Physics of

Diving 2
SECTION PAGE

2. 0 GENERAL ........................................................................2- 1
2. 1 PRESSURE........................................................................2- 1
2. 1.1 Atmospheric Pressure..................................................2- 1
2. 1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure ...................................................2- 1
2. 1.3 Absolute Pressure.......................................................2- 1
2. 1.4 Gauge Pressure..........................................................2- 2
2. 1.5 Partial Pressure .........................................................2- 2
2. 2 DENSITY .........................................................................2- 3
2. 2.1 Specific Gravity.........................................................2- 3
2. 3 WATER ...........................................................................2- 3
2. 3.1 Freshwater ...............................................................2- 3
2. 3.2 Seawater..................................................................2- 3
2. 3.3 pH..........................................................................2- 4
2. 4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT................................................2- 4
2. 4.1 Length ....................................................................2- 4
2. 4.2 Area .......................................................................2- 4
2. 4.3 Volume ...................................................................2- 4
2. 4.4 Weight ....................................................................2- 4
2. 5 TEMPERATURE................................................................2- 4
2. 5.1 Heat .......................................................................2- 6
2. 6 BUOYANCY (Archimedes’ Principle) ......................................2- 6
2. 7 GASES USED IN DIVING ...................................................2- 7
2. 7.1 Atmospheric Air ........................................................2- 7
2. 7.2 Oxygen (O2) ..............................................................2- 7
2. 7.3 Nitrogen (N2)............................................................2- 8
2. 7.4 Helium (He)..............................................................2- 8
2. 7.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2).................................................2- 8
2. 7.6 Carbon Monoxide (CO) ...............................................2- 8
2. 7.7 Argon (Ar), Neon (Ne), Hydrogen (H2)............................2- 8
2. 8 GAS LAWS.......................................................................2- 9
2. 8.1 Boyle’s Law..............................................................2- 9
2. 8.2 Charles’/Gay-Lussac’s Law..........................................2-11
2. 8.3 Dalton’s Law............................................................2-11
2. 8.4 Henry’s Law .............................................................2-12
2. 8.5 General Gas Law.......................................................2-13
2. 9 MOISTURE IN BREATHING GAS........................................2-14
2. 9.1 Humidity..................................................................2-15
2. 9.2 Condensation in Breathing Hoses or Mask .......................2-15
2. 9.3 Fogging of the Mask...................................................2-15
2.10 LIGHT .............................................................................2-15
2.10.1 Colors .....................................................................2-15
2.11 SOUND ............................................................................2-16
 Physics of Diving
2
2.0 GENERAL level. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is equal to 14.7
In all diving operations, safety is the primary considera- pounds per square inch (psi) or one atmosphere (atm). The
tion. One key to safety is a clear understanding of the physics higher the altitude above sea level, the lower the atmospher-
of diving. Physics is the field of science dealing with matter ic pressure. For example, at 18,000 ft. (5,486 m), atmos-
and energy and their interactions. This chapter explores pheric pressure is 7.35 psi, or half that at sea level (see
physical laws and principles that pertain to the diving envi- Figure 2.1). At sea level, atmospheric pressure is considered
ronment and its influence on the diver. Gravity is passive, constant and universal; that is, anywhere on the earth at sea
vision and hearing may be misleading, color perception level, the pressure is 14.7 psi. The pressure inside a person’s
changes at varying depth, and breathing dynamics are ever lungs is the same as the pressure outside.
changing. The principles of physics provide the keystone for
understanding the reasons for employing various diving pro- 2.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure
cedures and the operation of associated equipment. Many of Pressure due to the weight of water is called “hydro-
these principles receive further elaboration in other sections static pressure.” The weight of water is cumulative; the
of the NOAA Diving Manual. deeper the dive, the more water there is above the diver
and the greater the weight of that water. This weight
2.1 PRESSURE affects a diver from all sides equally and increases at a
Pressure is force acting on a unit area. Stated mathemati- rate of 0.445 psi per foot of seawater. Thus, at a depth of
cally, 33 ft. (10.1 m) of seawater (fsw), the hydrostatic pressure
is 14.7 psi, or one atmosphere, the same pressure as
Pressure = force/area P = F/A atmospheric pressure at sea level. In freshwater, 34 ft.
(10.4 m) equals 14.7 psi or 0.432 psi per foot of freshwa-
In the United States, pressure is typically measured in ter (ffw). Thereafter, for every 34 ft. of additional depth in
pounds per square inch (psi). Under water, two kinds of freshwater, the hydrostatic pressure increases by one
pressure affect a person, the weight of the surrounding atmosphere (see Figure 2.1).
water and the weight of the atmosphere over that water.
One concept that must be remembered at all times is: a 2.1.3 Absolute Pressure
diver, at any depth, must be in pressure balance with the The sum of atmospheric pressure plus hydrostatic
forces at that depth. pressure is called the “absolute pressure.” Absolute pres-
At all depths, the diver must compensate for the pres- sure can be expressed in many ways, including "pounds
sure exerted by the atmosphere, by the water, and by the per square inch absolute" (psia), "atmospheres absolute"
gases being used for breathing under water. This compen- (ata), feet of seawater absolute (fswa), feet of freshwater
sation must always be thought of in terms of attaining and absolute (ffwa), or millimeters of mercury absolute
maintaining a balance between the pressure inside the body (mmHga).
and the external pressure. To understand the effects of absolute pressure on a
diver, consider this: the feet of a 6-foot tall man standing
2.1.1 Atmospheric Pressure under water will be exposed to pressure that is almost
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the three pounds per square inch greater than that exerted at
earth's atmosphere; it decreases with altitude above sea his head.

2-1
 1 sq. in. 1 sq. in.
TOP OF ATMOSPHERE

AIR
AIR
ATMOSPHERE
TOTAL AIR COLUMN

A. A one square inch column

of air extending from sea level
to the top of the atmosphere
weighs 14.7 lbs. One half of
the weight is contained in the
first 18,000 ft. (5,486 m or
3 1/2 miles) of the column.

B. A one-inch square
column of seawater 33 ft.
(10.1 m) deep and a column of
freshwater 34 ft.(10.4 m) deep
each weigh 14.7 lbs.
7.35 lbs. at 18,000 ft. 1 sq. in.
C. At a depth of 34 ft. (10.4 m) Sea Level Sea Level
of freshwater, the sum of
atmospheric and hydrostatic
14.7 lbs. at Sea Level
WATER

pressures equal 29.4 lbs.

WATER

WATER
33 ft. 34 ft.

FRESH
FRESH
SEA

Weight 14.7 lbs.

Weight 14.7 lbs. 29.4 lbs.
Total weight of air and water at 34 ft.
FIGURE 2.1 A. B. C.
Weight of Air and Water

2.1.4 Gauge Pressure 2.1.5 Partial Pressure

The difference between atmospheric pressure and the In a mixture of gases, the proportion of the total pres-
pressure being measured is “gauge pressure.” Consider the sure contributed by each gas in the mixture is called the
pressure gauge on a scuba tank, for instance. The zero “partial pressure.” Although traces of other gases are also
reading on the gauge before it is attached actually repre- present in atmospheric air, for our discussion here, we can
sents the ambient atmospheric pressure. To put it another approximate that atmospheric air is composed of 21% oxy-
way, at sea level, the zero on the tank gauge actually repre- gen and 79% nitrogen, for a total of 100%, or one atmos-
sents 14.7 psia. Thus, the pressure in the tank is referred to phere absolute. The impact of partial pressures upon the
in terms of "pounds per square inch gauge" (psig). To con- diver is explained in detail later in this chapter under Dal-
vert gauge pressure to absolute pressure, add 14.7. ton's Law.

2-2 NOAA Diving Manual

 The body can function normally only when the pres-
sure difference between the inside of the body and the out-
side is very small.

2.2 DENSITY
Density can be defined as weight per unit volume.
Expressed mathematically,

Density = Weight/Volume or D = W/V

Density is expressed in pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3) 1 ft3

1 ft3
or in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

Gas density is related to absolute pressure. As depth

increases, the density of the breathing gas increases and SEAWATER FRESHWATER
becomes heavier per unit volume. High gas density 64 lbs. per cu. ft. 62.4 lbs. per cu. ft.
increases the effort required to breathe and limits a diver’s
ability to ventilate the lungs adequately, especially during
strenuous exercise and at deeper depths (see Table 2.1). FIGURE 2.2
Freshwater has a density of 62.4 pounds per cubic Seawater and Freshwater Density
foot. Seawater has a density of 64.0 pounds per cubic
foot (see Figure 2.2). As a result, freshwater floats on top

of seawater and a diver floats easier in seawater than in

TABLE 2.1 freshwater.
Pressure Chart
2.2.1 Specific Gravity
Gas Gas
Depth Pressure Volume Density Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of a substance (density) to that of an equal vol-
Sea Level 14.7 psia 1 ata 1ft3 1x
ume of another substance (water [for liquids and solids]
and air [for gases] are used as standards). Water has a
33 feet 29.4 psia 2 ata 1/2 ft3 2✕
specific gravity of 1.0 at 39.2°F (4C). Substances that are
66 feet 44.1 psia 3 ata 1/3 ft3 3✕
more dense than freshwater have a specific gravity
99 feet 58.8 psia 4 ata 1/4 ft3 4✕
132 feet 73.5 psia 5 ata 1/5 ft3 5✕
greater than 1.0. Thus, the specific gravity of seawater is
165 feet 88.2 psia 6 ata 1/6 ft3 6✕ 64.0/62.4 = 1.026.
297 feet 147.0 psia 10 ata 1/10 ft3 10✕
2.3 WATER
1. Pressure of each atmosphere is equal to approxi- Physical laws that act upon a person above the sur-
mately 15 psi, i.e., at three atmospheres of pressure face of water also apply below the surface. As a diver
it is approximately 45 psi, at six atmospheres it is
approximately 90 psi, etc.
descends into the water, those forces increase; the diver
should be aware of these effects.
2. Gas volume is inversely proportional to the depth in
atmospheres absolute (ata), i.e., any gas volume at 2.3.1 Freshwater
four ata is one-fourth of the sea level volume; at six
ata it is one-sixth, etc.
Water, H2O, is a major constituent of all living mat-
ter. It is an odorless, tasteless, very slightly compressible
3. Gas density is directly proportional to the pressure liquid oxide of hydrogen, which freezes at 32°F (0C), and
in atmospheres absolute (ata), i.e., when a gas mix- boils at 212°F (100C). In its purest form, water is a poor
ture at sea level is taken to two atmospheres
absolute, each gas in the mixture is twice as dense;
conductor of electricity.
at three atmospheres absolute it is three times as
dense, etc. 2.3.2 Seawater
Seawater contains just about every substance known.
psia = pounds per square inch absolute Sodium chloride (common table salt) is the most abun-
ata = atmospheres absolute
dant chemical. Because of its components, seawater is a
good conductor of electricity.

Physics of Diving 2-3

2.3.3 pH 2.4.4 Weight
The pH of an aqueous solution expresses the level of The pound is the standard measure of weight in the
acids or alkalis present. The pH of a liquid can range from English System. The kilogram is the standard measure of
0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline), with a value of weight in the International System of Units. One liter of
seven representing neutrality. The pH balance in blood sig- water at 4C weighs one kilogram or almost 2.2 lbs.
nals to the brain the need to breathe. Too much carbon
dioxide in the blood causes the pH level in the blood to 1 liter(l) = 1 kg = 2.2 lbs.
change, making it more acidic. One of the ways the body
Example: Convert 180 pounds to kilograms.
can reduce the acidity of the blood is to increase ventila-
Solution: 180 lbs × 1 kg/2.2 lbs = 81.8 kg
tion, which reduces the CO2 level and thus reduces the
acidity. The importance of pH in diving is covered in Chap-
Example: Convert 82 kilograms to pounds.
ter 3, Diving Physiology.
Solution: 82 kg × 2.2 lbs/1 kg = 180.4 lbs

2.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 2.5 TEMPERATURE

How much air do we have? How deep are we? How Body temperature is a measure of the heat retained in
much longer can we stay on the bottom? Divers must have the human body. Heat is associated with the motion of
a common system of communicating the answers to these molecules. The more rapidly the molecules move, the high-
questions. er the temperature.
There are two systems for specifying force, length, and Temperature is usually measured either with the
time: the English System and the International System of Fahrenheit (°F) scale or with the Celsius, or Centigrade,
Units (SI), also known as the Metric System. The English (C) scale.
System is based on the pound, the foot, and the second, and Temperatures must be converted to absolute when the
is widely used in the United States. The International Sys- gas laws are used. The absolute temperature scales, which
tem of Units is used virtually everywhere else, and is based use Rankine (R) or Kelvin (K), are based upon the absolute
on the kilogram, the meter, and the second. Every diver zero (the lowest temperature that could possibly be
will eventually encounter the International System of Units reached) (see Figure 2.3). Note that the degree symbol (°)
and should be able to convert units of measurement from is used only with Fahrenheit temperatures.
one system to the other (see Tables 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4).

2.4.1 Length
The principle SI unit of length is the meter (39.37 inches).
Smaller lengths are measured in centimeters (cm) or millime-
ters (mm). Greater lengths are measured in kilometers (km).

39.37 in ✕ 1 ft/12 in = 3.28 ft = 1 m 212¡F 100C 373K 672R

Example: Convert 10 feet to meters.

Solution: 10 ft ✕ 1 m/3.28 ft = 3.05 m

Example: Convert 10 meters to feet.

Solution: 10 m ✕ 3.28 ft/1 m = 32.8 ft

2.4.2 Area
In both the English and International System of Units
32¡F 0C 273K 492R
(SI), area is expressed as a length squared. For example, a
room that is 12 feet by 10 feet would have an area that is
120 square feet (12 ft x 10 ft).

2.4.3 Volume
Volume is expressed in units of length cubed. Using the
room example from paragraph 2.4.2 but adding a third
dimension—an eight-foot ceiling would result in a volume
(¡F) (C) (K) (R)
of 960 cubic feet (120 ft2 x 8 ft). The English System, in
addition to using cubic feet, uses other units of volume such
as gallons. The International System of Units (SI) uses the
liter ( l ). A liter equals 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3) or FIGURE 2.3
0.001 cubic meters (m3), which is one milliliter (ml). Freezing and Boiling Points of Water

2-4 NOAA Diving Manual

TABLE 2.2
Conversion Factors, Metric to English Units
To Convert To Convert
From From
SI Units To English Units Multiply By SI Units To English Units Multiply By
PRESSURE WEIGHT
1 gm/cm2 inches of freshwater 0.394 1 gram ounce (oz) 0.035
1kg/cm2 pounds/square inch (psi) 14.22 1 kg ounces 35.27
1kg/cm2 feet of freshwater (ffw) 32.8 1 kg pounds (lb) 2.205
1kg/cm2 inches of mercury (in. Hg) 28.96
1 cm Hg pounds/square inch 0.193
LENGTH
1 cm Hg foot of freshwater (ffw) 0.447
1 cm Hg foot of seawater (fsw) 0.434 1 cm inch 0.394
1 cm Hg inches of mercury 0.394 1 meter inches 39.37
1 cm of freshwater inch of freshwater 0.394 1 meter feet 3.28
1 km mile 0.621
VOLUME AND CAPACITY
1 cc or ml cubic inch (in3) 0.061
AREA
1 m3 cubic feet (ft3) 35.31
1 liter cubic inches 61.02 1 cm2 square inch 0.155
1 liter cubic foot 0.035 1 m2 square feet 10.76
1 liter fluid ounces (fl oz) 33.81 1 km2 square mile 0.386
1 liter quarts (qt) 1.057

TABLE 2.3
Conversion Table for Barometric Pressure Units

N/m2 or gm/cm2 Ib/in2

atm Pa bars mb kg/cm2 (cm H2O) mm Hg in. Hg (psi)

1 atmosphere = 1 1.013X105 1.013 1013 1.033 1033 760 29.92 14.70

1 Newton (N)/m2 or = .9869X10-5 1 10-5 .01 1.02X10-5 .0102 .0075 .2953X10-3 .1451X10-3
Pascal (Pa)

1 bar = .9869 105 1 1000 1.02 1020 750.1 29.53 14.51

1 millibar (mb) = .9869X10-3 100 .001 1 .00102 1.02 .7501 .02953 .01451
1 kg/cm2 = .9681 .9807X105 .9807 980.7 1 1000 735 28.94 14.22
1 gm/cm2 = 968.1 98.07 .9807X10-3 .9807 .001 1 .735 .02894 .01422
(1 cm H2O)
1 mm Hg = .001316 133.3 .001333 1.333 .00136 1.36 1 .03937 .01934
1 in. Hg = .0334 3386 .03386 33.86 .03453 34.53 25.4 1 .4910
1 lb/in2 (psi) = .06804 6895 .06895 68.95 .0703 70.3 51.70 2.035 1

TABLE 2.4
Barometric Pressure Conversions
Units psig psia atm ata fsw fswa ffw ffwa
psig Add 14.7 Divide 14.7 Add 14.7, Divide .445 Divide .445 Divide .432 Divide .432
Divide 14.7 Add 33 Add 34
psia Minus 14.7 Minus 14.7 Divide 14.7 Minus 14.7 Divide .445 Minus 14.7 Divide .432
Divide 14.7 Divide .445 Divide .432
atm Times 14.7 Times 14.7 Add 1 Times 33 Times 33 Times 34 Times 34
Add 14.7 Add 33 Add 34
ata Minus 1 Times 14.7 Minus 1 Times 33 Times 33 Times 34 Times 34
Times 14.7 Minus 33 Minus 34
fsw Times .445 Times .445 Divide 33 Add 33 Add 33 Times 1.03 Times 1.03
Add 14.7 Divide 33 Add 34
fswa Minus 33 Times .445 Minus 33 Divide 33 Minus 33 Minus 33 Times 1.03
Times .445 Divide 33 Times 1.03
ffw Times .432 Times .432 Divide 34 Add 34 Times .97 Add 34 Add 34
Add 14.7 Divide 34 Times .97
ffwa Minus 34 Times .432 Minus 34 Divide Minus 34 Times .97 Minus 34
Times .432 Divide 34 34 Times .97

Physics of Diving 2-5

 Either of the absolute temperature scales, Rankine or
Kelvin, may be used in gas law calculations.

To convert from Fahrenheit to absolute temperature 37C (98.6¡F)

Rankine, use the following equation: Body
temperature
°F + 460 = R
To convert from Celsius, or Centigrade, to absolute 30C (86¡F)
temperature Kelvin, use the following equation: Some type of
wet suit depending
C + 273 = K on time
The Fahrenheit (°F) and Rankine (R) temperature
scales are used in the English System. The Celsius (C) and
Kelvin (K) temperature scales are used in the International
System of Units. The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are
based on the temperature of melting ice as 0C (32°F) and
24C (75ºF)
the temperature of boiling water as 100C (212°F).

To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, use the follow- Full wet suit
ing equation: range

C= 5/9 × (°F - 32) or C = .56 × (°F - 32)

10C (50¡F)
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit, use the follow-
ing equation:
Dry suit
°F = (9/5 × C) + 32 or °F = (1.8 × C) + 32 or hot-water suit
range
2.5.1 Heat
Water temperature is an important consideration in all
diving operations. Human beings function effectively within Freezing point
0C (32¡F)
a narrow range of internal temperatures, becoming chilled of water
when the water temperature drops below 75°F (23.9C) and
overheated when body temperature rises above 98.6ºF
(37C). Below that temperature, body heat loss occurs faster FIGURE 2.4
than it can be replaced. A person who has become chilled Recommended Thermal Protection
cannot work efficiently or think clearly and may be more
susceptible to decompression sickness.
A cellular neoprene wet suit loses a portion of its insu-
lating property as depth increases and the material is com-
pressed (see Figure 2.4). As a consequence, it is often the buoyancy is positive and the object floats. If the
necessary to employ a thicker suit, a dry suit, or a hot weight of the displaced water is less than the weight of the
water suit to compensate for extended exposures to cold object, then the buoyancy is negative and the object sinks.
water. If the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the dis-
placed water, then buoyancy is neutral and the object is
2.6 BUOYANCY (Archimedes’ Principle) suspended. Neutral buoyancy is the state frequently used
A Greek mathematician named Archimedes deter- when diving.
mined why things float 2000 years ago. He established that Buoyancy is dependent upon the density of the sur-
"Any object wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is buoyed up rounding liquid. Seawater has a density of 64.0 pounds per
by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the cubic foot, compared to 62.4 pounds per cubic foot for
object." This explains why a steel ship floats, but its anchor freshwater. Therefore, each cubic foot of seawater that is
does not. The more water displaced, the greater the buoy- displaced by a volume of air in a container has a lifting
ancy (see Figure 2.5). force of 64 pounds. The greater the density, the greater the
If the weight of the displaced water (total displace- buoyancy force. Thus, it is easier to float in seawater than
ment) is greater than the weight of the submerged body, in a freshwater lake.

2-6 NOAA Diving Manual

 TABLE 2.5
Components of Dry Atmospheric Air

Concentration
6.5 Percent by Parts per
ft3
Component Volume Million (ppm)

Nitrogen 78.084
Oxygen 20.946
Argon 0.934
Carbon Dioxide 0.033
332 Rare Gases 0.003 30.00*
lbs. Neon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18.18*
Weight Helium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.24*
of Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.36*
barrel Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.0 *
84 lbs Krypton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.14*
Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.5 *
Nitrous Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.5 *
Xenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.08*
Seawater
*Approximate
The partially immersed 84 lb. barrel with 332 lbs.
attached has displaced 6.5 ft3 of seawater.
Besides atmospheric air, divers use various mixtures
6.5 ft3 ✕ 64 lbs/ft3 = 416 lbs of oxygen, nitrogen, and helium. In some diving applica-
tions, special mixtures of one or more of the gases may
416 lbs Ð 84 lbs = 332 lbs positive buoyancy be blended with oxygen. The physiological effects of
each gas alone, or in combination with other gases, must
FIGURE 2.5 be taken into account to insure that no harm is done to
ArchimedesÕ Principle body organs and functions. The so-called “inert” gases
breathed from the atmosphere, or those in gas mixtures
we breathe when diving, serve only to dilute and mix
An understanding of buoyancy serves the diver in a with oxygen.
number of ways. By using weights, by expanding the air
in a buoyancy compensator, or by increasing the size of a 2.7.2 Oxygen (O2)
variable-volume diving suit, a diver can manipulate his Oxygen is the most important of all gases and is one
buoyancy to meet operational needs. When working on of the most abundant elements on earth. Fire cannot
the bottom, for example, a slightly negative buoyancy burn without oxygen and people cannot survive without
provides better traction and more stability on the sea oxygen. Atmospheric air contains approximately 21%
floor. Buoyancy is also an invaluable aid to lifting heavy oxygen, which exists freely in a diatomic state (two
items in salvage operations. atoms paired off to make one molecule). This colorless,
odorless, tasteless, and active gas readily combines with
2.7 GASES USED IN DIVING other elements. From the air we breathe, only oxygen is
Air breathed on the surface (atmospheric air) is also actually used by the body. The other 79% of the air
the most common gas breathed under water. Gases react serves to dilute the oxygen. Pure 100% oxygen is often
in specific ways to the effects of pressure, volume, and used for breathing in hospitals, aircraft, and hyperbaric
temperature. medical treatment facilities. Sometimes 100% oxygen is
used in shallow diving and in certain phases of diving.
2.7.1 Atmospheric Air For storage in saturation and for deeper diving the per-
The components of dry atmospheric air are given in centage may be less; in fact, it may be too low to be safe-
Table 2.5. Depending upon the location and weather ly breathed at sea level. Mixtures low in oxygen require
conditions, atmospheric air may also contain industrial special labeling and handling to ensure that they are not
pollutants. The most common pollutant is carbon breathed unintentionally. Breathing a mixture with no
monoxide, often present around the exhaust outlets of oxygen will result in unconsciousness, brain damage,
internal-combustion engines. Diving safety is jeopardized and death within a few minutes. Besides its essential
if pollutants are not filtered from compressed air prior to metabolic role, oxygen is fundamental to decompression.
diving. Still, the gas can also be toxic. Breathing pure oxygen

Physics of Diving 2-7

under pressure may affect the central nervous system in 2.7.4 Helium (He)
short exposures, and various other parts of the body and Helium is used extensively in deep diving as a diluting
nervous system, particularly the lungs, from longer expo- agent for oxygen. Helium has a lower density than nitro-
sures. gen and it does not cause the same problems associated
Oxygen is the agent responsible for most oxidation with nitrogen narcosis. A lower-density gas, in deep div-
that takes place on this planet. The gas itself does not ing, reduces breathing resistance (see Section 2.2).
bum, nor does it explode. In order for combustion to However, helium does have several disadvantages.
take place there has to be oxygen, fuel, and a source of Breathing helium-oxygen mixtures impairs voice commu-
ignition. Material burns more vigorously in an oxygen- nication when diving by creating the "Donald Duck" voice.
enriched environment, and a great deal faster and more Helium also has a high thermal conductivity, which can
intensely in pure oxygen. With several methods for mix- cause rapid heat loss from the body, especially via the res-
ing gases, it is necessary to handle pure oxygen appropri- piratory system.
ately.
Oxygen comes in three basic grades: aviator’s oxy- 2.7.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
gen (Grade A), medical/industrial oxygen (Grade B or Carbon dioxide is a natural by-product of metabolism that
USP grade [Medical Grade]), and technical oxygen is eliminated from the body by breathing. Although generally
(Grade C). Aviator’s oxygen is ultra-dry in order to pre- not considered poisonous, excessive carbon dioxide can cause
vent freezing of regulators, but otherwise it is the same unconsciousness that can be fatal for divers. The two major
as medical oxygen. Technical (welding) oxygen comes concerns with carbon dioxide are control of the quantity in the
from the same source as medical, but the containers may breathing supply, and its removal after exhalation. Elevated
not be evacuated prior to filling and may contain pre- carbon dioxide levels may further predispose a diver to nitro-
existing contaminants and objectionable odors; accord- gen narcosis, oxygen toxicity, and decompression sickness.
ingly, it is not recommended for diving. However, if this Carbon dioxide is considered biologically “active” since
is the only oxygen available in a case where decompres- it directly influences the pH level of blood. In addition, recent
sion sickness needs to be treated, it is far better to use advances in medicine indicate that carbon dioxide may be
technical oxygen than not to breathe oxygen when it is involved chemically in changes with dilation of blood vessels.
needed. Significant contamination in oxygen is quite With divers using closed or semi-closed breathing sys-
rare. Oxygen cylinders should never be completely emp- tems, it is absolutely essential to remove carbon dioxide
tied, but should be maintained with a minimum of 25 from the breathing gas.
psi cylinder pressure to prevent contamination from
entering the cylinder. 2.7.6 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
In the United States, oxygen is shipped in gas cylinders Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which interferes
that are color-coded green. This is the only gas for which with the blood's ability to carry oxygen. Because it is color-
there is a uniform color-coding, and this green color less, odorless, and tasteless, it is difficult to detect and it
applies only in the U.S. Color-coding should never be acts as a cellular poison. It is produced by the incomplete
relied upon to make positive identification of the gas in combustion of fuels and is most commonly found in the
any cylinder. If the oxygen is Grade A or B, the label on exhaust of internal-combustion engines, and by overheated
the cylinder should clearly state this; Grade C may have no oil-lubricated compressors.
identification other than that it is oxygen. The usual carbon monoxide problem for divers is conta-
mination of the air supply because the compressor intake is
2.7.3 Nitrogen (N2) too close to the compressor-motor exhaust. The exhaust
Nitrogen gas, which forms the largest proportion of the gases, including carbon monoxide, are sucked in with the air
air we breathe, is also taken through the lungs into the at the intake of the compressor. The effects can be lethal.
blood stream, but it plays no part in metabolism. In breath-
ing air under pressure it is the nitrogen portion that plays 2.7.7 Argon (Ar), Neon (Ne), Hydrogen (H2)
the major role in decompression. For diving, nitrogen may Argon, neon, and hydrogen have been used experimen-
be used to dilute oxygen, but it has several disadvantages tally to dilute oxygen in breathing-gas mixtures, but nor-
compared with other gases. When breathed at increased mally these gases are not used in diving operations. Argon
partial pressures, typically at least 100 ft. (31m) or deeper, has narcotic properties and a density that make it inappro-
it has a distinct anesthetic effect, producing an intoxicated priate for use as a breathing gas. However, it is frequently
state characterized by a loss of judgment and disorientation used for inflation of variable-volume dry suits for warmth,
called nitrogen narcosis. because its higher density reduces the conduction of heat.

2-8 NOAA Diving Manual

 Neon causes less voice distortion than helium and has Example 1 - Boyle’s Law
lower thermal conductivity. As a breathing gas, however, Transposing to determine the volume (V2) at 33 ft.:
neon is expensive and causes increased breathing resistance
at moderate or heavy workloads. P1 V1
V2 = P2
Hydrogen has two important advantages as a breath-
ing gas: it is readily available and it produces less breathing
resistance at depth than other gases. However, the explo- P1 = 1 ata
P2 = 2 ata
sive properties of hydrogen are a significant disadvantage.
V1 = 24 ft3
2.8 GAS LAWS 1 ata × 24 ft3
V2 = 2 ata
Definitions have been provided of terms, units of mea-
surement, and the properties of the gases divers use under V2 = 12 ft3
water. What follows are various physical laws that directly
and indirectly affect underwater activity. NOTE: The volume of air in the open bell has been com-
Gases are subject to three interrelated factors: pressure, pressed from 24 to 12 ft3 in the first 33 ft. of water.
volume, and temperature. A change in one results in a mea-
surable change in the others. This is true whether we are deal- Example 2 - Boyle’s Law
ing with a pure gas or with a gas mixture. The relationships Using the method illustrated above to determine the air
among these three factors have been defined as the gas laws. volume at 66 ft.:
A diver needs a basic understanding of the gas laws. As
P V
a diver moves up and down the water column, pressure V3 = P1 1
changes affect the air in dive equipment and in the diver’s 3
P3 = 3 ata
lungs. It is also essential to determine whether the air com-
pressor on deck has the capacity to deliver an adequate sup- 1 ata × 24 ft3
V3 = 3 ata
ply of air to a proposed operating depth, and to be able to
interpret the reading on the depth gauge of the pneumofath- V3 = 8 ft3
ometer hose as conditions of temperature and depth vary.

2.8.1 Boyle’s Law NOTE: The volume of air in the open bell has been com-
"For any gas at a constant temperature, the volume of the pressed from 24 to 8 ft3 at 66 ft.
gas will vary inversely with the pressure." If an inverted
Example 3 - Boyle’s Law
bucket is filled with air at the surface where the pressure is
For the 99 ft. depth, using the method illustrated previ-
one atmosphere (14.7 psi), and then taken under water to a
ously, the air volume would be:
depth of 33 fsw (10.1 msw), or two atmospheres (29.4 psi),
it will be only half full of air. Any compressible air space, P1 V1
whether it is in a diver’s body or in a flexible container, V4 =
P4
will change its volume during descent and ascent. Ear and
sinus clearing, diving mask volume, changes in buoyancy, P4 = 4 ata
functioning of a scuba regulator, descent or ascent, air con-
sumption, decompression—all are governed by Boyle's 1 ata × 24 ft3
V4 =
Law (see Figure 2.6). 4 ata

Examples of Boyle’s Law V4 = 6 ft3

An open-bottom diving bell with a volume of 24 cubic How is it that a breath-hold diver can return to the surface
feet is lowered into the water from a surface support ship. from a depth of several hundred feet with no problem, but a
No air is supplied to or lost from the bell. Calculate the vol- scuba diver at a very shallow depth who comes to the surface
ume of the air space in the bell at depths of 33, 66, and 99 holding his breath may develop an air embolism and die?
fsw (10.1, 20.3, and 30.4 msw, respectively). Assume that a breath-hold diver is going from the sur-
face down to 99 ft. During descent, the gas in his lungs will
Boyle’s Equation: be compressed, until at 99 ft. it will be reduced to one-
P1 V1 = P2 V2 fourth the original volume. As he ascends, the volume of
P1 = initial pressure surface absolute gas in his lungs expands back to the original amount, thus
V1 = initial volume in cubic feet (ft3) there is no change in the original volume.
P2 = final pressure absolute A scuba diver at 99 ft. is in a pressure/volume balance
V2 = final volume in cubic feet (ft3) with his environment. He takes a breath of air, discards his

Physics of Diving 2-9

 Lungs

Vol = 1 or 100% 100%

SEA 1 ata or 14.7 psia
LEVEL

33 ft. 2 ata or 29.4 psia 1/2

10.1 m 50%

66 ft. 3 ata or 44.1 psia

1/3
20.1 m 331/3%

99 ft. 4 ata or 58.8 psia

1/4
30.2 m
25%

132 ft. 5 ata or 73.5 psia

1/5
40.2 m
20%

297 ft. 10 ata or 147 psia 1/10

90.5 m

10%

ata = atmospheres absolute

psia = pounds per square inch absolute

FIGURE 2.6
BoyleÕs LawApplied to Depth Versus Volume and Pressure

2-10 NOAA Diving Manual

scuba gear and ascends holding his breath. As he ascends, Stated mathematically:
his body is affected by Boyle's Law. By the time he reaches
33 ft., the air in his lungs will have increased in volume to P1 T1
= (volume constant)
match the decrease in water pressure. If he continues to
P2 T2
ascend without releasing air from his lungs, the effect of
increasing volume in his lungs may actually rupture the P1 = 3,014.7 psia
lungs with fatal consequences. T1 = 64°F + 460 = 524 Rankine
T2 = 102°F + 460 = 562 Rankine
2.8.2 Charles’/Gay-Lussac’s Law P2 = Unknown
Temperature has an effect on the pressure and volume of
a gas. It is essential to know the effect of temperature since Transposing:
temperature at depth is often different from that at the surface.
"For any gas at a constant pressure, the volume of the gas P1T2
will vary directly with the absolute temperature or for any gas P2 =
at a constant volume, the pressure of the gas will vary directly T1
with the absolute temperature."
3,014.7 psia × 562 R
P2 =
Example 1: Charles’ Law – Volume Change 524 R
To illustrate Charles’ Law, consider a balloon with the P2 = 3,233.3 psia
capacity of 24 ft3 of air which is lowered into the water to a
depth of 99 ft. At the surface the temperature is 80°F, at depth Converting to gauge pressure yields:
the temperature is 45°F. What is the volume of the gas at 99 ft?
From Example 3 in the illustration of Boyle’s Law 3,233.3 psia - 14.7 psi = 3,218.6 psig
above, we know that the volume of the gas (24 ft3) was
compressed to six cubic feet when lowered to the 99 ft. Note that a scuba cylinder is a non-flexible, constant-
level. The application of Charles’ equation illustrates the volume container. As kinetic energy increases with
further reduction of volume due to temperature effects. increased temperature, the molecules travel faster. They hit
the vessel walls harder and more often. This means pressure
Charles’ Equation: within the cylinder increases as the temperature is raised,
and there is an increase in pressure associated with heating
V1 T1 a scuba cylinder. To prevent this increase in pressure (and
= (pressure remains constant)
V2 T2 possible rupture of the scuba valve safety disc), it is especial-
ly important to store full scuba cylinders in a cool place.
where
V1 = volume at 99 ft. = 6 ft3 2.8.3 Dalton’s Law
T1 = 80°F + 460 = 540 Rankine The human body has a wide range of reactions to vari-
T2 = 45°F + 460 = 505 Rankine ous gases or mixtures under different conditions of pres-
V2 = unknown sures. Dalton’s Law is used to compute the partial pressure
differences between breathing at the surface and breathing
Transposing: at various depths in the water.
V1T2 "The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal
V2 =
T1 to the sum of the pressures of each of the different gases making
up the mixture, with each gas acting as if it alone was present
6 ft3 × 505 R and occupied the total volume." In other words, the whole is
V2 =
540 R equal to the sum of the parts, and each part is not affected
by any of the other parts.
V2 = 5.61 ft3 According to Dalton’s Law, the total pressure of a
NOTE: The volume within the balloon at 99 ft. was mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the
reduced further due to the drop in temperature. components of the mixture.
Stated mathematically:
Example 2: Gay-Lussac’s Law – Pressure Change
A scuba cylinder contains 3,000 psig (3,014.7 psia) at Pt = PP1 + PP2 + PP3, etc
64ºF. It is left on the boat deck on a hot summer day.
What will the cylinder pressure be if the temperature of the Pt = Total Pressure
air inside reaches 102ºF? PP1, etc. = Partial Pressure of the first gas, etc.

Physics of Diving 2-11

 Partial pressure of a given quantity of a particular gas Observe in Tables 2.6 and 2.7 that, while the partial
is the pressure it would exert if it alone occupied the total pressures of some constituents of the air (particularly CO2)
volume. The figure Px is used to indicate partial pressure. were negligible at 14.7 psi, these partial pressures have
The subscript x represents the specific gas (i.e. PO2 for the increased to significant levels at 2,000 psi.
partial pressure of oxygen). To determine the partial pres- The implications for divers are important. If surface air
sure of a gas in a mixture, use the following equation: is contaminated with 2% (PCO2 .02 ata) of carbon dioxide,
a level a person can easily accommodate at one atm, the
Partial Pressure = (Percent of Component) × (Total Pres- partial pressure at depth will be dangerously high.
sure [absolute]) The Dalton’s Law correlation in gas density with oxy-
gen and nitrogen richness is illustrated in Figure 2.7.
Stated mathematically:
2.8.4 Henry’s Law
Px = Gas % × Pt "The amount of any given gas that will dissolve in a liquid
at a given temperature is proportional to the partial pressure of
(The pressure can be stated in psi, atm, etc.) that gas in equilibrium with the liquid and the solubility
Gas % = Percent of Component (decimal) coefficient of the gas in the particular liquid." If one unit of
Pt = Total Pressure gas is dissolved at one atm, then two units will be dissolved
Px = Partial Pressure of Gas at two atm, three units at three atm, etc.

Imagine a container at atmospheric pressure (1 atm or Henry’s Law stated mathematically:

14.7 psi). If the container is filled with oxygen alone, the
VG = oc P
partial pressure of the oxygen will be 14.7 psi (1 atm). If VL 1
the container is filled with dry atmospheric air, the total
pressure will also be 14.7 psi (1 atm), as the partial pres- where
sures of all the constituent gases contribute to the total VG = Volume of gas dissolved at STPD
pressure (see Table 2.6). (standard temperature pressure dry)

Example 1: Dalton’s Law VL = Volume of the liquid

Calculate the partial pressure of nitrogen in a total
oc = Solubility coefficient at specified
mixture as follows:
temperatures
Px = Gas % (decimal) × Pt P1 = Partial pressure of that gas above the liquid

PN2 = .7808 × 14.7 psi = 11.478 psi When a gas-free liquid is first exposed to a gas mix-
ture, gas molecules will diffuse into the solution, pushed by
or in atmospheres: the partial pressure of each individual gas. As the gas mole-
cules enter the liquid, they add to a state of “gas tension,”
PN2 = .7808 × 1.0 atm = .7808 atm a way of identifying the partial pressure of the gas in the
liquid. The difference between the gas tension and the par-
If a scuba cylinder is filled to 2,000 psi with atmos-
tial pressure of the gas outside the liquid is called the pres-
pheric air, the partial pressure of the various components
sure gradient, which gives an indication of the net rate at
will reflect the increased pressure in the same proportion as
which the gas tends to enter or leave the solution. When
their percentage of the gas (see Table 2.7).
the gradient for diffusion into tissue is high, with low ten-
sion and high partial pressure, the rate of absorption into
Example 2: Dalton’s Law
the liquid is high. As the number of gas molecules in the
What is the partial pressure of nitrogen within the
liquid increases, the gas tension increases until it reaches
scuba cylinder filled to 2,000 psi?
an equilibrium value equal to the outside partial pressure.
Px = Gas % (decimal) × Pt At that point, the liquid is “saturated” with the gas mole-
cules, and the pressure gradient is zero. Unless there is
PN2 = .7808 × 2,000 psi = 1,561.6 psi some change in temperature or pressure, the net rate at
which gas molecules enter or leave the liquid will be zero,
or in atmospheres: and the two states will remain in balance.
How does this phenomenon apply to divers? To begin
PN2 = 2,000 psi × 1 atm/14.7 psi = 136.05 atm with, a large percentage of the human body is water.
Whenever a gas is in contact with a liquid, a portion of the
PN2 = .7808 × 136.05 atm = 106.23 atm gas will dissolve in the liquid until equilibrium is reached.

2-12 NOAA Diving Manual

TABLE 2.6 TABLE 2.7
Air at 14.7 psi (1 atm) Air at 2,000 psi (136.05 atm)

Percent of Partial Pressure Partial Pressure Percent of Partial Pressure Partial Pressure
Air component atm psi Air component atm psi

N2 78.08% .7808 atm 11.478 psi N2 78.08% 106.23 atm 1561.6 psi
O2 20.95% .2095 atm 3.080 psi O2 20.95% 28.50 atm 419.0 psi
CO2 .03% .0003 atm .004 psi CO2 .03% .04 atm .6 psi
Other .94% .0094 atm .138 psi Other .94% 1.28 atm 18.8 psi

Total 100.00% 1.000 atm 14.700 psi Total 100.00% 136.05 atm 2000.0 psi

Air Composition Partial Pressure % Density

PPO2 = 0.2 ata O2 = 20%
1 ata PPN2 = 0.8 ata N2 = 80%
sea level
Absolute Pressure in Atmospheres

Pt = 1.0 ata Total = 100%

PPO2 = 0.4 ata O2 = 20% Twice as dense
2 ata PPN2 = 1.6 ata N2 = 80% as the surface at
33 ft
Pt = 2.0 ata Total = 100% 2.0 ata - 33 fsw
PPO2 = 0.6 ata O2 = 20% Three times as
3 ata PPN2 = 2.4 ata N2 = 80% dense as the surface
66 ft Pt = 3.0 ata Total = 100% at 3.0 ata - 66 fsw
PPO2 = 0.8 ata O2 = 20% Four times as dense
4 ata PPN2 = 3.2 ata N2 = 80% as the surface at
99 ft
Pt = 4.0 ata Total = 100% 4.0 ata - 99 fsw
Partial pressure of a 20/80
mixture of oxygen/nitrogen at 1 = O2 PP = Partial Pressure Pt = Total Pressure
ata (sea level), 2 ata (33 feet), 3 = N2
ata (66 feet), and 4 ata (99 feet)

FIGURE 2.7
Partial Pressure

Gas can dissolve in water and fat in the human body as The amount of gas dissolved is also governed by the length of
they make up a large percentage of the body’s total mass. time and the pressure at which you breathe it. However, as
The deeper one dives, the greater the pressure exerted upon gases vary in their solubility, the exact amount dissolved
the body, and the higher the total pressure of the breathing depends on the specific gas in question. If a diver breathes a
gas. It follows that more gas will dissolve in the body tis- gas long enough, his body will become saturated; but this
sues. During ascent, the dissolved gases will begin to be occurs slowly. Depending on the gas, it will take anywhere
released. from 8 to 24 hours.
If a diver’s rate of ascent (including decompression Some gases are more soluble than others and some liq-
stops) is controlled properly, the dissolved gas will be car- uids are better solvents than other liquids. For example,
ried to the lungs by the tissue’s blood supply and will be nitrogen is five times more soluble (on a weight-for-weight
exhaled before it accumulates and forms bubbles in the tis- basis) in fat than in water. These facts and the differences
sues. If, on the other hand, ascent is too rapid and/or in blood supply have led to the postulate of tissues with dif-
decompression stops are missed or reduced so that the ferent saturation halftimes (5-minute tissues, 10-minute tis-
pressure is reduced at a rate higher than the body can sues, 20-, 40-, 75-, etc.). This serves as the basis for
accommodate, gas bubbles may form, disrupting body tis- calculating decompression tables.
sues and systems, and producing a condition known as
decompression sickness (the bends). 2.8.5 General Gas Law
The various gases are dissolved in the body in proportion Pressure, volume, and temperature are interrelated. A
to the partial pressure of each gas in the breathing medium. change in one factor must be balanced by a change in one

Physics of Diving 2-13

1 atm The general gas law is stated mathematically as fol-
lows:
80¡F 60¡F 40¡F
A B C
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

where
P1 = initial pressure (absolute)
V1 = initial volume
20.0 19.3 18.5 T1 = initial temperature (absolute)

and
2 atm
80¡F 60¡F 40¡F P2 = final pressure (absolute)
D E F
V2 = final volume
T2 = final temperature (absolute)

Example of General Gas Law:

Consider the open diving bell of 24 ft3 capacity low-
ered to 99 ft. in seawater. Surface temperature is 80°F and
depth temperature is 45°F. Determine the volume of the
10.0 9.6 9.3
gas in the bell at depth.

3 atm The General Gas Law states:

80¡F 60¡F 40¡F
G H I
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

P1 = 14.7 psia
V1 = 24 ft3
6.6 6.4 6.2 T1 = 80°F + 460 = 540 Rankine
P2 = 58.8 psia
Imagine a uniform-bore tube, sealed on one end, is inverted T2 = 45°F + 460 = 505 Rankine
in a container of water at 80¡F and one atmosphere. The vol- V2 = Unknown
ume of air in the tube will be affected by changes in tempera-
ture and pressure in accordance to the following gas laws:
P1 V1 T2
CharlesÕ Law: Transposing: V2 =
(A, B, C) (D, E, F) (G, H, I) illustrate the reduction in volume T1 P2
caused by a reduction temperature at a constant pressure.

BoyleÕs Law: (14.7 psia) (24 ft3) (505 R)

V2 =
(A, D, G) (B, E, H) (C, F, I) illustrate the reduction in volume (540 R) (58.8 psia)
caused by an increased pressure at a constant temperature.

The General Gas Law (CharlesÕ and BoyleÕs Laws Com- V2 = 5.61 ft3
bined):
(A, E, I) (C, E, G) illustrate that a change in either volume,
NOTE: The volume was reduced, due to the drop in tem-
temperature, or pressure causes changes to the others.
perature and the increase in outside pressure.

2.9 MOISTURE IN BREATHING GAS

FIGURE 2.8
Breathing gas should have sufficient moisture for com-
Gas Laws
fort. Too much moisture in a system can increase breathing
or both of the remaining factors. The General Gas Law resistance and produce lung congestion; too little can cause
(also known as the Ideal Gas Law) is a convenient an uncomfortable sensation of dryness in the mouth,
combination of Charles’ and Boyle’s laws. It is used to pre- throat, nasal passages, and sinus cavities. Air or other
dict the behavior of a given quantity of gas when changes breathing gases supplied from surface compressors or tanks
may be expected in any or all of the variables (see Figure can be assumed to be dry. This dryness can be reduced by
2.8). removing the mouthpiece and rinsing the mouth with

2-14 NOAA Diving Manual

water or by introducing a small amount of water inside a of less than four feet (1.2 m), objects appear closer than
full-face mask. It can be dangerous to use gum or candy to they actually are. However, overestimation occurs at dis-
reduce dryness while diving. Do not remove your mouth- tances greater than four feet, and this degree of error
piece in seawater or freshwater that may be polluted. increases in turbid or muddy water. Other perceptual dis-
tortions are also apparent. Stationary objects appear to
2.9.1 Humidity move when the head is turned from side to side.
Water vapor (a gas) behaves in accordance with the Turbidity is another factor affecting underwater visibili-
gas laws. However, because water vapor condenses at tem- ty. Turbidity refers to the clarity of the water, and depends on
peratures we are likely to encounter while diving, the the quantity of particulates in suspension. Muddy water is
effects of humidity are important considerations. more turbid than clear water. Turbidity can cause overesti-
mation of the distance of an underwater object.
2.9.2 Condensation in Breathing Hoses or Mask It is important to remember that underwater distance per-
Exhaled gas contains moisture that may condense in ception is very likely to be inaccurate and that errors of both
breathing hoses of a rebreather or in your mask. This water underestimation and overestimation may occur. As a rule of
is easily blown out through the exhaust valve and, in gen- thumb, the closer the object, the more likely it will appear to
eral, presents no problem. However, in very cold water, be closer than it really is. Additionally the more turbid the
this condensation may freeze, disrupting normal function- water, the more likely it will appear farther than it really is.
ing of a scuba regulator. The dive should be aborted if such
a condition occurs. 2.10.1 Colors
Water absorbs light according to its wavelength.
2.9.3 Fogging of the Mask The deeper the light penetrates the water, the more light
Masks become fogged because of the moisture in wavelengths are absorbed. Absorption begins at the red
end of the spectrum. Orange is the next color to be lost,
exhaled breath, or because of evaporation through facial
followed by yellow, and then green. In very deep water,
skin. This fogging can be prevented by moistening the face
the only colors visible are blue and violet. Turbidity
plate with saliva, liquid soap, or commercial anti-fogging
affects the ability to see colors because the suspended
products. Exhalation through the mouth, instead of the
particles diffuse and scatter light. Turbid water gives
nose, will reduce face mask fogging.
greatest transparency to wavelengths in the green range.
Thus, very clear water is blue, while turbid water is usu-
2.10 LIGHT ally green.
The sense of sight allows perception of electromagnet-
Three feet of distilled water absorbs twelve percent of the
ic energy (light). Human beings can perceive only the very
red, but only one percent of the blue rays. Therefore at 65 ft.
narrow range of wave lengths from 380 to 800 nanometers
(19.8 m), even in very clear water, red is not visible, and the
(see Chapter 3). Eyes function by collecting light that is
intensity of yellow has decreased by about 95 percent. At the
emitted or reflected by an object. Some light is absorbed by
the object, making the object appear colored. The energy
waves that are received by the eye are turned to electrical
impulses in nerves and sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
The brain interprets the signals and we “see.”
AM

Under water, the eyes continue to function by collect-

BE
HT

ing light reflected off objects, but the light itself changes.
LIG

WATER LINE
Water slows the speed at which light travels. As light
enters or leaves water, this change in speed causes light COIN
rays to bend, or refract (see Figure 2.9 and 2.10). That is APPEARS
TO BE COIN ACTUALLY
why a pencil in a glass of water looks bent. Seen through a HERE IS HERE
diving mask, refraction affects close vision, creating distor-
tions that affect eye-hand coordination and the ability to
grasp objects under water.
By placing a pocket of air (i.e., a facemask) between the
water and the eyes, the light rays are refracted twice _ once
when they enter the air from the water and again as they
enter the eyes; a clearer image is now focused on the reti-
na. Due to imperfect correction, however, the retinal image Light rays are refracted as they enter the water. The coin
is actually closer than it appears.
is larger. Objects may now appear approximately 25% larg-
er because of the larger-than-normal retinal image.
The visual distortions caused by the mask vary consid- FIGURE 2.9
erably with the viewing distance. For example, at distances Refraction

Physics of Diving 2-15

 SUN

Light Rays

Reflected
Water Line

Diffused Diffused

Refracted Refracted
Absorbed

Absorbed

FIGURE 2.10
Sunlight In Air And Water

same depth, however, blue appears with 40 to 50 percent of our eardrums. This sets off a sympathetic vibration in the
its initial surface intensity. Some sunlight may penetrate to as eardrums. The inner ear turns this mechanical vibration of
deep as 2,000 ft. (610 m) (Kinney 1985). the eardrum into a nerve impulse. The impulses are sent to
Turbidity also affects the ability to see colors because our brain for interpretation.
the suspended particles diffuse and scatter light. The more dense the medium through which sound trav-
In general, as depth increases, the ability to discern col- els, the faster the speed of sound. In dense media, molecules
ors decreases, until visible objects are distinguishable only are packed close together, allowing easier transmission of the
by differences in brightness. At deeper depths, contrast wave motion. The speed of sound through air is 1,125 ft.
becomes the most important factor in visibility. Fluorescent (343 m) per second; the speed of sound through seawater is
paint does aid visibility (see Table 2.8). 5,023 ft. (1,531 m) per second; and the speed of sound
through steel is 16,600 ft. (5,060 m) per second. The speed of
transmission of sound in water depends on the temperature
2.11 SOUND of the water (colder water is denser, thereby allowing it to
Although light and sound both travel in waves, the transmit sound faster) and salinity (seawater allows sound to
nature of these two waves is different. Light waves are elec- travel faster than freshwater, again because it is more dense).
tromagnetic. Sound is produced by pressure waves triggered Because the speed of sound depends on the density of
by vibration. As the medium containing the pressure wave the medium it travels through, interesting acoustical effects
comes into contact with another medium, a sympathetic occur in water that has several temperature layers (known
vibration occurs. This transfers the wave pattern to the sec- as thermoclines). The density of water varies according to
ond medium. As an example, a sound is produced and the its temperature. When sound waves transfer from water of
disturbance travels through the air as a pressure wave striking one temperature/density to another, as when they

2-16 NOAA Diving Manual

TABLE 2.8
Colors That Give Best Visibility Against a Water Background

Water Condition Natural Illumination Incandescent Illumination Mercury Light

Murky, turbid water of low Fluorescent yellow, Yellow, orange, red, and Fluorescent yellow-green
visibility (rivers, harbors, orange, and red white (no advantage in and yellow-orange
etc.) fluorescent paint)

Regular yellow, orange, Regular yellow, white

and white

Moderately turbid water Any fluorescence in the Any fluorescence in the yel- Fluorescent yellow-green
(sounds, bays, coastal yellows, oranges, or lows, oranges, or reds or yellow-orange
water) reds

Regular paint of yellow, Regular paint of yellow, Regular yellow, white

orange, and white orange, and white

Clear water (southern Fluorescent paint Fluorescent paint Fluorescent paint

water, deep water
offshore, etc. See note.)

NOTE: With any type of illumination, fluorescent paints are superior.

a. With long viewing distances, fluorescent green and yellow-green are excellent.
b. With short viewing distances, fluorescent orange is excellent.

encounter a thermocline, substantial energy is lost. This sound originates. On land, sound reaches one ear before
tends to isolate sound within water of a consistent tempera- the other; thus, the direction of the source can be deter-
ture. Interestingly, a diver who is not in the same thermo- mined. Under water, sound travels so quickly it reaches
cline range as the source of a sound often cannot hear that both ears without an appreciable interval. The sound
sound, even though it is coming from only a few feet away. seems to originate from all directions. Sound travels
Hearing under water is affected in important ways. It faster, seems non-directional, and is more easily heard
is almost impossible to determine from which direction a under water.

Physics of Diving 2-17

 NOTES

2-18 NOAA Diving Manual

The NOAA Diving Manual was prepared jointly by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce and Best
Publishing Company.

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