide a poor cosmetic appearance, and an increased roughness,
which especially on anti-fouling paints will cause drag and premature fouling. For other surfaces
difficulties in cleaning may be the consequence.

Holidays and pinholes cause local insufficient dry film thickness resulting in premature
blistering/pinpoint rusting, salting of zinc rich primers and premature fouling.

Corrective actions
If cosmetic appearance is very important or extent of spray dust or orange peel is judged to be
excessive, the areas involved must be scraped, sanded and after de-dusting be touched up
with a coat of final coat. Holidays must be touched up to full dry film thickness.

Pinholes if very few are generally not considered except in tanks, where they have to be
touched up, if necessary after a sanding. If many, ask your Hempel-representative for solution
to the specific case.

Preventive actions
Analyze why potential defects are observed now instead of earlier. Consult checkpoints
in the respective phases.

Find those check point(s) which have failed during the work and ensure that these are used.

How to detect?
Visually.

5-10 X Magnifier.

76
 5.31.3 Coated surface final acceptance
Why?
Variations in film thickness influence the protective properties of the coating:

• Too low total dry film thickness

• Too high total dry film thickness

Too low film thickness means that the specification, as the customer has bought it is not
met. Technically the coating may not be able to perform as long as expected/promised or
guaranteed, that is, early corrosion or fouling may occur and for chemically resistant coatings,
they may fail in their protection.

Too high film thickness will cause reduced mechanical resistance, and reduced chemical
resistance because of solvent retention. For anti-fouling paints, cold flow may occur if the
vessel is sailing early after application. For zinc silicates, mud-cracking may occur eliminating
protection in cracked areas.

Corrective actions
For too low film thickness apply extra coat(s) of final coat, where necessary, locally or full
depending on extend of insufficient dft. It is important, that a uniform pinhole-free paint film is
achieved.

For too high film thickness allow an increase in the drying time before overcoating or taking into
use. Provide good ventilation to all surface affected during this period.

For zinc silicates mud cracked areas must be re-blasted or scraped depending on size of the
areas and repainted.

Preventive actions
Instruct in the right film thickness and how to measure frequently during application
(WFT-Gauge). Recommend areas to be subdivided and assist in calculating the amount
of paint going on each area.

Influence stripe-coating of areas difficult to spray.

How to detect?
Dry film thickness gauge.

Observe that the gauge may penetrate into soft and uncured coatings leading to too low
readings. Therefore allow as long time as necessary before making the DFT measurements,
usually 1-2 days.

Note Special procedures for containers and shopprimers.

77
6.
Indicative guidelines
to processes and
procedures

79
6.1.1 Open nozzle abrasive blasting
Capacity and consumption – indicative values
Sa 2 ½ Sa 3
Area Type Non-metallic abrasive, 12 mm nozzles at 7-8 bars¹
kg/m² m²/man-hour kg/m² m²/man-hour
New steel, rust grade A-B
Smooth 40 9.0 60 6.0
Normal 45 8.0 65 5.5
Complicated 60 6.0 80 4.5
Shopprimed steel²
Smooth 30 12.0 50 7.5
Normal 35 10.0 55 6.5
Complicated 50 7.5 70 5.0
Old steel, rust grade C-D
Smooth 50 7.5 70 5.0
Normal 60 6.0 80 4.5
Complicated 80 4.5 100 3.5

¹ Figures are primarily based on practical experience with tank coating jobs.
² Some types of shopprimers are difficult to remove completely: PVB-types and zinc
shopprimers. The latter will leave some zinc hammered on to the surface.

Nozzle size and air requirement – indicative values

Nozzle size Pressure at nozzle (bars)
4.0 4.6 5.0 6.0 7.0
mm Inch

8.0 1/3 3.0 3.2 3.5 4.0 4.6

9.5 5/16 4.0 4.5 - 5.5 6.5
10.0 3/8 4.6 - 5.7 6.4 7.2
11.0 7/16 5.5 6.1 6.8 7.5 9.1
12.0 1/2 6.7 - 8.2 9.3 10.4
Air Consumption (m³/min)

Wear of nozzles quickly increases air requirement. Also, other equipment,

Note for example, grinders, airless pumps, etc. may require air as a power supply.
The compressor should therefore have a 25-50 % higher air capacity than required
according to the above table. Venturi-shaped nozzles are recommended for maximum
efficiency. These should remain undamaged and be replaced when their internal
diameter has worn approximately 1-2 mm. Remember to check and empty oil and
water separators frequently before these run full.
 6.1.2 Open nozzle abrasive blasting
Hoses
Hoses cause pressure loss and thus loss of efficiency. The following is a good practice:

1. Use minimum 5/4” hoses with external couplings and wire for proper grounding of the
blasting equipment.

2. The blasting hose gives more pressure loss than the air hose. Therefore, if necessary,
always use long air hose and short blasting hose. This requires that the blasting pot should
be as close to the work area as possible.

3. Do not kink the hoses. Always lay them out in as straight lines as possible.

Pressure loss in bars per 10 m smooth air hose at 7 bars – indicative

mm 8 9.5 10 11 12
Nozzle size
Inch 1/3 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2
Air consumption, m³/min 4.6 6.5 7.2 9.1 10.4
Inside Diameter, air hose
inch mm
1/2 12 NA NA NA NA NA
3/4 18 0.6 NA NA NA NA
1 25 0.12 0.25 0.33 0.55 0.66
5/4 32 0.05 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.20
1½ 38 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09

NA means a pressure loss of more than 1 bar per 10 m hose length.

Over the blast pot there will usually be a pressure drop of ½-1 bar.

81
6.2.1 Abrasives, recyclable
Recyclable abrasives are typically steel grit, steel shot, cut wire and iron grit.
For blasting of aluminium and stainless steel substrates, corundum can be used.

Steel and Iron Grit

SAE J44:1984 Nomination Corresponding Hardness

ISO 11124:1993
Size Grain Size Designation
Distribution
Average Nomination HRc
mm
mm
G12 1.7 1.4-2.4 G200 S 45-50
G14 1.4 1.2-2.0 G170 M 50-55
G16 1.2 1.0-1.7 G140 L 55-60
G18 1.0 0.7-1.4 G120 H 60-65
G25 0.7 0.4-1.2 G100
G40 0.4 0.3-1.0 G070
G50 0.3 0.2-0.7 G050

Example: LG18 is 0.7-1.4 mm grit with a nominal size of 1.0 mm and

a hardness HRc of 55-60.

BS 2451/63 Nomination
Size Distribution, mm
G55 1.4-2.0
G47 1.2-1.7
G39 1.0-1.4
G34 0.85-1.2
G24 0.6-1.0
G17 0.43-0.85
G12 0.3-0.7

82
Steel Shot

SAE J44:1984 Nomination Corresponding Hardness

ISO 11124:1193
Size Grain Size Designation
Distribution
Average Nomination HRc
mm
mm
S550 1.4 1.2-2.0 S170 S 45-50
S460 1.2 1.0-1.8 S140 M 50-55
S390 1.0 0.8-1.4 S120 L 55-60
S330 0.8 0.7-1.2 S100 H 60-65
S280 0.7 0.6-1.0 S080
S230 0.6 0.5-0.8 S070
S170 0.4 0.4-0.7 S060

BS 2451/63 Nomination
Size Distribution, mm
S550 1.4-2.0
S470 1.2-1.7
SS390 1.0-1.4
S340 0.85-1.2
S240 0.6-1.0
S170 0.43-0.85
S120 0.3-0.7

Mineral recyclable
These abrasives usually follow the guidelines for Non-metallic spendable abrasives.
See page 6.2.2

83
6.2.2 Abrasives, spendable (or non-recyclable)
Spendable abrasives are typically used only once or a few times. These are normally
non-metallic and typical examples are:

• Quartz sand
• Aluminium oxide
• Copper Slag
• Coal Slag

A lot of local products are found.

Spendable abrasives should be sharp edged and hard, should be of high quality, washed
with fresh water, dried and classified and should not leave any foreign matter on the blasted
surface.

Suitable abrasives should comply with ISO 11126:1993.

For tank coating jobs, the abrasive should be checked according to the tank coating
specification before starting the job. Sea sand and river sand are often rounded and chloride
contaminated and should therefore be avoided for heavy duty coatings.

Size distribution
The size distribution is often given in manufacturers own grade numbers and typically in mm
unit. Typical distributions are:
0.4-0.8 mm For general blasting, fine profile
0.4-1.2 mm For general blasting, somewhat coarse profile
0.2-2.0 mm For high profile blasting on old, pitted steel
1.2-2.0 mm For high profile blasting on new, non-pitted steel

Suitable abrasives grain size distribution should as a minimum comply with relevant parts
of ISO 11126:1993.
Mixture of grades for specific purposes can usually be supplied in the distributions or mixtures
thereof as requested.

ISO 11126 -7 Water Soluble Conductivity Measurements:

The ISO 11126-7 states, as a requirement to conductivity of water extracts of non-metallic
abrasives, a maximum of 25 mS/m. This method is now described in Sections 6.6.3 and 6.6.4

84
 6.2.3 Abrasives, grain size distribution test
Equipment needed
• Set of sieves
• Calibrated weighing scale, gram unit
• Sample thief (refer to ISO 11125 and 11127)

Procedure
1. Collect samples at minimum 5 random locations of the abrasive bulk. Mix the collected
samples and use this for the test.

2. Weigh 100 grams of abrasive and pour on top of set of sieves and place lid on top.

3. Shake vigorously in both vertical and horizontal directions for at least 3 minutes. This time is
usually sufficient to allow all abrasive sizes to fall and settle onto the correct sieve container.

4. Weigh each sieve with the abrasive. Record the result as (A).

5. Discard the abrasive and weigh the sieve. Record the result as (B).

6. The weight of abrasive is the difference of (A) – (B). This is also the percentage of abrasive
in the tested mix.

7. Repeat the weighing process for all the remaining sieves and record the results.

8. Perform minimum of 2 trials and calculate the average results.

9. You may use the form given in Section 6.2.4 for record purposes.

85
 6.2.4 Abrasives, grain size distribution report
Grain size distribution of the abrasive has significant influence on the surface roughness
especially on the roughness height.

Using the charts below you can calculate and plot the distribution obtained. It is advisable to
copy the page and use the copy to make the charts.

[A – B]1100
Grain Size Reading A Reading B [A – B]
Sieve No. C
mm grams grams grams
Amount in %
2.50 >2.50
2.00 2.00-2.50
1.60 1.60-2.00
1.00 1.00-1.60
0.80 0.80-1.00
0.50 0.50-0.80
0.25 0.25-0.50
0.00 0.00-0.25

¹ Total amount of abrasive: C = [A-B]

60

50

40
Percent on Sieve (%)

30

20

10

0
0.25 0.50 0.80 1.00 1.60 2.00 2.50

Sieve Size, mm

86
 6.3.1 Detection of oil and grease, chalk test
Many methods are described for detection of oil and grease.

Unfortunately most of these are either laboratory methods or requiring tools unsuitable
for on-site use.

The primary detection method is appearance of the surface. Oil and grease generally cause
the surface to have a slightly darker appearance than clean surroundings and grease can
usually be felt by the touch of a finger.

Other conditions can cause similar appearance e.g. humidity, so visual appearance is not
always definite, especially in the case of spot wise contamination from cutting, drilling and
punching in raw steel material.

In such cases a simple method using a piece of chalk can often quickly decide if degreasing
is necessary.

The method works as follows:

1. Draw a line at medium pressure with the piece of chalk from a clean area through
the suspect area on to another clean area.

2. If the line through the suspect area decreases in intensity, but intensity is regained in the
second clean area again, the suspected area is contaminated to the extent, that degreasing
is required.

You will probably need some exercise on the right pressure on the piece of chalk to get full
benefit from the method.

Oil present

Experience has shown that this method does not work well on very smooth surfaces
Note
e.g. on smooth stainless steel or aluminium.

87
6.3.2 Detection of oil and grease, hydrocarbon test

For tank coating work, new building and repair, the method described in Hempel’s Technical
Standard for Tank Coating Work – TCTF-100-TCW – may be employed as described below:

Hydrocarbon test with Isopropanol:

1. Approx. 1/4 square meter of the surface is washed with cotton-wool and hydrocarbon free
isopropanol.

2. After each washing the isopropanol is transferred from the cotton-wool into a beaker by
pressing.

3. Filtrate the contents of the beaker.

4. Mix in a test tube the filtrate with 2-3 times as much distilled water.

5. The mixture is shaken and must be allowed to stand for approx. 10 minutes.

6. If the sample in the test tube is cloudy, the surface is contaminated with grease and/or oil.

7. Make a blank mixture of the isopropanol with distilled water as a reference.

Note Instead of Isopropanol a hydrocarbon-free Acetone may be used.

88
 6.4.1 Preparation grade relations, primary
Nearest equivalents
ISO 8501-1¹ SSPC
Sa 3 SP-5 (White Metal)
Sa 2 ½ SP-10 (Near-white Metal)
Sa 2 SP-6 (Commercial Blast)²
Sa 1 SP-7 (Brush-off Blast)
None SP-11 Mechanical Cleaning to Bright Metal
St 3 SP-3 Machine Tool Cleaning
St 2 SP-2 Hand Tool Cleaning

¹ Swedish Standard SIS 055900, 1967 contains pictures identical to those

in ISO 8501-1:1988.

Japanese Standard JSRA SPSS-1975 is an expansion of SIS 055900 containing also
pictures of shopprimer secondary surface preparation and surface preparation of welds and
burns. Since this standard is referred to by some Paint manufacturers, 6.4.2 summarizes this
standard.

ISO 8501-2:1994 is an expansion of ISO 8501-1 covering preparation of shopprimed and
previously coated surfaces.

ISO 8501-4 and NACE/SSPC SP-12 deal with high pressure water jetting preparation grades.
See Section 6.17 for more information.

² SSPC SP-6 (Commercial Blast) is not identical to ISO 8501-1 Sa 2. You must make reference
to SSPC Standard when the former is mentioned in the specification.

89
6.4.2 Preparation grade relations, secondary
Nearest equivalents
JSRA International
Description
SSPS-1975 Paint
Surface prepared by wire brushing and by disc
sander. Loose rust and foreign matter are fairly Pt1 -
removed
Surface prepared by wire brushing and by disc
sander. Almost all rust and foreign matter are fairly Pt2 -
removed
Surface prepared by wire brushing and by disc
sander. Rust and foreign matter are removed to the Pt3 -
extent that the surface has a uniform metallic sheen
Surface prepared by light blast cleaning of slag
sands or grit. (Shopprimer with the little trace of rust Ss AS.1
is noticeable)
Surface prepared by thorough blast cleaning of slag
sands or grit. Almost all mill scale, rust or foreign Sd2 AS.2
matter are fairly removed
Surface prepared by thorough blast cleaning of slag
sands or grit. Mill scale, rust or foreign matter are
removed to the extent that the surface has a uniform Sd3 AS.3
metallic sheen

Before these mechanical or abrasive blast cleaning methods, oil and grease as well as water
soluble materials which has contaminated the surface should be removed.

90
 6.5.1 Surface roughness, comparator relations
Rz,
microns

200

11a

175

150

11b -5.5
125 Coarse
-4.5

-4
100

Coarse
Medium
10a-b -3
75
-3.0

Medium
50 -2.0 -2
-9a Fine
-1.0
-9b
25 Fine -1
-8
-0.5

0
A/B, N G S G/S 76 S 70
Rugotest No. 3 ISO 8503 ISO 8503 KEANE-TATOR KEANE-TATOR

Rz = average of five highest peaks and five lowest valleys in one sampling length.

91
 Hempel makes use of the Rz value when specifying surface roughness

92
A line relative to which
Centre assessment of the profile
Arithmetical is performed. The areas
Mean Line limited by the centre line
(Centre Line) and the profile are equal on
both sides

The arithmetical mean of

Arithmetical the absolute values of the
Mean Deviation profile departures within the
of the profile Ra
sampling length
Ra
(=CLA and AA) Used on the Rugotest

The average value of the

absolute values of heights
of five maximum profile
peaks and the depths of five Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5
Ten point maximum profile valleys
height of Rz
irregularities Rz = 1/51 (Y1 + Y2 +……
Rz + Y9 + Y10)
Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Y10
Rz is approximately 4 -6
times of Ra

Maximum The distance between the

height of highest peak and the lowest
the profile valley on the profile length
Rmax Rmax
(Ry) Rmax is approximately
6.5.2 Surface roughness, the R-values defined and illustrated

6 times of Ra
 6.6.1 Water-soluble salts, conductivity measurements

Why?
Excessive amount of water-soluble salts causes osmotic blistering of the paint film. In many
immersion conditions, this may be detrimental to paint performance and in such cases checks
may be specified or have to be made. Typical jobs are coating of ballast and cargo tanks and
offshore structures.

Water-soluble salts on the steel surface

Hempel’s procedure as described in 6.6.2 is in full compliance with ISO 8502-9
Conductivity Equivalent Cl Equivalent NaCl
Specification / µS/cm mS/m µg/cm² mg/m² µg/cm² mg/m²
Remarks
2.5 0.25 0.6 6.0 1.0 10
NORSOK 1 5.0 0.50 1.2 12.0 2.0 20
7.5 0.75 1.8 18.0 3.0 30
Hempel 2 10.0 1.00 2.4 24.0 4.0 40
IMO 3 12.5 1.25 3.0 30.0 5.0 50
15.0 1.50 3.6 36.0 6.0 60
20.0 2.00 4.8 48.0 8.0 80
25.0 2.50 6.0 60.0 10.0 100
Hempel 4 27.5 2.75 6.6 66.0 11.0 110
40.0 4.00 9.6 96.0 16.0 160
60.0 6.00 14.4 144.0 24.0 240
Hempel 5 80.0 8.00 19.2 192.0 32.0 320
125.0 12.5 30.0 300.0 50.0 500
NACE 6 185.0 18.5 44.4 444.0 74.0 740

1. Maximum conductivity accepted by NORSOK offshore standard.

2. Hempel’s recommended maximum conductivity level for areas permanently immersed in
demineralized, potable and hot water.
3. Maximum conductivity accepted by IMO Performance Standard for Protective Coatings and
for tank coatings with Cargo Protection Guide or other Resistance guides.
4. Hempel’s recommended maximum conductivity level for immersed areas and for Hempel’s
Multistrength products.
5. Hempel’s recommended maximum conductivity level for non-immersed areas, equivalent to
maximum conductivity accepted by NACE/SSPC SP 12: SC2.
6. Equivalent to maximum conductivity accepted by NACE/SSPC SP 12: SC3.

93
6.6.2 Water-soluble salts on surface, test method
Preparation
• DO NOT dedust or touch test area with bare hands. Use only clean gloves, if needed
• DO NOT touch the test area of the sampler by any means
• A blind test of the A-1250 sampler’s own contribution to conductivity should be made every
time a new package is opened. Use salt-free substrate, for example, smooth plastic or steel
washed in distilled water and air-dried. Procedure as below. Result = C

The Hempel Method

These are needed:
ü Bresle Samplers, A-1250
ü Syringe, 5 ml plus needle
ü Electronic Conductivity Gauge with range from 0-2000 µS/cm and accuracy of 2 µS/cm
or better and automatic temperature compensation to 25 ºC/77 ºF
ü Glass beaker, max. 2 cm diameter
ü Distilled water, high purity

Procedure
• Fill in 10 ml distilled water into clean beaker
• Measure conductivity in µS/cm and note down. Result = B
• Remove protective backing and foam. Affix cell to dry surface and press firmly to create
completely tight seal
• Inject approx. 3.5 ml distilled water from beaker through spongy foam perimeter holding it
firmly to avoid leakage
• Leave water inside for 1 minute for the first injection only.
• Inject water in and out of the cell minimum 10 X
• Retrieve as much water back into syringe as possible after the 10th cycle
• Remove syringe and empty back into the original beaker
• Measure conductivity in the beaker. Result = A
• Final conductivity result = [ A – B – C ] µS/cm

This procedure complies with ISO 8502-9 when using the table in 6.6.1 for interpretation
of results.

94
 6.6.3 Salts in mineral abrasives, conductivity
Data below are based on the procedure described in 6.6.4 which follows ISO 11127-6.
Conductivity acceptance levels are indicated for an abrasive bulk density of 1.7 kg/l. Limits are
given for abrasive bulk densities of 1.4-2.0 kg/l.

Conductivity, mS/m
Acceptance level Acceptance limits
ISO 11126 for non-metallic abrasives 25 Always 25
Tank coatings with Cargo Protection Guide or other
30 25-35
Resistance Guides for fresh/brackish water
Other tank coatings and heavy duty coatings 50 40-60

95
6.6.4 Salts in mineral abrasives, test method
Materials, equipment needed
ü Electronic Conductivity Gauge
ü Balance, ±0.1 g
ü Glass beaker, 100 ml
ü 2 clean glass jars, 250 ml
ü Distilled or demineralized water with conductivity of less than 1 mS/m, 1000 ml

Sample taking
ü Collect samples at minimum 5 random places in the abrasive bulk.
Mix well and use this for the test.

Procedure (following ISO 11127-6)

1. Weigh 100 grams of the abrasives into a 250 ml glass jar and add 100 ml of distilled or
demineralized water.
2. Shake for 5 minutes and allow to stand for 1 hour.
3. Shake again for 5 minutes and allow to settle.
4. Transfer sufficient volume of the clear liquid in to the 100 ml beaker.
5. Measure the conductivity with the gauge in mS/m. Refer to the table on 6.6.3 for
interpretation of results.

Perform two trials and report the average as result if the deviation is within ±10%. If the
deviation is >10%, repeat one more test and report the average of the two closest results.

96
 6.7.1 Shopprimers, general characteristics
Shopprimers are special very quick drying primers intended to be applied in a very thin coat
of 15-25 microns on automatic equipment and to protect steel plates and profiles during
manufacturing and erection periods until the full coating system can be applied.

Types – following types are available today

Type Hempel Quality¹
PVB Hempel’s 1525
Shopprimer PVB
Epoxy Iron Oxide Hempel’s 1528
Shopprimer E
Zinc-rich Epoxy Hempel’s 1537
Shopprimer ZE
Zinc Silicate, medium zinc content Hempel’s 1572
Shopprimer ZS
Zinc Silicate, low zinc content Hempel’s 1589
Shopprimer ZS
1) Indicated Hempel shopprimers may not necessarily be in the standard assortment.

Lifetime
Protective lifetime of a shopprimer depends so much on local conditions, that a guaranteed
lifetime should never be given. Relative lifetime between the types in the same environment is
as follows:
Type 15 microns 25 microns
PVB
Epoxy Iron Oxide
Zinc-rich Epoxy
Zinc Silicate, medium zinc content
Zinc Silicate, low zinc content

Welding properties, MIG/MAG or CO2

Shopprimers unfortunately influence modern welding techniques and gas cutting. “Old” stick
welding and modern plasma cutting are very little affected. Shopprimers influence as follows:

Type 15 microns 25 microns

PVB
Epoxy Iron Oxide
Zinc-rich Epoxy
Zinc Silicate, medium zinc content
Zinc Silicate, low zinc content

97
6.7.1 Shopprimers, general characteristics (continued)
Later exposure and overcoating
Shopprimers can be overcoated with most paints. Note, however, the following indicative
restrictions:
Type Immersion Zinc Silicate Multi-Strength
PVB
Epoxy Iron Oxide
Zinc-rich Epoxy
Zinc Silicate, medium zinc content
Zinc Silicate, low zinc content

Legend
Poor or very short
Very suited or longest

98
 6.7.2 Shopprimers, secondary surface preparation
Before any shopprimer can be overcoated, it must be clean. Rusted and damaged areas must
be mechanically cleaned or abrasive blasted according to specification. This is mandatory
for any shopprimer before overcoating. Additionally, depending on later exposure and the
subsequent coating to be applied, further secondary surface preparation may have to be
carried out. The table below gives some guidance for this.

Secondary surface preparation, indicative

Type Immersion Zinc Silicate Multi-Strength
PVB
Epoxy Iron Oxide
Zinc-rich Epoxy
Zinc Silicate, medium zinc content
Zinc Silicate, low zinc content

Legend
Abrasive blast completely away (Sa 3 appearance)
Hard abrasive sweeping
Mechanically clean (avoid polishing) to remove zinc salts and contamination
Light abrasive sweeping to roughen and remove zinc salts
No extra secondary surface preparation

• For tank lining with resistance guides, consult the specification for guidance
Note
• Excessive oil spillage on zinc-rich shopprimers cannot be cleaned properly.
Abrasive blasting such affected areas and then degreasing afterwards has been
found to be more effective

Shopprimer thickness
Due to their requirements of extremely fast drying, shopprimers are inherently of low internal
strength (cohesion). Therefore, all above properties are based on the assumption that the film
thickness is correct, that is, between 10 and 35 microns and evenly distributed over the plates.

If thickness is excessive (see Section 6.7.3 on how to estimate), hard abrasive sweeping
is necessary to reduce film thickness before overcoating except where more demanding
requirements are set as indicated above.

99
6.7.3 Shopprimers, film thickness
Measuring film thickness
The dry film thickness of a shopprimer cannot be measured directly on an abrasive blasted
steel surface, simply because the surface roughness is often higher than the thickness of the
shopprimer. Wet film thickness measurements are not possible either, as the shopprimer dries
too fast. Therefore special measures have to be taken when establishing shopprimer thickness.

Two cases may call for measurements of shopprimer thickness:

• During application of the shopprimer
• When the suitability for overcoating needs to be decided

During application
During application, shopprimer dry film thickness must be established on smooth panels
shopprimed together with the plates/profiles.

Since a smooth surface per square meter represents a smaller surface area than an abrasive
blasted surface, the same amount of shopprimer applied to a smooth surface will give a higher
dry film thickness than when applied on an abrasive blasted surface.

As a rule of thumb following approximate relations exist:

Shopprimer Film Thickness
Surface Roughness
Rugotest No.3 N9 N10
DFT on smooth Rz, approximate 40 µm 75 µm

20 µm DFT on blasted 15 µm 12 µm
25 µm DFT on blasted 20 µm 15 µm

Before overcoating
Since direct DFT-Measurements cannot be used, an approximate method as described below
must be used (Note that dry film thickness can in this connection only be too high or too low):
1. Calibrate the DFT-Gauge (Electronic) on a piece of smooth steel.
2. Select 5 % of the plates/profiles as required to be checked.
3. Mark out an area of 1000 x 100 mm on each of the selected plates/profiles.
4. Make 10 measurements in each of the marked areas and calculate the average for each area.

x x x x x x x x x x à Average

Decisions Accept? Reject?

No average values >35 µm Yes No
Max. 10% of avg. values >35 µm but <40 µm Yes No
Average values above 40 µm No Yes
 6.8 pH Value
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

ACIDIC NEUTRAL ALKALINE

SPILLAGE / SPLASH
Alkyds
Chlorinated rubber
Acrylics
Vinyls
Epoxies
Polyurethanes
Zinc silicates

CONSTANT IMMERSION
Alkyds NOT RECOMMENDED
Chlorinated rubber
Acrylics NOT RECOMMENDED
Vinyls
Epoxies
Polyurethanes NOT RECOMMENDED
Zinc silicates

Remarks:
1. Epoxy polyamide and amide-adduct cured coatings are best for salt-containing water,
for example seawater. They are less resistant to acids than amine-cured epoxies. Epoxy
polyamine and amine-adduct cured coatings are best for water contaminated with organic
substance.

2. Zinc silicates are suitable for immersion only when they are not overcoated.

3. Usually not relevant except for seawater immersion.

Note Resistance values are indicative.

101
6.9.1 Taking technical pictures, general guidelines
Photo documentation further supplements an
already well-written report.

Today’s digital, self-adjusting and pocket size

cameras with built-in flash enables very easy
picture taking tasks.

But wait…what about the motive?

Some general and useful guidelines for taking technical pictures are listed below:

1. Always show an overview picture, describing the location and upon which detailed photos
can readily be referred.

2. Take pictures in necessary detail to describe the action or condition that you want to tell
about. These pictures should be within the area of the overview picture.

3. Pictures can easily distort or disproportion a story, for example when a report of paint
condition is to be made. Avoid taking pictures of defective areas only. This will lead the
receiver to believe that the whole area surveyed is totally broken down when in fact it may
only be a few percent. Always try to balance the pictures of ‘good’ areas and ‘bad’ areas
according to the actual extent of the breakdown.

4. Always write down immediately in your notebook what each picture is about. This makes
the creation of photo legends very easy when you are finalising your report. The intended
recipient of the report must be able to – as quickly as possible – establish where and what
the picture describes.

Overview Close-up

102
 6.9.2 Taking technical pictures, dry docking
For a regular dry docking exterior hull paint
work, between 20 to 25 photos will usually
be sufficient.

The guidelines stated on 6.9.1 applies.

Reference photos
As a marine condition survey – before start of the work – take nine (9) overview photos from
the points as shown on the sketch below.

The photos from the starboard side must indicate the condition of both the topside area and
the antifouling area as good as possible.

103
 6.10 Identifying the existing coating
Sometimes a need to identify the generic type of an existing coating is called for in
maintenance work especially in a case where there exists no or limited information or record
on the actual paint applied on the structure.

Materials/tools needed for the test

Hempel Thinners as listed below and pieces of cloth and rubber gloves (note that solvent
is a hazard and presents health risk).

Procedure
• Ensure that the painted surface is free from oil, dirt, dust and chalked layer
• Rub the painted surface intensively between 2-5 minutes with a piece of cloth soaked
in the Hempel Thinners below:

THINNER THINNER TOOL STILL

08080 08450 CLEANER THERE

The coating The coating The coating is Not affected or

Observed

dissolves and dissolves and severely slightly affected

reaction

can be removed can be removed affected, only in 08450

right through right through wrinkling or and TOOL
blistering CLEANER
Possible generic

Chlorinated Epoxy, Modified

Rubber, Acrylic, Vinyl Alkyd, Modified Epoxy, Coal
types

PVC (soft type), (hard types), Alkyds (Epoxy Tar Epoxy,

Bitumen, Vinyl esters, etc.) Polyurethane,
Anti-fouling Tar Zinc Silicates

Additional observations
1. Coating soft and black, dark brown or aluminium Bitumen
2. Coating hard but black, dark brown or aluminium, tar smell when scraped Coal Tar epoxy
3. Coating severely chalking Epoxy, Chlorinated
Rubber
4. Primer coat as metal grey or greyish in colour, metallic sheen when scraped Zinc Epoxy or Silicate

Note This is an on-site, relatively easy and quick identification test. Precise identification
will require analytical laboratory tests.

104
 6.11 Overcoating intervals
The Product Data sheet usually provides the overcoating or recoating intervals at 20°C/68°F
and for the indicated dry film thickness.

The actual overcoating intervals depend on the specification, that is the actual DFT, what
generic type to be overcoated with, what layer and what coat number is it.
When all these have been taken into account at 20°C/68°F, it will then be extrapolated to
other relevant temperatures.

This data normally appears in the working specification and in some special cases
in the product’s Application Instruction.

Product Data
HEMPEL'S HS GAS PIPE COATING 87831

87831: BASE 87838: CURING AGENT 95830

Description: HEMPEL’S HS GAS PIPE COATING 87831 is a two-component epoxy polyamine cured coating.
Formulated according to the requirements in AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE’S STANDARD RP
5L2.
Recommended use:
Product Data
As a one-coat system for internal coating of gas pipes designed for carrying of dry, sweet gas. The
coating is designed to reduce the drag resistance in the pipeline by making the pipe walls smoother.
Availability: Part of Group Assortment. Local availability subject to confirmation.
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS:
HEMPEL'S HS GAS PIPE COATING 87831
Shade nos/Colours: 50890* / Reddish brown
Finish: Glossy
Volume solids, %: 82 ± 1 87831: BASE 87838: CURING AGENT 95830
Theoretical spreading rate: 10.2 m2/l [409 sq.ft./US gallon] - 80 micron/3.2 mils
Flash point: 28 °C [82.4 °F] Description: HEMPEL’S HS GAS PIPE COATING 87831 is a two-component epoxy polyamine cured coating.
Specific gravity: 1.4 kg/litre [11.7 lbs/US gallon] Formulated according to the requirements in AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE’S STANDARD RP
Surface-dry: 2 hour(s) , 20°C/68°F 5L2.
Through-dry: 3.5 hour(s) 20°C/68°F Recommended use: As a one-coat system for internal coating of gas pipes designed for carrying of dry, sweet gas. The
Fully cured: 7 day(s) , 20°C/68°F coating is designed to reduce the drag resistance in the pipeline by making the pipe walls smoother.
4 day(s) , 30°C/86°F Availability: Part of Group Assortment. Local availability subject to confirmation.
2 day(s) , 40°C/105°F
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS:
VOC content: 155 g/l [1.3 lbs/US gallon]
Shelf life: 12 months for BASE and 3 years for CURING AGENT (stored in closed container) Shade, 25°C/77°F.
nos/Colours: 50890* / Reddish brown
6 months for BASE and 1.5 years for CURING AGENT (stored in closed container), Finish: 35°C/95°F. Glossy
Mechanical stirring may be necessary before usage. Volume solids, %: 82 ± 1
Shelf life is dependent on storage temperature. Shelf life is reduced at storageTheoretical spreading
temperatures above:rate: 10.2 m2/l [409 sq.ft./US gallon] - 80 micron/3.2 mils
25°C/77°F. Do not store above the following temperature: 40°C/105°F. Flash point: 28 °C [82.4 °F]
- *other shades according to assortment list. Specific gravity: 1.4 kg/litre [11.7 lbs/US gallon]
The physical constants stated are nominal data according to the HEMPEL Group's approved formulas. Surface-dry: 2 hour(s) , 20°C/68°F
-
Through-dry: 3.5 hour(s) 20°C/68°F
APPLICATION DETAILS: Fully cured: 7 day(s) , 20°C/68°F
Version, mixed product: 87831 4 day(s) , 30°C/86°F
Mixing ratio: BASE 87838: CURING AGENT 95830 2 day(s) , 40°C/105°F
4 : 1 by volume VOC content: 155 g/l [1.3 lbs/US gallon]
6 : 1 by weight Shelf life: 12 months for BASE and 3 years for CURING AGENT (stored in closed container) , 25°C/77°F.
(Mixing tolerance 5%) 6 months for BASE and 1.5 years for CURING AGENT (stored in closed container), 35°C/95°F.
Application method: Dual-feed, hot airless spray equipment. (see REMARKS overleaf) Mechanical stirring may be necessary before usage.
Thinner (max.vol.): No thinning Shelf life is dependent on storage temperature. Shelf life is reduced at storage temperatures above:
Pot life: 60 minute(s) , 20°C/68°F 25°C/77°F. Do not store above the following temperature: 40°C/105°F.
9 minute(s) , 60°C/140°F - *other shades according to assortment list.
Nozzle orifice: 0.017 - 0.027 " - The physical constants stated are nominal data according to the HEMPEL Group's approved formulas.
Nozzle pressure: Minimum: 150 bar [2175 psi]
(Airless spray data are indicative and subject to adjustment) APPLICATION DETAILS:
Cleaning of tools: HEMPEL'S THINNER 08450 Version, mixed product: 87831
Indicated film thickness, dry: 70 micron [2.8 mils] Mixing ratio: BASE 87838: CURING AGENT 95830
Indicated film thickness, wet: 100 micron [4 mils] 4 : 1 by volume
Overcoat interval, min: According to specification. 6 : 1 by weight
Overcoat interval, max: According to specification. (Mixing tolerance 5%)
Application method: Dual-feed, hot airless spray equipment. (see REMARKS overleaf)
-
Thinner (max.vol.): No thinning
Safety: Handle with care. Before and during use, observe all safety labels on packaging
Potand
life: paint containers, 60 minute(s) , 20°C/68°F
consult HEMPEL Safety Data Sheets and follow all local or national safety regulations. 9 minute(s) , 60°C/140°F
Nozzle orifice: 0.017 - 0.027 "
Nozzle pressure: Minimum: 150 bar [2175 psi]
(Airless spray data are indicative and subject to adjustment)
Cleaning of tools: HEMPEL'S THINNER 08450
Indicated film thickness, dry: 70 micron [2.8 mils]
Indicated film thickness, wet: 100 micron [4 mils]
Overcoat interval, min: According to specification.
Overcoat interval, max: According to specification.
-
Safety: Handle with care. Before and during use, observe all safety labels on packaging and paint containers,
consult HEMPEL Safety Data Sheets and follow all local or national safety regulations.

Date of issue: January 2016 Page: 1/2

Date of issue: January 2016 Page: 1/2

105
6.12 Antifouling compatibility
Overcoating old antifouling paints with new types requires very thorough investigation at times.
Previous overcoating experiences also becomes relevant. It becomes difficult therefore to
create an easy, ready to use compatibility matrix when it comes to overcoating.

Please contact the nearest Hempel Technical Representative for expert advice.

106
 6.13 Impressed current cathodic protection
When Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) systems are used, the voltage necessary
for passivating the hull is continuously measured by the use of reference electrodes.

Several types of reference electrodes may be used and since the potential is normally referred
to any of these, it is important to know their potential relations.

Copper/Copper Sulfate, +316 mV

+276 mV, Silver/Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl)

Saturated Calomel, +241 mV

0 mV, Hydrogen

Zinc, -766 mV

When testing and specifying Hempel – unless otherwise stated – use and refer to the
Saturated Calomel reference electrode as basis.
107
6.14 Tank ventilation
Solvent vapours are heavier than air
This means that solvent vapours expectedly will concentrate at the bottom of confined spaces
and as a consequence efficient removal requires that suction must take place at these areas.

Control both Inlet Air and Exhaust Air

Exhaust by suction is the normal way – but to fully control the ventilation flow forced inlet
blowing should always be used in cooperation with the suction. Forced inlet blowing is also
necessary when controlling the atmosphere in the confined space through dehumidifiers.

Sometimes general ventilation is not enough

Local areas inside the confined space may not be sufficiently ventilated through the general
ventilation installation. Explosion-proof portable blowers can be put in place to secure
ventilation of the local areas.

108
 6.15 True surface area
Projected Smooth True Topographic
Surface Areas Surface Area

Surface area ratio (estimated)

Rz, microns Smooth Topographic
30 1 1.27
40 1 1.36
50 1 1.45
60 1 1.54
70 1 1.63

It may be thought of that this affects practical consumption of the primer but this is not true
for Hempel’s standard specification, that is, if the surface roughness is specified and the
guidance for DFT measurements given in this booklet and in Hempel’s Code of Practice 0209-1
is followed.

Only in three cases will compensation for consumption have to be considered:

1. When applying shopprimers
Reference is made to the Product Data Sheets and section 6.7.1/2/3 of this handbook.
When applying shopprimers, the dry film thickness is often lower than the roughness of the
substrate and the drying time is considerably quick that the film simply follows the contour of
the roughness.

2. When surface roughness deviates from the specified

In this case refer to section 6.16

3. If ISO 19840 is referred to in the specification including the normative reference section
Compensation will have to be made depending on the surface roughness according to
ISO 8503. A careful study of the standard is advised.

109
6.16 Dead volume
What is it?
The ‘Dead Volume’ is defined in relation to consumption as the volume of dry paint needed
to fill up the valleys up to the level of the highest peaks of an abrasive blasted surface. This
is often seen as an extra consumption since real corrosion protection in the long term is only
realized in overpeak DFT – the thickness above the peaks and after filling the dead volume.

Paint filling dead volume Paint filling dead volume + overpeak DFT

The approximate relationship between the roughness parameter Rz and ‘Dead Volume’
is given below
Rz microns 30 45 60 75 90 105
‘Dead Volume’ cm³/m² 20 30 40 50 60 70

How to calculate the volume of paint required?

Area (m²) x ‘Dead Volume’ (cm³/m²)
Total Dead Volume (liters) = Volume Solids (%) x 10 x consumption factor (CF)

Is it necessary to consider ‘Dead Volume’?

A good answer will be generally not and can be argued on condition that the surface roughness
is stated in the Painting Specification and Hempel’s rules for adjustment of the DFT gauge
has been followed. The latter adjusts to an imaginary line so close to the imaginary average
paint line for the ‘Dead Volume’ making these two almost the same. Reference is made to the
Hempel’s Code of Practice 0209-1.

When to consider ‘Dead Volume’?

When surface roughness deviates form that specified it may be useful to take “Dead Volume”
into consideration. In this case, use the difference between ‘Dead Volume’ in the specification
and the one corresponding to the measured roughness to calculate a possible increase in
practical consumption.

110
 6.17 Water cleaning, definitions and standards
Water at higher pressures for cleaning – not only for salt removal – but for removal of paint,
rust and debris is an acceptable method of surface preparation.

It is environmentally friendly – generating no dust and it is very efficient at removing soluble

salts from the surface. In addition, the non-use of abrasives results in a more economical
waste disposal and the risk of abrasives particles accumulating in pumps is eliminated.
It stands out therefore as a winning choice in surface preparation for maintenance.

The main limitation of this method is that it does not remove intact mill scale and does not
create a surface profile which makes it unsuitable in preparing new steel – rust grade A and B
(ISO 8501-1).

ISO Standard
ISO 8501-4 – Initial surface conditions, preparation grades and flash rust grades in connection
with high-pressure water jetting.

The following are excerpts from this pictorial standard.

Water cleaning definitions and pressures

Low Pressure Water Cleaning (LPWC) < 34 MPa (<5,000 psi)
High Pressure Water Cleaning (HPWC) ≥34 MPa (≥5,000 psi) up to 70 MPa (10,000psi)
High Pressure Water Jetting (HPWJ) 70 MPa (10,000 psi) up to 200 MPa (30,000 psi)
Ultra-High Pressure Water Jetting (UHPWJ) >200 MPa (30,000 psi)

Description of the surface appearance after cleaning

Wa 1 Light high-pressure water jetting

When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be from visible oil and
grease, loose or defective paint, loose rust and other foreign matter. Any residual
contamination shall be randomly dispersed and firmly adherent.

Wa 2 Thorough high-pressure water jetting

When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be from visible oil and grease, and
dirt of most of the rust, previous paint coatings and other foreign matter. Any residual
contamination shall be randomly dispersed and can consist of firmly adherent coatings,
firmly adherent foreign matter and stains of previously existent rust.

Wa 2 ½ Very thorough high-pressure water jetting

When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be from all visible rust, oil,
grease, dirt, previous paint coatings and except for slight traces, all other foreign
matter. Discoloration of the surface can be present where the original coating was not
intact. The grey or brown/black discoloration observed on pitted and corroded steel
cannot be removed by further water jetting.
111
6.17 Water cleaning, definitions and standards (continued)

Descriptions of the surface appearance for three flash rust grades

L Light flash rust

A surface which when viewed without magnification, exhibits small quantities of
a yellow/brown rust layer through which the steel substrate can be seen. The rust
(seen as a discoloration) can be evenly distributed or present in patches, but it will
be tightly adherent and not easily removed by gentle wiping with a cloth.

M Medium flash rust

A surface which when viewed without magnification, exhibits a layer of yellow/brown
rust that obscures the original steel surface. The rust layer can be evenly distributed or
present in patches, but it will be reasonably well adherent and it will lightly mark a cloth
that is gently wiped over the surface.

H Heavy flash rust

A surface which when viewed without magnification, exhibits a layer of red-yellow/brown
rust that obscures the original steel surface and is loosely adherent. The rust layer can
be evenly distributed or present in patches adherent and it will readily mark a cloth that
is gently wiped over the surface.

Other standards

SSPC-SP 12/NACE No. 5, Surface Preparation and Cleaning of Metals by Waterjetting Prior
to Recoating
This standard was issued before ISO 8501-4. It will be seen therefore that there are close
similarities between the two, for example, water cleaning pressures and definitions and
descriptions of flash rust occurrence after cleaning.

Visual Surface Preparation Definitions

WJ-1 Clean to Bare Substrate
WJ-2 Very Thorough or Substantial Cleaning
WJ-3 Thorough Cleaning
WJ-4 Light Cleaning

Description of Nonvisible Surface Cleanliness Definitions (NV) as verified by field or

laboratory analysis using reliable, reproducible test methods
NV-1 free of detectable levels of soluble contaminants
Nv-2 less than 7 µg/cm² chloride contaminants, less than 10 µg/cm² soluble ferrous ion
levels or less than 17 µg/cm² of sulfate contaminants
NV-3 less than 50 µg/cm² chloride or sulfate contaminants

112
 6.18.1 DFT rules, general
Very relevant questions
How to ensure that the specification is met? How many measurements should be taken? How to
decide if measurements taken are acceptable or not? What is the acceptable maximum DFT?

The customer buys a defined DFT according to the specification. Ideally, he should not get less.
In practice, we know that a job is never perfect but on the other hand insufficiencies should not
be too large neither in quantity (area) nor in quality (thickness).

DFT decision rules like “80-20”, or “90-10” or other variations are useful in so many ways.

How does it work? Let us take 80-20 rule as an example

“80-20”
Quality (DFT) Quantity (Readings)
DFT must not be less than 80% Maximum of 20% of the total number of
of the specified readings may be below the specified DFT

Many other combinations of figures for the rule can be used and the sum does not necessarily
have to be 100. Common DFT rules and their areas of use are given below:
“80-20” “90-10”
Shipbuilding including tank coatings with Containers
Resistance Guides
Specified rule in IMO/Performance Standard
Offshore and Onshore constructions for Protective Coatings (PSPC) for Ballast
Tanks, Cargo Tanks, Void Spaces

The rules are applicable to general surfaces but in areas that are rather difficult to paint, for
example rear sides of bulb profiles, it is recommended to check these separately.

How many measurements to take?

The accuracy of making the correct decision is invariably linked to taking a certain amount of
readings at random. Guidelines to how many readings to take are indicated on 6.18.2.

How to decide? Let’s take once more the “80-20” rule as example
80 20
No reading may be below 80 % of specified No more than 20% of the total number of
DFT without repair being undertaken measurements may be between the minimum
and the specified DFT without repair being
undertaken

113
6.18.2 DFT rules, sampling plan
How many measurements to take?
Several international as well as local standards are now paying interest to statistical methods
when checking DFT. Today, both ISO and SSPC have issued standards.

Quoted below is the sampling plan as described in ISO 19840, Measurement of and
acceptance criteria for DFT measurements.

Area/length of inspection Minimum number of Maximum number of

area, m² or m measurements measurements allowed to be
repeated
Up to 1 5 1
Above 1 to 3 10 2
Above 3 to 10 15 3
Above 10 to 30 20 4
Above 30 to 100 30 6
Above 100 Add 10 for every additional 20% of the minimum number
100 m² or 100 m or part of measurements
thereof

Area above 1000 m² or m should be divided into small areas.

Please further refer to this standard’s acceptance and rejection criteria as well as the special
correction value to account for steel surface roughness.

Containers
Note Checking container DFT is very important because of the general low DFT specified
for these and the intense manufacturing procedures. Therefore very frequent checks,
many measurements and the use of the 90:10 Rule are necessary. A different
measurement procedure – taking full advantage of modern electronic equipment – is
used as a part of an integrated reporting system.

Chemically Resistant Tank Coatings

Note Also here correct DFT is very important. One (1) reading for every 2 m² is
recommended.

Other important standards

SSPC PA-2 is sometimes specified. Please refer to the standard for details on procedures and
acceptance rules.

114
 6.19 Indicative dry service temperature resistance of generic paint types

For specific information on Hempel products, please refer to the individual Product Data Sheet.
°C -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 120 160 200 400 600

Alkyds
Bitumen
Chlor – rubbers
Acrylics
Vinyls
Epoxies
Polyurethanes
Silicates
Silicones
°F -40 -4 32 68 104 140 176 248 320 392 752 1112

Mixtures of binders usually resist temperatures within the range of their individual resistances.

Note, however, the sign which is also valid for mixed binders.

Suitable for continuous dry service.

Suitability will depend on pigmentation. Above 400°C, only aluminium pigmentation is

suitable.

Suitable for short temporary service only.

Do not exceed maximum temperature. Binder decomposes.

115
6.20 Estimating size of affected areas
Hempel’s CART (Coating Adviser Reporting Tool) makes use of defined percentage ranges
of breakdown when reporting observed defects primarily that of visible corrosion on painted
surfaces.

Below is an illustrative sketch of % breakdown following CART definitions. Please note that this
is only a rough guide and practically valid for large, flat continuous surfaces. Profiles and other
complicated structures will require a more thorough estimation.

It is also important to remember that when reporting % breakdown, the focus must be only
on visible defects. Take note that the repair areas afterwards will always be greater than the
estimated % breakdown.

3% of total affected 6% of total affected

15% of total affected 33% of total affected

116
 6.21 Corrosion categories (ISO 12944-2)
This part of ISO 12944 defines atmospheric corrosivity categories based on mass loss
(or thickness loss) of standard specimens, describes different categories of environment
for submerged structures and gives useful information on some special corrosion stresses.
The data on the tables below are taken from the relevant pages of this standard.
Refer to the actual standard if more details are required.

Atmospheric corrosivity categories and examples of typical environments

Low-carbon Examples of typical environments in temperate climate
Corrosivity steel (informative only)
category Thickness Exterior Interior
loss microns
C1 Heated buildings with clean
very low ≤ 1.3 - atmospheres, e.g. offices,
shops, schools, hotels
C2 Atmospheres with low level of Unheated buildings where
low >= 1.3 to 25 pollution. Mostly rural areas condensation may occur, e.g.
depots, sports halls
Urban and industrial Production rooms with
C3 atmospheres, moderate sulfur high humidity and some air
medium >25 to 59 dioxide pollution. Coastal pollution, e.g. food processing
areas with low salinity plants, laundries, breweries,
dairies
Industrial areas and coastal Chemical plants, swimming
C4 >50 to 80 with moderate salinity pools, coastal ship and
high boatyards
C5-I >80 to Industrial areas with high Buildings or areas with almost
very high 200like C5-M humidity and aggressive permanent condensation and
(industrial) atmosphere with high pollution
C5-M Coastal and offshore areas Buildings or areas with almost
very high > 80 to 200 with high salinity permanent condensation and
(marine) with high pollution

Categories for water and soil

Category Environment Examples of environment
Im1 Fresh water River installations, hydro-
electric power plants
Im2 Sea or brackish water Harbour areas with structures
like sluice gates, locks, jetties,
offshore structures
Im3 Soil Buried tanks, steel piles,
steel pipes

117
6.22 Wind scales
Can we paint today?
Relative humidity and air temperature are critical decision criteria in all cases but application
in open air conditions, wind becomes an important criterion. Below is given the Beaufort scale,
an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land, and
comments regarding suitability for airless spray application.

Wind speed
Beaufort Comments
Descrip- on spray
Number
tion application
(force) km/h mph knots m/s

Calm Painting
0 < 1.1 < 0.7 < 0.6 < 0.3
possible with
standard
1 1.1-5.5 0.7-3.4 0.6-3.0 0.3-1.5 Light air consumption
factor

2 5.5-11.9 3.4-7.4 3.0-6.4 1.5-3.3 Light breeze Painting may

be possible
with expected
3 11.9-19.7 7.4-12.2 6.4-10.6 3.3-5.5 Gentle breeze excessive
consumption
factor and
Moderate severe risk of
4 19.7-28.7 12.2-17.9 10.6-15.5 5.5-8.0
breeze dry spray
5 28.7-38.8 17.9-24.1 15.5-21 8.0-10.8 Fresh breeze

6 38.8-49.9 24.1-31.0 21.0-26.9 10.8-13.9 Strong breeze

7 49.9-61.8 31.0-38.4 26.9-33.4 13.9-17.2 Near gale

8 61.8-74.6 38.4-46.3 33.4-40.3 17.2-20.7 Gale Painting not

possible
9 74.6-88.1 46.3-54.8 40.3-47.6 20.7-24.5 Strong gale

10 88.1-102.4 54.8-63.6 47.6-55.3 24.5-28.4 Storm

11 102.4-117.4 63.6-72.9 55.3-63.4 28.4-32.6 Violent storm

12 ≥ 117.4 ≥ 72.9 ≥ 63.4 ≥ 32.6 Hurricane

Even at lower wind speeds, local conditions for example in between tanks may create stronger
winds than average and make spray application in these areas critical.

118
 6.23 Disinfection of tanks
In general, potable water tanks are disinfected and the water often needs additional
conservation. In some instances, cargo holds and chemical tanks may require disinfection
before the next cargo is loaded. This practice is now becoming more frequent. Further
discussions are coming up as to disinfection of ship’s ballast tanks to avoid transportation of
biological flora and fauna worldwide.

Most commonly used disinfecting chemicals are based on chlorine, for example Sodium
Hypochlorite or Chloramine although Hydrogen Peroxide is more frequently encountered as
it does not need to be removed after disinfection but simply filled-up with water. Disinfection
chemicals are all destructive to coatings and in order to minimize the risk of damage certain
rules need to be observed.

Rules to respect
1. Mix the paint carefully before application and allow for sufficient induction time. Keep within
the DFT specification limits and follow specified overcoating intervals along with sufficient
ventilation between coats especially for solvent containing paints.
2. Adhere to specified limits of temperature during application, drying and curing to avoid risk
of exudation.
3. The coating must be fully cured and completely free of solvents before disinfection is carried
out. This is usually between 7 to 10 days at 20°C and with proper running ventilation.
4. Disinfection at intervals less than one month should be avoided whenever possible. Ensure
that the whole painted system including valves, pipes and hoses are disinfected.

Recommended Maximum Concentrations for use in tanks and cargo holds,

(maximum 35°C/95°F)
Sodium Hypochlorite Hydrogen Peroxide
Chemical resistant Disinfection Conservation Disinfection
coating system
(generic) Max. Max. Max. Max. Max.
concn’ hours concn’ concn’ hours
ppm ppm %
Coal tar epoxy 50 4 NR 0.25 0.5
Modified epoxy 50 4 1 0.25 0.5
Epoxy polyamide 50 12 3 0.5 1
Epoxy polyamine 100 12 6 1 1
Phenolic epoxy 100 24 6 1 1

Amount of Sodium Hypochlorite (10-15% solution) to be added to

1000 liters of fresh water to form a solution of:
Disinfection Conservation
To obtain a concn’ Add To obtain a concn’ Add
50 ppm 330 ml 1 ppm 7 ml
100 ppm 660 ml 3 ppm 20 ml
6 ppm 40 119
ml
6.24 Phonetic alphabet
There exists a number of phonetic alphabets but the NATO version is the most widely used.
The ICAO developed this system in the 1950s in order to account for discrepancies that might
arise in communications as a result of multiple alphabet naming systems coexisting in different
places and organizations.

Letter Code Word Pronounced as Letter Code Word Pronounced as

A Alfa AL FAH N November NO VEM BER
B Bravo BRAH VOH O Oscar OSS CAH
C Charlie CHAR LEE P Papa PAH PAH
D Delta DELL TAH Q Quebec KEH BECK
E Echo ECK OH R Romeo ROW ME OH
F Foxtrot FOKS TROT S Sierra SEE AIRRAH
G Golf GOLF T Tango TANG GO
H Hotel HOH TELL U Uniform YOU NEE FORM
I India IN DEE AH V Victor VIK TAH
J Juliett JEW LEE ETT W Whiskey WISS KEY
K Kilo KEY LOH X X-ray ECKS RAY
L Lima LEE MAH Y Yankee YANG KEY
M Mike MIKE Z Zulu ZOO LOO

Digit Pronounced as Digit Pronounced as

0 ZE-RO 6 SIX
1 WUN 7 SEV-EN
2 TOO 8 AIT
3 TREE 9 NIN-ER
4 FOW-ER (.) decimal point DAY-SEE-MAL
5 FIFE (.) full stop STOP

120
7.
Conversion tables
and practical
references
7.1 Common units and conversion factors
Mass (M)
1 pound mass = 453.924 grams
= 0.45359 kilograms
1 ton (metric) = 1000 kilograms
= 2204.62 pound mass
Length (L)
1 mil = 25.4 microns
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 foot = 30.48 centimeters
= 0.3048 meters
1 yard = 0.9144 meters
1 mile (US) = 1.60935 kilometers
1 nautical mile = 1.85324 kilometers
Area (L²)
1 square foot = 0.09290304 square meter
Volume (L³)
1 cubic foot = 0.02831685 cubic meter
= 28.31685 liters
= 7.481 gallons (US)
1 gallon = 3.7853 liters
= 231 cubic inches
Spreading Rate (L²/L³)
1 square foot/US gallon = 0.02454311 square meter/liter
Density (M/L³)
1 pound mass/cubic foot = 0.01601846 grams/cubic centimeters
= 16.01846 kilograms/cubic meter
Pressure (F/L²)
1 atm = 760 mm Hg at 20°C
= 14.696 pounds/square inch
= 1.01325 x 105 Newtons/square meter
= 1.01325 bars
= 1.033 kgf/square centimeter
1 bar = 14.5 pounds/square inch
1 N/square millimeter = 1 Mega Pascal
1 kgf/square centimeter = 0.098 Mega Pascal
Velocity (linear), speed
1 foot/second = 0.3048 meter/second
1 mile/hour = 1.609344 kilometers/hour
1 knot = 1.852 kilometers/hour
Energy
Btu = 0.0002930711 kiloWatthour
1 kilocalorie = 0.00116222 1 kiloWatthour
Power X ?
1 kilocalorie/hour = 1.162222 Watts
1 horsepower = 0.7456999 kiloWatts
VOC
1 pounds/US gallon = 119.92708 grams/liter
 7.2 Temperature conversion table
°C °F °C °F °C °F
-10 14
-9 16 11 52 31 88
-8 18 12 54 32 90
-7 19 13 55 33 91
-6 21 14 57 34 93
-5 23 15 59 34 95
-4 25 16 61 36 97
-3 27 17 63 37 99
-2 28 18 64 38 100
-1 30 19 66 39 102
0 32 20 68 40 104
1 34 21 70 41 106
2 36 22 72 42 108
3 37 23 73 43 109
4 39 24 75 44 111
5 41 25 77 45 113
6 43 26 79 46 115
7 45 27 81 47 117
8 46 28 82 48 118
9 48 29 84 49 120
10 50 30 86 50 122

For all other temperatures, use the formula below:

From To Formula
°C °F (1.8 * °C) + 32
°F °C (°F – 32)/1.8

123
7.3 Wet film thickness
The wet film thicknesses (WFT) below correspond exactly to the dry film thickness (DFT) at the
given Volume Solids. Most of the WFT gauges teeth used in practice are scaled in 25 microns
step and with that in mind always choose the next tooth higher than the calculated WFTs below.

Effect of thinning
Addition of thinner to the paint will lower its Volume Solids. In case of thinning, be sure to
calculate the new Volume Solids using the formula: 100
New Volume Solids (%) = Data Sheet Volume Solids (%)* (100 + % Thinning)
HIGH BUILD and HIGH SOLIDS PAINTS
DFT VOLUME SOLIDS (%)
µm 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
40 80
50 100 91
60 120 109 100
70 140 127 117 108 100
75 150 136 125 115 107
80 160 145 133 123 114 107 100
90 180 164 150 138 129 120 113 106 100
100 200 182 167 154 143 133 125 118 111 105 100
125 250 227 208 192 179 167 156 147 139 132 125
150 300 273 250 231 214 200 188 176 167 158 150
175 318 292 269 250 233 219 206 194 184 175
200 333 308 286 267 250 235 222 211 200
225 346 321 300 281 265 250 237 225
250 385 357 333 313 294 278 263 250
275 393 367 344 324 306 289 275
300 429 400 375 353 333 316 300
350 467 438 412 389 368 350
400 500 471 444 421 400
450 529 500 474 450
500 556 526 500
LOW SOLIDS, ENAMELS and SHOPPRIMERS
DFT VOLUME SOLIDS (%)
µm 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
15 100 75 60 50 43
20 133 100 80 67 57
25 167 125 100 83 71 63 56
30 200 150 120 100 86 75 67 60 55
35 175 140 117 100 88 78 70 64 58
40 200 160 133 114 100 89 80 73 67
45 180 150 129 113 100 90 82 75
50 200 167 143 125 111 100 91 83
124
 7.4 Volume Solids after thinning
As stated in 7.3, adding thinner to a paint will lower its Volume Solids. The table below shows
the reduced Volume Solids at typical thinning percentages.

Data Sheet % Thinning

Volume 5 10 15 20 25 30
Solids (%)
New Volume Solids (%)
20 19 18 17 17 16 15
25 24 23 22 21 20 19
30 29 27 26 25 24 23
35 33 32 30 29 28 27
40 38 36 35 33 32 31
45 43 41 39 38 36 35
50 48 45 43 42 40 38
55 52 50 48 46 44 42
60 57 55 52 50 48 46
65 62 59 57 54 52 50
70 67 64 61 58 56 54
75 71 68 65 63 60 58
80 76 73 70 67 64 62
85 81 77 74 71 68 65
90 86 82 78 75 72 69
95 90 86 83 79 76 73
100 95 91 87 83 80 77

125
7.5 Dew point table
Dew point can easily be determined directly from a commercially available sling psychrometer
or through the use of a dew point calculator. Modern apps are also available for free download
that can very quickly give out a dew point by plugging-in known values of dry bulb temperature
and relative humidity. The table below gives the dew point value at various combinations of dry
bulb temperature and relative humidity.

RH Air temperature, °C
% 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
20 -20.2 -18.5 -16.8 -15.2 -13.5 -11.8 -10.2 -8.5 -6.9 -5.2 -3.6
25 -17.6 -15.9 -14.2 -12.5 -10.8 -9.1 -7.4 -5.7 -4.0 -2.3 -0.6
30 -15.4 -13.7 -11.9 -10.2 -8.5 -6.7 -5.0 -3.3 -1.5 0.2 1.9
35 -13.6 -11.8 -10.0 -8.2 -6.5 -4.7 -2.9 -1.2 0.6 2.3 4.1
40 -11.9 -10.1 -8.3 -6.5 -4.7 -2.9 -1.1 0.6 2.4 4.2 6.0
45 -10.5 -8.6 -6.8 -5.0 -3.2 -1.3 0.5 2.3 4.1 5.9 7.7
50 -9.1 -7.3 -5.4 -3.6 -1.8 0.1 1.9 3.8 5.6 7.4 9.3
55 -7.9 -6.1 -4.2 -2.3 -0.5 1.4 3.3 5.1 7.0 8.8 10.7
60 -6.8 -4.9 -3.0 -1.1 0.7 2.6 4.5 6.4 8.3 10.1 12.0
65 -5.8 -3.9 -2.0 -0.1 1.8 3.7 5.6 7.5 9.4 11.3 13.2
70 -4.8 -2.9 -1.0 1.0 2.9 4.8 6.7 8.6 10.5 12.5 14.4
75 -3.9 -1.9 0.0 1.9 3.9 5.8 7.7 9.6 11.6 13.5 15.4
80 -3.0 -1.1 0.9 2.8 4.8 6.7 8.7 10.6 12.6 14.5 16.4
85 -2.2 -0.2 1.7 3.7 5.6 7.6 9.6 11.5 13.5 15.4 17.4
90 -1.4 0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.4 10.4 12.4 14.4 16.3 18.3
95 -0.7 1.3 3.3 5.3 7.3 9.2 11.2 13.2 15.2 17.2 19.2
100 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
20 -1.9 -0.3 1.3 3.0 4.6 6.3 7.9 9.5 11.1 12.8 14.4
25 1.1 2.8 4.5 6.2 7.8 9.5 11.2 12.9 14.5 16.2 17.9
30 3.7 5.4 7.1 8.8 10.5 12.3 14.0 15.7 17.4 19.1 20.8
35 5.9 7.6 9.4 11.1 12.9 14.6 16.4 18.1 19.9 21.6 23.3
40 7.8 9.6 11.4 13.1 14.9 16.7 18.5 20.3 22.0 23.8 25.6
45 9.5 11.3 13.2 15.0 16.8 18.6 20.4 22.2 24.0 25.8 27.6
50 11.1 12.9 14.8 16.6 18.4 20.3 22.1 23.9 25.7 27.6 29.4
55 12.6 14.4 16.3 18.1 20.0 21.8 23.7 25.5 27.4 29.2 31.1
60 13.9 15.8 17.6 19.5 21.4 23.2 25.1 27.0 28.9 30.7 32.6
65 15.1 17.0 18.9 20.8 22.7 24.6 26.5 28.4 30.2 32.1 34.0
70 16.3 18.2 20.1 22.0 23.9 25.8 27.7 29.6 31.6 33.5 35.4
75 17.4 19.3 21.2 23.1 25.1 27.0 28.9 30.9 32.8 34.7 36.6
80 18.4 20.3 22.3 24.2 26.2 28.1 30.0 32.0 33.9 35.9 37.8
85 19.4 21.3 23.3 25.2 27.2 29.2 31.1 33.1 35.0 37.0 38.9
90 20.3 22.3 24.2 26.2 28.2 30.1 32.1 34.1 36.1 38.0 40.0
95 21.2 23.1 25.1 27.1 29.1 31.1 33.1 35.1 37.1 39.0 41.0
100 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0 42.0
 7.6 The Mollier (IX) diagram
The Mollier diagram is a very useful tool for determining among other things dew point, relative
humidity and the actual moisture content of air at a given temperature which then as a
consequence allows for determining how much ventilation is required to achieve an optimum
microclimate conditions during work, for example, tank coating projects. Please study relevant
literature for correct usage of the diagram.

IX-Diagram

127
 Fan Equivalent Graco DeVilbiss Binks Spraying Atlas Copco Speeflo Delavan Nordson Wagner

128
Angle orifice Systems
95° 0.024” 924 c2495
0.026” 926 JAC-44 9-2690 9501TC 6895-0001 c2695
0.029” 929 c2995 0045/20
0.031” 931 9-3190 95015TC 6895-0015 c3195
0.036” 936 9-3690 9502TC 6895-0020 c3695 0068/20
80° 0.017” 817 0014/16
0.018” JAC-41 9-1880 800050TC 6880-0050 702-188 c1880 818
0.019” 819
0.021” 821 9-2180 800067TC 6880-0067 702-218 c2180 0020/16 821
0.023” 823 c2480 0030/16
0.026” 826 9-2680 8001TC 6880-0010 702-268 c2680 826
0.029” 829 c2980 0045/16
0.031” 831 9-3180 80015TC 6880-0015 702-318 c3180 831
60°-65° 0.017” 617 0014/12
0.018” JAC-31 9-1860 650050TC 6865-0050 c1865 618
0.019” 619 0020/12
0.021” 621 9-2160 650067TC 6865-0067 c2165 621
0.023” 623 0030/12
0.026” 626 9-2660 6501TC 6865-0010 c2665 626
0.029” 629 c2965 0045/12
0.031” 631 9-3160 65015TC 6865-0015 c3165 631
0.036” 636 9-3660 6502TC 6865-0020 c3665 0068/12 636
7.7 Airless spray – comparative nozzle designations
 Fan Equivalent Graco DeVilbiss Binks Spraying Atlas Copco Speeflo Delavan Nordson Wagner
Angle orifice Systems
50° 0.017” 517 0014/08
0.018” JAC-44 9-1850 500050TC 6850-0050 702-185 c1850 518
0.019” 519
0.021” 521 9-2150 500067TC 6850-0067 702-215 c2150 0020/08 521
0.023” 523 0030/08
0.026” 526 9-2650 5001TC 6850-0001 702-265 c2650 526
0.029” 529 JAC-41 0045/08
0.031” 531 9-3150 6850-0015 702-315 c3150 531
40° 0.015” 415 JAC-29 9-1540 400033TC 6840-0033 702-154 c1540 415
0.017” 417 0014/06
0.018” 9-1840 400050TC 6840-0050 702-184 c1840 418
0.019” 419
0.021” 421 9-2140 400067TC 6840-0067 702-214 c2140 0020/06 421
0.026” 426 JAC-43 9-2640 4001TC 6840-0001 702-264 c2640 426
0.029” 429 c2940 0045/06
0.031” 431 9-3140 40015TC 6840-0015 702-314 c3140 431
20°-25° 0.015” 215 9-1530 250033TC 6825-0033 c1525 215
0.017” 217 0014/02
0.018” 9-1830 250050TC c1825 218
0.019” 219
0.021” 221 9-2130 250067TC 6825-0067 c2125 221

129
7.8 Airless spray – nozzle output diagram
• Approximate only
• Most suitable for low viscosity paints

130
 7.9 Airless spray – pressure loss in hoses
Pressure loss or pressure drop in airless hoses can be very significant which may affect the
quality of spraying. Pressure loss is higher at faster flow rate (increasing nozzle size) and lower
hose diameter.

The table below gives the approximate pressure loss for every 10 meters hose length for three
paint types:
Paint A: Low viscosity, for example, shopprimers.
Paint B: Medium viscosity, for example, alkyds, waterborne acrylics.
Paint C: High viscosity, for example, most high build paints and solvent-free paints.

Indicative pressure loss (bars) / 10 meters hose length

Nozzle 0.019” 0.023” 0.027” 0.035”
size
Pressure, 100 150 200 100 150 200 100 150 200 100 150 200
bars
1/4” ID
Paint A 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 9.0 11
Paint B 20 25 30 30 35 45 45 50 60 75 90 110
Paint C 45 55 65 65 80 95 95 120 140 - - -
3/8” ID
Paint A 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1
Paint B 4.0 5.6 6.0 6.0 7.5 10 8.5 11 12 15 18 22
Paint C 10 10 15 15 15 20 20 25 30 35 40 50
1/2” ID
Paint A 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Paint B 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Paint C 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 6.0 7.5 8.5 11 13 15

131
7.10 Surface area estimates – ships
Bottom A = [(2 x d) + B ] x Lpp x P
(including Where
Boottop)
d = Draught, maximum As per Lloyd’s
B = Breadth, extreme As per Lloyd’s
Lpp = Length between perpendiculars As per Lloyd’s
P = 0.90 for big tankers
0.85 for bulk carriers
0.70-0.75 for dry cargo liners
V
Bm x Lpp x D A = Lpp x (Bm +2 x D) x
Where
D = Mean draft at paint line
Bm = Breadth, moulded
Lpp = Length between perpendiculars
V = Displacement (m³) corresponding to the draft
Boottop A = 2 x H x (Lpp + 0.5 x B)
Where
H = Height of topsides (depth – draught) As per Lloyd’s
Lpp = Length between perpendiculars As per Lloyd’s
B = Breadth, extreme As per Lloyd’s
Topsides A = 2 x H x (Loa + 0.5 x B)
Where
H = Height of topsides (depth – draught) As per Lloyd’s
Loa = Length overall As per Lloyd’s
B = Breadth, extreme As per Lloyd’s
Weather decks A = Loa x B x N
including (The accuracy depends on the choice of N which indicates
upper the actual area in relation to its circumscribed rectangular)
decks on Where
superstructure
Loa = Length overall As per Lloyd’s
foundations,
hatches and B = Breadth, extreme As per Lloyd’s
top of deck N = 0.92 for big tankers and bulk carriers
houses
= 0.88 for cargo liners
= 0.84 for coasters, etc.
“Insert photo of ship”

132
 7.11 Surface area estimates – ship’s ballast tanks
Below figures are approximations only and will in practice depend on construction of the tank.

Tank Area (approximate), m²

Volume Double Bottom Tanks
m³
Stb & Port Centre & Deep Top side tanks Fore peak tank
tanks / Aft tank
200 - 950 550 950
400 2150 1800 1050 1650
600 3000 2650 1500 2200
800 3850 3400 2000 2600
1000 4650 4050 2450 3000
1200 5400 4700 2950 3300
1400 6100 5300 3400 3650
1600 6800 5900 3800 3950
1800 7500 6500 4300 4300
2000 8150 7100 4750 4600
2200 8900 7650 5150 4950
2400 9600 8250 5600 5350
2600 10300 8800 6050 5700
2800 11000 9400 6500 6100
3000 11700 10050 6950 6350
3200 12300 10600 7400 6800
3400 12950 11200 7850 7150
3600 12600 11800 8300 7550
3800 14300 12400 8700 7950
4000 15000 12950 9100 8300
4200 15650 13500 9600 8750
4400 16300 14100 10050 9200
4600 16950 14750 10500 9600
4800 17600 15400 10900 10100
5000 18200 16050 11350 10500

133
7.12 Surface area estimates – steel plates
Plate Thickness Area Plate Thickness Area
mm m²/ton mm m²/ton
1 254.5 16 15.9
2 127.2 17 15.0
3 84.8 18 14.1
4 63.6 19 13.4
5 50.9 20 12.7
6 42.4 21 12.1
7 36.4 22 11.6
8 31.8 23 11.1
9 28.3 24 10.6
10 25.4 25 10.2
11 23.1 26 9.8
12 21.2 27 9.4
13 19.6 28 9.1
14 18.2 29 8.8
15 17.0 30 8.5

Note Area indicated is for both sides of the plate.

Pipes
Now included under simple shapes!

134
7.13 Surface area estimates – beams and profiles
Designation / Shape Size Weight Surface Area
kg/m m²/m m²/ton
HEB 100 20.8 0.567 27.3
EN 10025-1/2 160 43.4 0.918 21.1
220 72.8 1.270 17.4
280 105.0 1.620 15.4
360 145.0 1.850 12.7
600 216.0 2.320 10.7
INP 80 6.06 0.303 50.0
EN 10025-1/2 140 14.6 0.506 34.7
200 26.7 0.709 26.5
260 42.7 0.908 21.3
340 69.3 1.150 16.6
400 94.2 1.330 14.1
HSS (Hot Formed) 20x20x2 1.10 0.075 68.2
EN 10219:1997 30x30x3 2.47 0.112 45.3
40x40x4 4.39 0.150 34.1
60x60x4 8.79 0.230 26.2
80x80x4 9.41 0.310 33.0
UNP 80 8.82 0.313 35.5
EN 10025-1/2 120 13.6 0.429 31.5
160 19.2 0.545 28.4
200 25.7 0.660 25.7
240 33.8 0.776 23.0
280 42.7 0.891 20.9
400 73.2 1.18 16.1
L PROFILE 20x20x3 0.902 0.077 85.4
EN 10025-1/2 25x25x4 1.49 0.097 65.1
30x30x4 1.81 0.116 64.1
40x40x4 2.46 0.155 63.0
50x50x6 4.55 0.194 42.6
50x50x9 6.60 0.194 29.4
75x75x7 8.09 0.291 36.0
75x75x10 11.3 0.291 25.8
100x100x10 15.3 0.390 25.5
150x150x15 34.4 0.586 17.0
200x200x16 49.4 0.785 15.9

135
7.14 Surface area estimates – containers
Approximate size of 20’ Container sections (m²)

Dry Cargo Dry Cargo Open Top

High Cube
Corrugation angle 45° 90° 45° 90°
Exterior excl. roof 51 99 51 59
Roof 16 16 NA NA
Interior 67 75 51 59
Base and floor 22 22 22 22
Total 156 172 124 140

Approximate size of 40’ Container sections (m²)

Dry Cargo Dry Cargo Open Top
High Cube
Corrugation angle 45° 90° 45° 90°
Exterior excl. roof 84 102 95 115 84 103
Roof 32 32 32 32 NA NA
Interior 118 134 130 147 86 102
Base and floor 44 44 44 44 42 44
Total 278 312 301 338 212 249

Approximate size of Steel Frame Container sections

Size of frame 20’ 40’ 45’ 48’

Area (m²) 25 40 56 66

Calculation of corrugated sheets area

A∘
b1
b2

b1 + b2
Area = Height * Linear Length* (b1*cos A°) + b2

Sizes are depending on construction and corrugation angle. If exact sizes are
Note critical, for example, consumption calculations, refer to the container manufacturer’s
construction drawing.

136
 7.15 Surface area estimates – simple shapes
Designation Shape Area
Squares and Rectangles a*b

Cubes [(a*b) + (a*c)+ (b*c)] * 2

a
b
c

Circular flat  * r²
r = d /2

Spheres  * d²

Cylindrical tanks ( * r² * 2) + ( *d * h)
d r = d /2

Pipes  *d * l

d
l

137
7.16 Filters – sieve scale
A ‘mesh’ is the number of openings per linear inch counting from the center of any wire to a
point exactly 25.4 mm (1 in) distant, or by an opening specified in inches or millimeters, which
is understood to be the clear opening or space between the wires. Common filter sizes used in
paint application are the 60 or 100 mesh. A sieve scale also finds its use in determining the
particle size distribution of abrasives (see also 6.2.3).

The table below gives the relation between the well-established Tyler mesh sizes and other
well-known standards.

Sieve opening BS 410/1962 ASTM E 11-61 Tyler

designation
mm in No. Alternate No. Mesh
0.105 0.004 150 140 150
0.125 0.005 120 120 115
0.149 0.006 - 100 100
0.150 0.006 100 - -
0.177 0.007 - 80 80
0.180 0.007 85 - -
0.210 0.008 72 70 65
0.250 0.010 60 60 60
0.297 0.012 - 50 48
0.300 0.012 52 - -
0.354 0.014 - 45 42
0.355 0.014 44 - -
0.420 0.017 36 40 35
0.500 0.020 30 35 32
0.595 0.023 - 30 28
0.600 0.024 25 - -
0.707 0.028 - 25 24
0.710 0.028 22 - -
0.841 0.033 - 20 20
1.000 0.039 16 18 16
1.190 0.047 - 16 14
1.200 0.047 14 - -
1.250 0.049 - - -
1.410 0.055 - 14 12
1.600 0.063 - - -
1.680 0.066 10 12 10
2.000 0.079 8 10 9

138
 7.17 Calculation of practical paint consumption
There are various ways of expressing the relation between the theoretically calculated amount
of paint needed to correctly match the specified dry film thickness and the practical amount of
paint to be applied taking application conditions and skills into consideration. Hempel makes
use of the term ‘consumption factor’ to express this relation. Others use the term ‘loss’ or ‘loss
factor’. There is a relation between these terms and demonstrated further below. Irrespective
of which factor is used, the calculated practical consumption will be similar. The consumption
factor is always greater than 1 and this is strongly influenced by:

• The result of a spray application will generally result in an average DFT which is higher than
the specified. Typical result gives average DFT being equal to 1.4 x specified DFT. This is not
real ‘loss’ as such since the paint still ends up on the surface

• The fact that some quantity of paint will not end up on the intended surface, for example,
left-overs in the can, pumps and hoses, poor application practices, environmental factors
and more. This may describe ‘loss’ more correctly since the paint here is wasted

Taking this into account, the resulting consumption factor may sometimes reach around 1.8.
Total loss then is influenced by a combination of actual DFT and waste during paint application.

Useful Terms Abbreviation Unit

Volume Solids VS %
Dry film thickness DFT Microns
Area A m²
Loss L %
Consumption factor CF -
Loss factor LF -
Theoretical Consumption TC Liters
Practical Consumption PC Liters
Theoretical Spreading Rate TSR m²/liter
Practical Spreading Rate PSR m²/liter

Formula Sample result1 Formula Sample result1

100 – L
CF = 1.43 LF = 100 0.70
VS * 10
TC = 12.50 TSR = 100 8.00
TSR
PSR = CF 5.60
A
PC = 17.86 PC = PSR 17.86
1
Application area of 100 m². Loss %: 30 – VS %: 80 – DFT: 100 mic 139
8.
Communication

141
8.1 Hempel global offices
2015
Hempel celebrates its 100th anniversary. The company has over 6,000 employees working in
more than 80 countries. It has 28 factories, 11 R&D centres and 150 stock points around the
globe – and nearly 700 litres of Hempel coatings are applied somewhere in the world every minute.

Argentina Buenos Aires +54 2304687200

Australia Melbourne +61 0393600933
Bahrain Manama +973 17728668
Brazil Rio de Janeiro +55 2126038990
Canada Surrey, BC +1 6045364275
Chile Talcahuano +56 322421767
Vina del Mar +56 322790200
China Shanghai +86 2135886788
Croatia Umag +385 52741777/212
Cuba La Habana +53 78668128
Cyprus Limassol +357 25693355
Denmark Kgs. Lyngby +45 45273800
Ecuador Guayaquil +59 342279222
Egypt Alexandria +20 35439782
Cairo +20 27364638
Estonia Tallinn +372 6836750
Finland Helsinki +358 207590800
France Saint Crepin +33 344082890
Germany Pinneberg +49 41017070
Cologne +49 22039117112
Greece Athens +30 2104143400
Iceland Reykjavik +354 5888000
India Mumbai +912 261392555
Indonesia Bekasi +62 218843385
Ireland Dublin +353 18261822
Italy Genoa +39 108356947
Japan Tokyo +81 357104504
Kazakhstan Atyrau +77 017711070
Korea Busan +82 512042966

142
Kuwait Kuwait +965 24813366
Malaysia Shah Alam +603 78453037
Malta Valletta +356 21822268
Mexico Veracruz +52 2299808909
Morocco Casablanca +212 22355373
The Netherlands Rotterdam +31 104454000
New Zealand Auckland +64 95706654
Norway Bergen +47 55958000
Oman Ruwi +968 24497661
Poland Gdansk +48 585218900
Portugal Lisboa +351 218498684
Qatar Doha +974 4413755
Russian Federation Moscow +7 4956636815
Saudi Arabia Dammam +966 38471616
Singapore Singapore +65 67998383
South Africa Cape Town +27 215117550
Durban +27 312747800
Spain Barcelona +34 937130000
Sweden Gothenburg +46 31695250
Syria Damascus +963 114466401
Taiwan Taipei +886 73312380
Turkey Ankara +90 3123541215
Istanbul +90 2166556500
UAE Sharjah +971 65310140
UK Cwmbran +44 1633874024
USA Conroe, TX +1 9365235497
Vietnam Ho Chi Minh +84 8910205
Hanoi +84 439368069

143
8.2 Extra – web sites and apps

Hempel website www.hempel.com/en

FROSIO www.frosio.no/en/

NACE www.nace.org

SSPC www.sspc.org

ISO www.iso.org

ASTM www.astm.org

144
hempel.com

Since 1915, Hempel has been

producing protective coatings that help
customers to safeguard their assets
whilst keeping them looking their best.
Today, we are a world-leading supplier
of trusted solutions in the Protective,
Decorative, Marine, Container and
Yacht markets. Employing over 6,000
people, across 80 countries worldwide,
with 28 factories and more than
150 stock points globally. This includes
many recognised brands like Crown
Paints, Blome International Inc,
Schaepman and Jones-Blair.

Corporate Headquarters
Hempel A/S
Lundtoftegårdsvej 91
2800 Kgs. Lyngby
Denmark

Tel: +45 4593 3800

Fax: +45 4588 5518
Email: [email protected] CORP 02/2016 EN