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THE BASICS OF GEOLOGY

UZOCHUKWU CHIDINMA
Department of Geology, University of Calabar
Calabar, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

Geology as a discipline has many associated courses and areas of specialization

which includes engineering geology, geophysics, hydrogeology, structural
geology, petrology and many others. The ‘basics of geology’, however, is focused
on just the definition of geology. It has been designed to prove that virtually all
that we learnt as an undergraduate of geology throughout our four/five years
program are embedded in the definition of geology. In other words, the only thing
we learnt to acquire a B.Sc in geology is just the answer to ‘what is geology?’. In
essence, if at the end of the four/five years program one could not graduate at all
or graduate well; it then means that in four/five years, the fellow couldn’t just
learn to define geology. The ‘basics of geology’, therefore, elaborates on the
definition of geology.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction to geology

1.1 Disciplines in geology

1.2 Duties of a geologist

1.3 Usefulness of geology

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 The structure of the Earth

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials of the Earth

3.0.1 Soil

3.0.2 Water

3.0.3 Minerals

3.0.4 Rocks: factors that play important role in defining the behavior of rocks

3.0.4.1 The rock cycle

3.0.4.2 Types of rocks

3.0.4.2.1 Igneous rocks

3.0.4.2.2 Sedimentary rocks

3.0.4.2.3 Metamorphic rocks

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 The history of the Earth

4.1 Geologic time and geologic time scale

4.2 Relative and absolute dating

4.3 Methods of geology employed in earth history

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Processes shaping the face of the Earth

5.1 Continental drift

5.2 Plate tectonics

5.3 Seafloor spreading

5.4 Earthquake

5.5 Isostasy

5.6 Geological development of an area

CHAPTER SIX

6.0 Summary and conclusion

REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

Geology is the study of the Earth; its structure, composition, history, and
constantly changing character. Is the study of the whole of Earth’s sciences,
compressed to a nutshell.

1.1 Disciplines in geology

Geology is a multi-faceted field with many different areas of specialization. Listed

below are some of the more common ones.

Economic geology: explore for and help produce metallic (iron, copper, gold, etc.)
and non-metallic (coal, granite, dimension stone, limestone aggregate, sand and
gravel, etc.) rock and mineral resources of economic value.

Engineering geology: investigate the engineering properties of rocks, sediment

and soil below man-made structures such as roads, bridges, high-rise buildings,
dams, airports, etc.

Environmental geology: study of the environmental effects of pollution on

ground and surface waters and surficial materials (rock, sediment, and soil), and
also recommend solutions to environmental problems.

Geochemistry: study of the investigation of the chemical composition and

properties of the earth materials, especially polluted ground and surface waters,
fossil fuels (such as petroleum and coal) and other resources of economic value.

Geomorphology: the study of the origin and evolution of landscapes on the

continental surfaces.

Geophysics: branch of geology that uses the principles of physics to investigate

the structure of the Earth’s deep interior, explore for economic resources in the
subsurface, and monitor pollution in ground water.

Hydrogeology: concerned with water in the Earth’s subsurface, including its

sources, quality, abundance and movement.
Marine geology: study the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the
sediments deposited on the ocean floors and the rocks that underlie them.

Paleontology: study of the remains of the ancient animals and plants (fossils) in
order to understand their behaviors, environmental circumstances, and
evolutionary history.

Petroleum geology: explore for and help produce petroleum and natural gas from
sedimentary rocks

Petrology: study of the origins and characteristics of igneous, metamorphic and

sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentology: investigation of the origins and characteristics of sediment

deposits and the sedimentary rocks that form from them.

Stratigraphy: investigation of the time and space relationships among

sedimentary and other rocks on local to global scales, and is also interested in the
geochronology (absolute dating by radiometric methods) and fossil contents of
rock layers.

Structural geology: study of the folding, fracturing, faulting and other forms of
deformation experienced by rocks below the Earth’s surface, and is also
interested in how these processes relate to global plate tectonics.

Mineralogy: investigation of the origins, properties and uses of the minerals

occurring within the Earth’s rocks.

Volcanology: investigate volcanoes, especially their eruptions and deposits, in

order to better understand physical processes involved and to predict volcanic
eruption.

1.2 Duties of a geologist

Study composition, structure, and history of the Earth’s crust; examine rocks,
minerals, and fossil remains to identify and determine the sequence of processes
affecting the development of the Earth; apply knowledge of chemistry, physics,
biology, and mathematics to explain these phenomena and to help locate mineral
and petroleum deposits and underground water resources; prepare geologic
reports and maps; and interpret research data to recommend further action for
study.

1.3 Usefulness of geology

In modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon

exploration and exploitation and for evaluating water resources. It is publicly
important for the prediction and understanding of natural hazards, the
remediation of environmental problems and for providing insights into past
climate changes. Geology plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major
academic discipline. Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves in
reverse to image the interior of the Earth.
CHAPTER TWO

2.0 THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earth is divided into three main layers. It was the study of seismic refraction
and reflection that enabled scientists to plot the three main zones of the earth’s
interior.

(1)CRUST- outer layer forming a thin skin on the earth’s surface

(2)MANTLE- lies below the crust forming a thick shell of rock that separates the
crust above from the core below

(3)CORE- central zone of the earth which is probably metallic and the source of
the earth’s magnetic field

THE EARTH’S CRUST

The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-50km thick.
The crust is the solid rock layer upon which we live. There are two different types
of crust: the continental crust which carries the land, and oceanic crust which
carries water. Studies of seismic waves have shown that the crust is thinner
beneath the oceans than beneath the continents and that seismic waves travel
faster in oceanic crust than in continental crust. Because of this difference in
velocity, it is assumed that the two types of crust are made up of two different
kinds of rocks.

Seismic P-wave travel through the oceanic crust at 7km per second and this
speed at which P-wave travel through the oceanic crust is similar to the speed at
which it travel through basalt and gabbro (coarse grained equivalent of basalt)
when tested in the laboratory, therefore we say that the oceanic crust is basaltic
(not that it actually composed of basalt because no one have gone there). The
oceanic crust averages 7km in thickness, varying from 5km to 8km.

Seismic P-wave travel through the continental crust at about 6km per second
and this is also the same speed at which they travel through granite and gneiss as
observed from laboratory measurements as such; we say that the continental
crust is ‘granitic’. The term is put in quotation mark because most of the rocks
found on land are not granite. The continental crust is highly variable and
complex, consisting of a crystalline basement composed of granite, other plutonic
rocks, gneisses and schists, all capped by a layer of sedimentary rock, like icing on
a cake. Since a single rock term can not accurately describe the crust that varies
so greatly in composition, some geologists use the term SIAL (rocks high in silicon
and aluminum) for the continental crust and SIMA (rocks high in silicon and
magnesium) for the oceanic crust.

Average thickness of the continental crust is 30km to 50km though it varies from
10km to 70km. seismic waves show that the crust is thicker under geologically
young mountain ranges such as the Andes and Himalayas, bulging downward as a
mountain root into the mantle.

Seismic refraction measurements have produced a three layer oceanic crust.

(1)The uppermost layer is made up of sediment in basins that flank the MOR
covering most of the ridges top topography with time. Its seismic wave velocity
(Vp) is between 1.7km/s and 2.0km/s and the thickness is less than 1km according
to Petterson et al 1974.

(2)Layer two just below the first layer is made up of lava flows of basaltic
composition 2km to 3km thick. It has been subdivided by Petterson et al into
layers 2a and 2b. 2a has seismic velocities of 2.5km/s to 3.8km/s and thickness of
0.5km to 1.5km while sub-layer 2b has velocities of 4.0km/s to 6.0km/s and
thickness of 0.5km to 1.5km. The mean density of layer 2 is about 2.6gcm-3
according to Christensen and Salisburg 1975.

(3)Layer 3 lies right below layer 2 and could be up to 5km thick and have higher
elastic wave velocity than layer 2. It has been subdivided into two layers as well
based on elastic seismic wave velocity (Vp). Petterson et al 1974 showed that sub-
layer 3a below layer 2 has seismic velocity between 6.5km/s and 6.8km/s and
thickness of 2.0km to 3.0km while sub-layer 3b shows Vp of 7.0km/s to 7.7km/s
and thickness of 2.0km to 5.0km. The overall density of layer 3 is about 2.9 gcm-3.

Layer 3 overlies or ends at the mohorovicic or moho discontinuity. This is the

first seismic boundary found at depth in the oceanic crust that is common to both
oceans and continents. This is confirmed by Christensen and Salisburg 1975, Jurdy
1978 and Almento et al (1975).

Below layer 3 is the mantle with seismic velocities of 8.0km/s and density of
3.4gcm-3.

THE MANTLE
The mantle lies closer to the earth’s surface beneath the ocean than beneath the
continent. It is the widest area of the earth having a thickness of approximately
2900km. Because P-wave travel at about 8km per second in the upper mantle, it
appears that the mantle has a different type of rock from either oceanic or
continental crust. The best hypothesis that geologists could give is that it consists
of ultramafic rock such as peridotites. Ultramafic rock is dense igneous rock made
up of chiefly ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine and pyroxene. Some
ultramafic rocks contain garnet, and all of them lack feldspar.
 The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of
the mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the rock is soft and beginning to
melt.

The uppermost layer of the mantle and the crust tend to act together as a rigid
shell. Together they are called the lithosphere, ‘the sphere of rock’. The lower
level of the mantle is called the asthenosphere and it is softer and weaker,
particularly in its upper portion where a small amount of melting can occur. It is at
this level where the model of plate tectonics suggests that horizontal movement
can occur as result of convection of heat upward from the earth’s core.

THE CORE
P-waves spread out from a quake until at 103 degrees of arc (11,500km) from the
epicenter where they suddenly disappear from seismograms. At more than 142
degrees (15, 500km) from the epicenter, P-waves reappear on seismograms. This
region between 103 degrees and 142 degrees which lack P-wave is called the P-
wave shadow zone. The P-wave shadow zone can be explained by the refraction
of P-waves when they encounter the core boundary deep within the earth’s
interior. In other words, P-waves are missing within the shadow zone because
they have been bent (refracted) by the core.
While P-waves can travel through solids and liquids, S-waves can travel only
through solids. As such an S-wave shadow zone also exists and is larger than the
P-wave shadow zone. The S-wave shadow zone seems to indicate that S-waves do
not travel through the core at all. If this is true, it implies that the core is a liquid,
or at least acts like a liquid. But the way in which P-waves are refracted within the
earth’s core (as shown by careful analysis of seismograms) suggests that the core
has two parts, a liquid outer core and a solid inner core. The distance of the inner
core is about 1,216km while that of the outer core is about 2,270km.
CHAPTER THREE

3. O MATERIALS OF THE EARTH

Earth material is a general term that includes minerals, rocks, soil and water.
These are the naturally occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw
materials upon which our global society exists. Earth materials are vital resources
that provide the basic components for life, agriculture and industry.

3.0.1 SOIL

Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons) that are primarily
composed of minerals, mixed with at least some organic matter, which differ from
their parent materials in their texture, structure, consistency, colour, chemical,
biological and other characteristics. It is the loose covering of fine rock particles
that covers the surface of the earth. Soil is end product of the influence of the
climate, relief (slope), organisms, parent materials (original minerals) and time.

3.0.2 WATER

Water is a chemical compound. A water molecule contains one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bond, thus, it has the chemical formula
H2O. Water is a liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often
co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state (water vapour or
steam).

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface, and is vital for all known forms of life.
On Earth 96.5% of the planet’s water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in
groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice cap of Antarctica and Greenland, a small
fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapour, and
precipitation.
3.0.3 MINERAL

Elements are often stacked together with other elements to form minerals.
Minerals are simply a collection of one or more elements that are stacked neatly
together in a form called a crystal structure.

Elements on the hand are atoms, the smallest piece that we can split matter
into. Different elements have different properties.

By definition, a mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid substance with

definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure. ‘Naturally
occurring’ means that it is not made by humans. ‘Inorganic’ means that the
substance is not made by organism. ‘Solid’ means that it is not a liquid or gas at
standard temperature and pressure. ‘Definite chemical composition’ means that
all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical composition that varies within a
specific limited range. ‘Ordered internal structure’ means that the atoms in a
mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating pattern.

MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
A mineral can be identified by its unique crystal structure and chemistry.
Geologists working in the field, however, don’t usually have access to the
sophisticated laboratory techniques needed to determine these properties. More
commonly, they use properties which can be observed with the naked eye (or
with a hand lens) or determined with simple tools (e.g. a pocket knife).
In hand specimen (a term referring to a piece of rock or mineral able to be easily
handled) the nearly constant physical characteristics possessed by a mineral can
be used in its identification. It is important to realize that although a particular
mineral may be found in several apparently differing forms (e.g. colour, habit), its
fundamental physical properties will always be the same.

Useful physical properties for identifying a mineral include;

COLOUR: Most minerals have a distinctive colour that can be used for
identification. In opaque minerals, the colour tends to be more consistent, so
learning the colours associated with these minerals can be very helpful in
identification. Translucent to transparent minerals have a much more varied
degree of colour due to the presence of trace minerals. Therefore, colour alone is
not reliable as a single identifying characteristic.

STREAK: Is the colour of the mineral in powdered form. Streak shows the true
colour of the mineral. In large solid form, trace minerals can change the colour
appearance of a mineral by reflecting the light in a certain way. Trace minerals
have little influence on the reflection of the small powdery particles of the streak.

The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark because the small particles
of the streak absorb the light hitting them. Non-metallic particles tend to reflect
most of the light so they appear lighter in colour or almost white.

Because streak is a more accurate illustration of the mineral’s colour, streak is a

more reliable property of mineral than colour.

HARDNESS: Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. The

Mohs scale is a set of ten minerals whose hardness is known. The softest mineral,
talc, has a Mohs scale rating of one. Diamond is the hardest mineral and has a
rating of ten. Softer minerals can be scratched by harder minerals because the
forces that hold the crystals together are weaker and can be broken by the harder
mineral.

The following is a listing of the minerals of the Mohs scale and their rating:

Talc

Gypsum

Calcite

Fluorite

Apatite

Orthoclase feldspar

Quartz

Topaz
Corundum

Diamond

CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE: Minerals tend to break along lines or smooth

surfaces when hit sharply. Different minerals break in different ways showing
different types of cleavage. Cleavage is considered perfect if it is easily obtained
and the cleavage planes are easily distinguished. It is considered good if the
cleavage is produced with some difficulty but has obvious cleavage planes. Finally
it is considered imperfect if cleavage is obtained with difficulty and some of the
planes are difficult to distinguish.

Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface. Most minerals display
either uneven or grainy fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-like lines) fracture, or
hackly (rough, jagged) fracture.

TRANSPARENCY OR DIAPHANEITY: Diaphaneity is a mineral’s degree of

transparency or ability to allow light to pass through it. The degree of
transparency may also depend on the thickness of the mineral.

TENACITY: Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a

mineral hold together or resist separation.

MAGNETISM: Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or

repel other magnetic materials.

LUSTER: Luster is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of
a mineral reflects light. The luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the
light used to observe the mineral surface. Luster of a mineral may be described as
metallic if the mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would, submetallic if
the mineral is opaque and dull, and nonmetallic if the mineral is dark coloured
and does not reflect light like a metal would.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Specific gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the

weight of the mineral to the weight of an equal amount of water. The weight of
the equal amount of water is found by finding the difference between the weight
of the mineral in the air and the weight of the mineral in water.
MINERALS IN THIN SECTIONS AND UNDER THE POLARISING MICROSCOPE
Up to now you’ve looked at rocks in hand specimen and have found out that it is
sometimes rather difficult to be confident about identifying minerals, especially in
rocks that are fine-grained. Thin sections change all this.
A thin section is made by grinding down a slice of rock which has been glued to a
glass slide until it reaches a thickness of about 0.03mm (30 microns). At this
thickness, most minerals become more or less transparent and can therefore be
studied by a microscope using transmitted light.

Under the microscope, minerals can be studied with; plane polarised light (PPL-
with the analyser out) and cross polarised light (XPL-with the analyser in). The
table below summarizes different properties of minerals that can be studied
under plane and cross polarized light;

Plane polarized light (PPL) Cross polarized light (XPL)

Colour Interference colour
Relief Extinction angle
Shape and cleavage Twinning
Pleochroism Birefrigence
Opacity

SHAPE AND CLEAVAGE: The form of crystals and the arrangement of cleavage
planes within them.

(write abt euhedral, subheral and anhedral here)

RELIEF: You will immediately notice when you look at thin section that some
minerals are clearly visible (that is, details of surface texture, cleavage, etc., are
obvious) where others appear almost featureless and, if colourless, barely visible.
This is the property known as relief. So the relief of a mineral is the brightness of
the colour of the mineral. It can be a low relief or a high relief. Relief is a useful
distinguishing property for the igneous rock forming minerals; all the mafic
minerals show high relief but all the felsic minerals (with exception of muscovite)
show low relief.
COLOUR:

PLEOCHROISM: Pleochroism is apparent in thin section when minerals undergo a

colour change as they are rotated in plane polarized light.

OPACITY: Some minerals, typically the ore minerals (oxides and sulphides), are
not transparent in thin section – they are opaque. We really need another form of
microscope – a reflecting light microscope – before we could be sure. It is
important to realize that while an opaque mineral might appear isotropic, this
may not be the case. Magnetite belonging to the cubic system is isotropic;
heamatite belonging to the trigonal system is anisotropic. However, both the iron
oxide minerals are opaque and appear isotropic in transmitted light.

INTERFERENCE COLOUR: Light from an original single, plane polarized (white)

beam passes through anisotropic crystals as two rays with different velocities.
When the analyser is inserted, the two rays are recombined into a single N-S
plane and interfere with each other as they will be out of phase. The phase
difference depends on the thickness of the section and on the wavelengths of the
light. Thus for a given grain in a particular section, wavelength is the only variable
and the phase difference will vary for the different wavelengths in the white light
supplied. Hence, certain colours will be reinforced because of path differences
which happen to coincide with a whole range of wavelengths, and others will be
cut out because of phase differences involving a half wavelength. The result is a
coloured grain, that is, a coloured appearance of the grain (as seen on the left),
due to the removal of certain wavelength from the original white.

BIREFRINGENCE: This maximum colour is often diagnostic of an anisotropic

mineral and it is observed in sections that display simultaneously the maximum
and minimum refractive indices. For example, augite has maximum and minimum
refractive indices of 1.724 and 1.700 giving a birefringence of 0.024. the Michel
Levy chart summarizes the relationships between interference colours,
birefringence and thin section thickness.

EXTINCTION ANGLE: The extinction angle of a given grain is the angle between
any specified crystallographic direction and either of the two vibration directions.
It can be an important distinguishing character for different minerals. As with
interference colour, a mineral in different orientations will show different kinds of
extinction. Minerals belonging to the tetragonal, hexagonal, triclinic, trigonal or
orthorhombic crystal systems will in general show straight extinction. Minerals
belonging to the monoclinic systems will often show inclined extinction but may
sometimes show straight extinction.

TWINNING: One consequence of the symmetry of the internal structure of

crystals is the possible growth of twinned crystals. A twinned crystal is a single
crystal divided into two (or more) parts in which the crystal lattice of one part is
differently oriented with respect to the next. Repeat twining is a prominent
feature of many minerals, particularly the plagioclase feldspars.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
Mineralogists group minerals into families based on their chemical composition.
There are different grouping systems in use but the Dana system is more
commonly used. This system was devised by Professor James Dana of Yale
University way back in 1848. The Dana system divides minerals into eight basic
classes. The classes are:
Native elements

Sulfides

Oxides

Carbonates

Phosphates

Sulfates

Halides

Silicates

OXIDES: These are minerals that consist of metal cations (atoms with a positive
charge) bonded to oxygen anions. They form from combination of a metal with
oxygen. Typical oxides include hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).
SULFIDES: Sulfides consist of metal cations bonding to a sulfide anion such as in
the minerals pyrite (FeS2) and galena (PbS2). Sulfides are made of compounds of
sulfur wit a metal. They tend to be heavy and brittle.

SULFATE: Sulfates are minerals that consist of metal cation bonded to a sulfate
(SO42-) anion. Sulfates are made of compound of sulfur combined with metals
and oxygen. It is a large group of mineral that tends to be soft and translucent like
barite.

HALIDES: Halides are minerals that consist of metal cations bonded to halite
anions. Halide refers to the elements chlorine, fluorine, iodine and bromine. So
halides form from halogen elements like bromine, fluorine, chlorine and iodine
combined with metallic elements. They are very soft and easily dissolved in water.
Fluorite is an example of a halide.

CARBONATES: Carbonates are minerals that contain metal cations bonded to the
carbonate (CO32-) anion. Is a group of minerals made of carbon, oxygen, and a
metallic element. Calcite is an example of a carbonate.

NATIVE ELEMENTS: Minerals that consist of one single element belong to the
group of native elements. Examples of these minerals include copper, gold, and
silver.

PHOSPHATES: Phosphates are not as common in occurrence as the other families

of minerals. They are often formed when other minerals are broken down by
weathering. They are often brightly coloured.

SILICATES: Silicates is the largest group of minerals. They are made from metals
combined with silicon and oxygen. There are more silicates than other minerals
put together.

Silica makes up over 95% of the Earth’s crust and mantle, as such they are the
most common minerals on Earth. Silicates are minerals that contain the
fundamental SiO4 anion known as the silica tetrahedral (the building block of
silicates). An anion is atomic structure that has a net negative charge. A
tetrahedral is a geometric shape similar to a four-sided pyramid. The silica
tetrahedral is composed of one silica atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms.

Since all minerals have a neutral charge, silicate minerals must include other
atomic/molecular elements that balance or neutralize the negative charge of the
SiO44- anion. How these atoms and tetrahedral come together determine the
physical properties of the resulting structure, and therefore, the specific mineral
that is formed. Silicate minerals are categorized based on the arrangement of
silica tetrahedra and other atomic components. There are five groups of the
silicate minerals as shown in the diagram below

Minerals of the isolated tetrahedral group have crystal structure where no oxygen
is shared between tetrahedral. In this group, the mineral is held together by the
attraction between silica tetrahedral and other positive ions. Examples of
minerals in this group are olivine and pyroxene.

Single chain silicates contain silica tetrahedral that are linked up in a chain by
sharing two oxygen atoms. The most common single chain silicate is pyroxene.
 Double chain silicates form by sharing either two or three oxygen. This group
contains the mineral amphibole or hornblende.

Sheet silicates share three oxygen of the silica tetrahedral and form two
dimension sheet of silica. Other ions or even water molecules fit between the
sheets to bond individual sheets together. Because of their structure, sheet
silicates tend to have excellent cleavage in one plane. Muscovite and biotite mica
are examples of sheet silicate.

Framework silicates are formed when all four oxygen of a silica tetrahedral are
shared with adjacent tetrahedral to produce a three dimensional network of
tetrahedral. The most common framework silicates are potassium feldspar and
plagioclase feldspar.

ROCK FORMING MINERALS

Majority of the rock forming minerals are those involved in the formation of
igneous rocks. The vast majority of the igneous rock forming minerals belongs to
the silicate group, which means that they are based on silica and oxygen for their
basic elemental components. Common igneous rock forming minerals are
summarized in the Bowen’s reaction series diagram shown below
Within the field of geology, Bowen’s reaction series is the work of the petrologist,
Norman L. Bowen who was able to explain why certain types of minerals tend to
be found together while others are almost never associated with one another. He
experimented in the early 1900s with powdered rock material that was heated
until it melted and then allowed to cool to a target temperature whereupon he
observed the types of minerals that formed in the rocks produced. He repeated
this process with progressively cooler temperatures and the results he obtained
led him to formulate his reaction series which is still accepted today as the
idealized progression of minerals produced by cooling magma. Based upon
Bowen’s work, one can infer from the minerals present in a rock the relative
conditions under which the material had formed.

The series is broken down into two branches, the continuous and the
discontinuous. The branch on the right is the continuous while that on the left is
the discontinuous. The minerals at the top are the first to crystallize so the
temperature gradient can be read to be from high to low with the high
temperature minerals being at the top and the low temperature minerals one on
the bottom. Since the surface of the Earth is a low temperature environment
compared to the zones of rock formation, the chart also easily shows the stability
of minerals with the ones at bottom being most stable and the ones at the top
being weakest to weather, known as the Goldich dissolution series. This is
because minerals are most stable in the conditions closest to those under which
they had formed. Put simply, the high temperature minerals, the first ones to
crystallize in a mass of magma, are most unstable at the Earth’s surface and
quickest to weather because the surface is most different from the conditions
under which they were created. On the other hand, the low temperature minerals
are much more stable because the conditions at the surface are much more
similar to the conditions under which they formed.

What makes Bowen’s series a reaction series rather than an ordinary series is
that each mineral in the series is replaced by the next one as the melt cools. As
Bowen put it, the disappearance of minerals in the order in which they appear… is
of the very essence of the reaction series. For the discontinuous series, at a
certain temperature the magma produces Olivine, but if that same magma was
allowed to cool further, the olivine will react with the residual magma and change
to the next mineral on the series which is pyroxene. If cooling continues, the
pyroxene will convert to amphibole, and then to biotite. The reason for this
“stepped” evolution of minerals is that with dropping temperature, we will have
decreasing thermal vibration of molecules, and that allows silica to form more
complex structures. Thus olivine with its isolated silica tetrahedrons forms at the
highest temperatures, and as temperatures drop, silica tetrahedrons first manage
to join together in chains (pyroxenes), then in ribbons (amphiboles), and then
sheets (mica).

The continuous series is plagioclase feldspar. At high temperature, the high-

calcium variety, anorthite, forms. Then as temperatures fall, it is replaced by ever
more sodium-rich varieties: bytownite, labradorite, andesine, oligoclase and
finally albite. Igneous rocks that crystallize at high temperatures contain calcic
plagioclase (rich in calcium), and rocks forming at lower temperatures contain
sodic plagioclase (rich in sodium). Crystallization of plagioclase from a melt or
molten rock magma has been studied in detail. As the melt cools, the feldspar
that forms is richer in calcium than the melt itself. A partly crystallized magma is
separated into a solid rock containing calcic plagioclase and a still molten residue
richer in sodium. If this residue is removed from the already solid rock, perhaps by
a volcanic eruption, it forms a rock containing sodic plagioclase upon cooling.

As temperature continues to fall, both the continous and discontinuous series

merge and more minerals crystallize in the order alkali feldspar, muscovite, quartz
(3D framework). A minor reaction series involves the spinel group of minerals:
chromite, magnetite, ilmenite and titanite. Bowen placed them between the two
main series.

The complete series is not found in nature but many igneous rocks display
portions of the series. The main limitations are the state of the liquid, the speed
of cooling and the tendency of mineral crystals to settle under gravity. If the liquid
runs out of an element needed for a particular mineral, the series with that
mineral gets interrupted. If the magma cools faster than the reaction can
proceed, early minerals can proceed in partly resorbed form. That changes the
evolution of the magma. If crystals can rise or sink, they stop reacting with the
liquid and pile up somewhere else. All of these factors affect the course of
magma’s evolution- its differentiation. For example, if cooling takes place slowly,
the feldspar will be homogenous and have the same composition as the starting
melt. Under conditions of relatively rapid cooling, however, the feldspar grains
will not have fully reacted and will be zoned, richer in calcium in the centers and
in sodium on the outsides.

PROCESS OF MINERAL FORMATION

The process of mineral formation is known as crystallization. In order for a
mineral to crystallize, ions from nearby environment must be brought together.
There exist three primary mechanisms for mineral crystallization. The process
most familiar to our everyday lives is the precipitation of minerals from a saline
solution. Salty water, such as seawater, contains electrically charged atoms or
groups of atoms known as ions. When seawater evaporates, the water becomes
saltier. This is due to the concentration of ions in the water remaining after
evaporation. As more and more evaporation occur, the saltiness of the water
increases. Eventually the water reaches salinity where the concentrated ions
begin to link together to form mineral crystals. While seawater provides a good
example because of its high initial salinity, any natural water will precipitate some
minerals if evaporation occurs long enough.
A second process of mineral formation occurs during cooling of a melt. When
crystallization of this type takes place in water, it is called freezing. Through a very
similar mechanism, molten rock-forming liquids known as magmas and lavas, cool
and crystallize to form minerals and thus rocks. Most rocks that occur in the crust
of the Earth formed from cooling from a melt and, as such, crystallization during
cooling is the most important process of mineral formation on Earth.

The third and final process of mineral formation is hard to conceptualize than
either of the previously discussed mechanisms. Any particular mineral is stable
over a range of temperatures and pressures known as its stability field. When the
ambient pressure or temperature changes, the mineral may become chemically
unstable. Crystallographic transformations can then occur in the solid state to
produce a mineral that is in equilibrium with the new environment. Likewise,
when various minerals are in close contact and temperature or pressure changes,
especially in the presence of a fluid like water, chemical reaction occur to cause
dissolution of old minerals and creation of new ones. This process is of particular
importance in tectonically dynamic regions of the Earth, where temperatures and
pressures experienced by minerals change at relatively fast rate.

DESCRIPTION OF SOME COMMON EXAMPLES OF MINERALS

OLIVINE
Category – nesosilicate
Formula – (Mg, Fe) 2SiO4
Colour – yellow to yellow green

Crystal habit – massive to granular

Crystal system – orthorhombic

Cleavage – poor

Fracture – conchoidal –brittle

Mohs scale hardness – 6.5-7

Luster – vitreous

Streak – white

Diaphaneity – transparent to translucent

Specific gravity – 3.27-3.37

The mineral olivine (when of gem quality, it is also called peridot or chrysolite) is a
magnesium iron silicate. It is a common mineral in the Earth’s subsurface but
weathers quickly on the surface. Olivine is named for its typically olive-green
colour (thought to be a result of traces of nickel), though it may alter to a reddish
colour from the oxidation of iron.

The ratio of magnesium and iron varies between the two endmembers (a
mineral that is at the extreme end of a mineral series in terms of purity) of the
solid solution series: forsterite (Mg-endmember) and fayalite (Fe-endmember).
Compositions of olivine are commonly expressed as molar percentages of
forsterite (Fo) and fayalite (Fa) (e.g. Fo70Fa30). Forsterite has an unusually high
melting temperature at atmospheric pressure, almost 19000C, but the melting
temperature of fayalite is much lower (about 12000C). olivine incorporates only a
minor amounts of elements other than oxygen, silicon, magnesium and iron.
Manganese and nickel commonly are the additional elements present in highest
concentrations.

Olivine occurs in both mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks and as a primary
mineral in certain metamorphic rocks. Mg-rich olivine crystallizes from magma
that is rich in magnesium and low in silica. That magma crystallizes to mafic rocks
such as gabbro and basalt. Ultramafic rocks such as peridotites and dunites can be
residues left after extraction of magmas, and typically they are more enriched in
olivine after extraction of partial melts. The metamorphism of impure dolomite or
other sedimentary rocks with high magnesium and low silica content also
produces Mg-rich olivine, or forsterite. Fe-rich olivine is relatively much less
common, but it occurs in igneous rocks in small amounts. Fe-rich olivine can exist
stably with quartz and tridymite. In contrast, Mg-rich olivine does not occur stably
with silica minerals, as it would react with them to for orthopyroxene ( (Mg, Fe)
2Si2O6). Mg-rich olivine is stable to pressures equivalent to a depth of about
410km within Earth. Because it is thought to be the abundant mineral in the
Earth’s mantle at shallower depths, the properties of olivine have a dorminant
influence upon the rheology of that part of Earth and hence upon the solid flow
that drives plate tectonics. Experiments have documented that olivine at high
pressures can contain at least as much as 8900 parts per million (weight) of water,
and that such water content drastically reduce the resistance of olivine to solid
flow; moreover, because olivine is so abundant, more water may be dissolved in
olivine of the mantle than contained in Earth’s oceans.

PYROXENES
The pyroxenes are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in
many igneous and metamorphic rocks. They share a common structure consisting
of single chains of silica tetrahedral and crystallize in the monoclinic and
orthorhombic systems. Pyroxenes have the general formula XY(Si, Al)2O6 where X
represents calcium, sodium, iron+2 and magnesium and more rarely zinc,
manganese and lithium and Y represents ions of smaller size, such as chromium,
aluminium, iron+3, magnesium, manganese, scandium, titanium, vanadium and
even iron+2. Although aluminium substitutes extensively for silicon in silicates
such as feldspar and amphiboles, the substitution occurs only to a limited extent
in most pyroxenes.
The name pyroxene comes from the Greek words pyro meaning fire and xenos
meaning stranger. Pyroxenes were named this way because of their presence in
volcanic lavas, where they are sometimes seen as crystals embedded in volcanic
glass; it was assumed they were impurities in the glass, hence the name ‘fire
strangers’. However, they are simply early-forming minerals that crystallized
before the lava erupted.

At high temperatures, have more extensive fields of solid solution (a solid state
solution of one or more solutes (a chemically different liquid, solid or gas) in a
solvent (a substance that dissolves a solute resulting in a solution). Such a mixture
is considered a solution rather than a compound when the crystal structure of the
solvent remains unchanged by addition of the solutes, and when the mixture
remains in a single homogenous phase. This often happens when the two
elements (generally metals) involved are close together on the periodic table;
conversely, a chemical compound is generally a result of the non-proximity of the
two metals involved on the periodic table) than they do at lower temperatures.
Consequently, as temperatures decrease, the pyroxene adjusts its composition in
the solid state by exsolving a separate phase in the form of lamellae within the
host pyroxene grain. The lamellae are exsolved along specific crystallographic
directions, producing oriented intergrowths with parallel and herringbone
texture. There are five principal combinations of exsolution (process through
which an initially homogenous solid solution separates into at least two different
crystalline minerals without the addition or removal of any materials. In most
cases, it occurs upon cooling below the temperature of mutual solubility or
stability of the solution) pairs: (1) augite with enstatite lamellae (2) augite with
pigeonite lamellae (3) augite with both pigeonite and enstatite lamellae (4)
pigeonite with augite lamellae (5) enstatite with augite lamellae.

Pyroxenes are chemically analogous to the amphiboles but differ compositionally

in two major respects. Pyroxenes contain no essential water in the form of
hydroxyls in their structure, whereas amphiboles are considered to be hydrous
silicates. The second key chemical difference between the two is the presence of
a site in amphiboles which contains the large alkali elements, typically sodium and
at times potassium; the pyroxenes do not have an equivalent site that can contain
potassium. Hydroxyl groups in the amphibole structure decrease their thermal
stability relative to the more refractory pyroxenes. At high temperatures
amphiboles decompose to anhydrous minerals. Pyroxenes are similar in colour,
luster and hardness to the amphiboles but have slightly higher densities owing to
the absence of hydroxyls.

AMPHIBOLES
Amphiboles is the name of an important group of generally dark-coloured
inosilicate minerals, forming prisms or needlelike crystals, composed of double
chian SiO4 tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing ions of iron
and/or magnesium in their structures. Amphiboles can be green, black, colourless,
white, yellow, blue, or brown. Amphiboles crystallize into two crystal systems,
monoclinic and orthorhombic. In chemical composition and general
characteristics, they are similar to the pyroxenes. The chief differences from
pyroxenes are that (i) amphiboles contain essential hydroxyl (OH) or halogen (F,
Cl) and (ii) the basic structure is a double chain of tetrahedral as opposed to the
single chain structure of pyroxene. Most apparent in hand specimen is that
amphiboles form oblique cleavage planes at around 120 degrees, whereas
pyroxenes have cleavage angles of approximately 90 degrees. Amphiboles are
also specifying less dense than corresponding pyroxenes. In optical
characteristics, many amphiboles are distinguished by their stronger pleochroism
and by the smaller angle of extinction on the plane of symmetry.
Amphiboles, from the Greek amphiboles, meaning ‘ambiguous’, was named by
the famous French crystallographer and mineralogist Rene-just Hauy (1801) in
allusion to the great variety of composition and appearance shown by this mineral
group. There are five major groups of amphiboles leading to 76 chemically
defined end-member amphibole compositions according to the British
mineralogist Bernard E Leake. Because of the wide range of chemical substitution
permissible in the crystal structure, amphiboles can crystallize in igneous and
metamorphic rocks with a wide range of bulk chemistries.

Amphiboles are minerals of either igneous or metamorphic origin and as such

are found principally in igneous and metamorphic rocks; in the former case
occurring as constituents (hornblende) of igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite,
andesite and others. Calcium is sometimes a constituent of naturally occurring
amphiboles. Those of metamorphic origins include examples such as those
developed in limestones by contact metamorphism (tremolite) and those formed
by the alteration of other ferromagnesian minerals (hornblende). Pseudomorphs
of amphiboles after pyroxene are known as uralite.

Amphiboles crystallize both in the orthorhombic and monoclinic series. Examples

of amphiboles include anthophyllite, and holmquistite (orthorhombic), tremolite,
actinolite, cummingtonite, grunerite, hornblende, glaucophane, riebeckite,
pargasite, and winchite (monoclinic).

The complex chemical composition of members of amphibole group can be

expressed by the general formula A0-1B2C5T8O22 (OH, F, Cl)2, where A= Na, K;
B= Na, Zn, Li, Ca, Mn, Fe2+, Mg; C= Mg, Fe2+, Mn, Al, Fe3+, Ti, Zn, Cr; and T= Si,
Al, Ti. Nearly complete substitution may take place between sodium and calcium
and among magnesium, ferrous iron, and manganese. There is limited
substitution between ferric iron and aluminium and between titanium and other
C-type cations. Aluminium can partially substitute for silicon in the tetrahedral
site. Partial substitution of Fluorine, chlorine, oxygen for hydroxyl (OH) in the
hydroxyl site is common. The mineral nomenclature of amphiboles is divided into
four principal subdivisions based on B- group cation occupancy: (1) the iron-
magnesium-manganese amphibole group, (2) the calcic amphibole group, (3) the
sodic-calcic amphibole group, and (4) the sodic amphibole group.
MICAS
Mica is a group of hydrous potassium, aluminium silicate minerals. It is a type of
phylosilicate, exhibiting a two dimensional sheet or layer structure. Among the
principal rock forming minerals, micas are found in all three major rock verieties-
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Of the known species of mica group, only six are common rock forming minerals.
Muscovite, the common light coloured mica, and biotite, which is typically black
or nearly so, are the most abundant. Phlogopite, typically brown and paragonite,
which is macroscopically indistinguishable from muscovite, also are fairly
common. Lepidolite, generally pinkish to lilac in colour, occurs in lithium-bearing
pegmatites. Glauconite, a green species that does not have the same general
macroscopic characteristics as the other micas, occurs sporadically in many
marine sedimentary sequences. All of these micas except glauconite exhibit easily
observable perfect cleavage into flexible sheets. Glauconite, which most often
occurs as pellet-like grains, has no apparent cleavage.

The names of the rock forming micas constitute a good example of the diverse
bases used in naming minerals: biotite was named for a person- Jean-Baptiste
Biot, 19th century French physicist who studied the optical properties of micas;
muscovite was named, albeit indirectly, for a place- it was originally called
‘Muscovy glass’ because it came from the Muscovy province of Russia; glauconite,
although typically green, was named for the Greek word for blue; lepidolite, from
the Greek word meaning ‘scale’ was based on the appearance of the mineral’s
cleavage plates; phlogopite, from the Greek word for firelike, was chosen because
of the reddish glow (colour and luster) of some specimens; paragonite, from the
Greek ‘to mislead’, was so named because it was originally mistaken for another
mineral, talc.

BIOTITE
Chemical formula: K(Fe, Mg)3AlSiO10 (OH, F)2
Colours: brown to black
Streak: colourless
Luster: vitreous to pearly
Transparency: transparent, translucent,opaque
Crystal system: monoclinic
Specific gravity: 2.8
Hardness (Mohs): 2.5-3
Cleavage: perfect
Fracture: uneven

Biotite is a common rock forming mineral being present in at least some

percentage in most igneous and both regional and contact metamorphic rocks. It
is found associated with muscovite, feldspar, and quartz. It has a wide spread
occurrence and is found in all three types of rocks. It is classified as a
phyllosilicate. The typical black to brown colour of biotite is characteristic
although it is difficult to distinguish brown biotite from dark brown phlogopite.
The two are actually end-members in a series that is dependent on the
percentage of iron. Phlogopite is iron poor and biotite is iron rich. The darker
colour and density increases with an increase in the iron content. Biotite tend to
form in a wider range of conditions than phlogopite which is limited mostly to
ultramafic rocks and magnesium rich marbles and pegmatites. The one consistent
distinction between biotite and phlogopite is that biotite alone can occur with a
reddish tint. This is due to the higher iron content in biotite. Phlogopite is iron
poor and so does not exhibit the reddish colouration. Biotite, like other micas has
a layered structure of iron magnesium aluminium silicate sheets weekly bonded
together by layers of potassium ions. These potassium ion layers produce the
perfect cleavage. The perfect cleavage of the mica group minerals makes fracture
less easily observed, thus, they have an uneven fracture characteristic.

MUSCOVITE
Chemical formula: KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
Colour: white, grey, silvery
Crystal habit: massive to platy
Crystal system: monoclinic
Cleavage: perfect on the (001)
Fracture: micaceous
Hardness (Mohs): 2-2.5
Luster: vitreous, silky, pearly
Streak: white
Diaphaneity: transparent to translucent
Specific gravity: 2.76-3

In general, keys to identifying muscovite are its low relief, lack of colour, mica
habit and cleavage, and second order interference colours. Muscovite forms
when potassium, aluminum, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen are bound together to
form the mineral. Sometimes iodine and fluorine also occur in muscovite.
Muscovite is one type of mica and is distinguished from other mica by the amount
of potassium. It is also the most common of the micas. Muscovite and other micas
forms very thin parallel layers, which is one of their most striking features. These
layers form because the aluminum, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen bind together
to form thin molecular sheets called aluminum phyllosilicates. The other
chemicals in muscovite bind these layers together like the frosting between cake
layers. Muscovite split into sheets when the chemical bond separating the
aluminum phyllosilicate layers break. These sheets can be thin enough for light to
pass, and Russians who gave muscovite its name used them for windows.

Muscovite is a naturally occurring mineral found across the world. It is

widespread and common in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks
and, to a much lesser extent, in some immature sedimentary rocks. Muscovite is
the commonest white micas and brittle micas in thin section can be difficult or
impossible. So many petrologists use the generic phrase ‘white mica’ when
describing what they see in thin section, rather than trying to get more specific. A
fined grained variety of muscovite often occurring as an alteration product, is
termed sericite.

For muscovite in igneous rocks, muscovite forms in rocks known as pegmatites

(most commonly granite), which occurs when magma wells up from deep within
the earth’s mantle and then cools and hardens before reaching the earth’s
surface. Because the magma cools slowly, the mineral grains in pegmatites can
grow to be very large. Muscovite can also form in pegmatite when feldspar
weathers, but this type is often called sericite. It can also form in extrusive
igneous rocks (such as basalt) that form when magma reaches the surface of the
earth before cooling, but this type of magma tends to have less silicon in it so
micas are rare. Metamorphic muscovite forms when minerals (usually feldspar,
topaz and kyanite) are transformed (metamorphosized) when subjected to great
heat or pressure. It usually forms in metamorphic rocks called schist and gneiss.
Muscovite does not form in sedimentary rocks, but grains that weather out of
igneous and metamorphic rock are often deposited along with other mineral
grains that are then cemented together to form these rocks. Muscovite is not
especially resistant to chemical weathering. It is quickly transformed into clay
minerals. Tiny flakes of muscovite sometimes survive long enough to be
incorporated into sediments and immature sedimentary rocks. It is evidence that
these sediments and rocks have not been subjected to severe weathering.

Muscovite is used as an insulator in heat and electrical applications. Its

resistance to heat made it perfect as the ‘window’ in ovens before synthetics
were developed.

Muscovite sheets are durable. They maintain their shape even after a great deal
of weathering and exposure. Muscovite is responsible for the tiny glimmering
flecks found in sand.

FELDSPAR
Category: tectosilicate
Formula: (repeating unit) KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8
Colour: white, gray, brown, pink
Crystal system: triclinic or monoclinic
Cleavage: two or three
Fracturing: long cleavage planes
Mohs scale hardness: 6.0-6.5
Luster: vitreous
Streak: white
Diaphaneity: opaque
Specific gravity: 2.55-2.76
Density: 2.76
Birefringence: first order
Pleochroism: none

The feldspars are a family of silicate minerals which occur in igneous rocks. There
are many different members to the feldspar group. Obviously, silicon and oxygen
form the foundation for the group, but calcium, sodium and potassium are also
present. One of these elements is usually dorminant, but most of the feldspars
contain all three in varying amounts. It the proportions of these three elements
which help determine which specific feldspar is formed. The feldspars are divided
into two broad categories: plagioclase, which contains calcium and sodium; and
orthoclase which contains potassium. The plagioclase feldspars represent the
‘continuous branch’ of the Bowen’s Reaction Series, and form a complete series
between anorthite (the pure calcium member), and albite (the sodium-rich
variety).

Since feldspar is nearly always present in igneous rocks, most classification

schemes depend on the amount and kind of feldspar. In general terms, mafic and
intermediate rocks contain plagioclase, with the more calcium present, the more
mafic the resulting rock. Orthoclase occurs only in the felsic igneous rocks. So if
we are faced with the need to name an igneous rock, it is important to be able to
distinguish between plagioclase and orthoclase. This is obviously harder than it
should be, and a final determination is often impossible without chemical and/or
optical studies in the lab. We can, however, make an educated guess in the field
based on several assumptions, and a few easily identifiable features- colour and
the presence (or absence) of striations. Striations are often visible on plagioclase,
and resemble very fine (almost microscopic) parallel lines cut into the face of a
mineral fragment. All feldspars which have striations are plagioclase, but not all
plagioclase has striations. Only orthoclase can be pink or blue, and only
plagioclase can be dark gray to black.

Compositions of major elements in common feldspars can be expressed in terms

of three endmembers: potassium (K) feldspar endmember (KAlSi3O8), albite
endmember (NaAlSi3O8), and anorthite endmember (CaAlSi2O8). Solid solutions
between K-feldspar and albite are called alkali feldspar. Solid solutions between
albite and anorthite are called plagioclase feldspar. Only limited solid solutions
occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two other solid solutions,
immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the earth. Albite is
considered to be both a plagioclase and alkali feldspars. In addition to albite,
barium feldspars are also considered both alkali and plagioclase feldspars. Barium
feldspars form as a result of replacement of potassium feldspar.

The main mineral that might be confused with feldspar is quartz. Besides
hardness (note that quartz has a hardness of 7), the biggest difference is how the
two minerals break. Quartz breaks in a curvy and irregular shape (conchoidal
fracture). Feldspar, however, breaks readily along flat faces, a property called
cleavage. As u turn a piece of rock in the light, quartz glitters and feldspar flashes.
Quartz is usually clear and feldspar is usually cloudy. Quartz appears in crystals
more commonly than feldspar, and the six sided spears of quartz are different
from the generally blocky crystals of feldspar.

PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
Formula: (repeating unit) NaAlSi3O8 – CaAlSi2O8
Crystal system: triclinic
Colour: white, gray, bluish white, reddish white, greenish white
Twinning: common
Plagioclase is an important series of tectosilicate minerals within the feldspar
family. It is an aluminum containing silicate which forms with no cleavage planes.
Rather than referring to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition,
plagioclase is a solid solution series more properly known as the plagioclase
feldspar series. The series ranges from albite (sodium) to anorthite (calcium)
endmembers, where sodium and calcium can substitute for each other in the
mineral crystal lattice structure. Plagioclase in hand samples is often identified by
its polysynthetic twinning or ‘record-groove’ effect.
Plagioclase is a major constituent mineral in the earth’s crust, and is
consequently an important diagnostic tool in petrology for identifying the
composition, origin and evolution of igneous rocks. In the Bowen reaction series,
plagioclase can be seen to form throughout the process of magma crystallization
in what is called the continuous reaction series. As the cooling continues, the
calcium content of plagioclase diminishes while the sodium content increases.

The composition of plagioclase feldspar is typically denoted by its overall fraction

of anorthite (%An) or albite (%Ab), and readily determined by measuring the
plagioclase crystal’s refractive index in crushed grain mounts, or its extinction
angle in thin section under a polarizing microscope. The formation of plagioclase
involves the substitution of an aluminum ion (Al3+) for a silicon ion (Si4+), while
simultaneously substituting a calcium ion (Ca2+) for a sodium ion (Na1+) to
preserve electrical neutrality. There are several named plagioclase feldspars that
fall between albite and anorthite in the series. We have anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) –
bytownite (NaSi, CaAl)AlSi2O8 –labradorite (Ca,Na)Al(Al,Si)Si2O8 –andesine
(NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) –oligoclase (Na,Ca) (Al,Si) AlSi2O8 –albite (NaAlSi3O8).

Anorthite was named by Rose in 1823 from the greek meaning oblique, referring
to its triclinic crystallization. Anorthite is a comparatively rare mineral but occurs
in the basic plutonic rocks or some orogenic calc- alkaline suites.

Albite is named from the latin albus, in reference to it its unusually pure white
colour. It is relatively common and important rock making mineral associated with
the more acid rock types and in pegmatite dikes, often with rarer minerals like
tourmaline and beryl.

The intermediate members of plagioclase group are very similar to each other and
normally cannot be distinguished except by their optical properties. They also
may exsolve to two feldspars of contrasting composition during cooling, but
diffusion is much slower than in alkali feldspar, and the resulting two feldspar
intergrowths typically are too fine grained to be visible with optical microscopes.
The immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to
the gap in the alkali feldspars.

Bytownite is named after the former name for Ottawa, Canada (Bytown). Is a
rare mineral occasionally found in more basic rocks.

Labradorite is the characteristic feldspar of the more basic rock types such as
diorite, gabbro, andesite, or basalt and is usually associated with one of the
pyroxenes or amphiboles. Labradorite frequently shows an iridescent display of
colours due to light refracting within the lamellae of the crystal. The play of
colours visible in some feldspar of labrodorite composition is due to very fine
grained exsolution lamellae. It is named after Labrador, where it is a constituent if
the intrusive igneous rock anorthosite which is composed almost entirely of
plagioclase.

Andesine is a characteristic mineral of rock such as diorite which contain a

moderate amount of silica and related volcanics such as andesite.

Oligoclase is common in granites, syenite, diorite, and gneiss. It is a frequent

associate of orthoclase. The name oligoclase is derived from the Greek for little
and fracture, in reference to the fact that its cleavage angle differs significantly
from 900.

POTASSIUM, ORTHOCLASE, ALKALI OR K- FELDSPAR

Formula: KAlSi3O8
Colour: colourless, greenish, grayish yellow, white, pink
Crystal habit: can be anhedral or euhedral. Grains are commonly elongate with a
tabular appearance.
Crystal system: monoclinic
Twinning: typically displays Carlsbad twinning. Baveno and manebach twins have
also been reported in orthoclase.
Orthoclase is an important tectosilicate mineral which forms igneous rock. It is
an aluminum containing silicate which forms with no cleavage planes. The name is
from the Greek for ‘straight fracture,’ because its two cleavage planes are at right
angles to each other. Typically, the pure potassium endmember of orthoclase
forms a solid solution with albite, the sodium endmember (NaAlSi3O8), of
plagioclase. While slowly cooling within the earth, sodium rich albite lamellae
form by exsolution, enriching the remaining orthoclase with potassium. The
resulting intergrowth of the two feldspars is called perthite. In other words,
perthite is created when a high temperature feldspar unmixes (exsolves) into two
compositions. Perthite is a typical texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of
contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate
composition. Microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light
microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron
microscope. Perthite grains consist of zones of Na-rich plagioclase alternating in
complicated patterns with zones of k-feldspar.
k-feldspar is widespread and common in a wide variety of igneous and
metamorphic rocks and in some sedimentary rocks. Its chemistry and atomic
arrangements are variable, so optical properties vary as well. The three principle
varieties of k-feldspar are microcline (KAlSi3O8) (stable at low temperature),
orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) (stable at medium temperature) and sanidine
(K,Na)AlSi3O8 (stable at high temperature). Other rare related varieties include
adularia and anorthoclase (Na,K)AlSi3O8. Microcline is found in silicic to
intermediate plutonic rocks (not volcanics) and some metamorphic rocks.
Orthoclase is common in many silicic plutonic rocks, less commonly in volcanic
rocks. It is also found in metamorphic and some sedimentary rocks. Sanidine is
the common k-feldspar in silicic volcanic rocks. Microcline and orthoclase are
generally anhedral; sanidine is more likely to form euhedral phenocrysts.
Orthoclase is frequently cloudy due to incipient alteration; sanidine is generally
clear. Microcline is often characterized by a distinctive plaid (cross- hatched)
twinning with twin domains that pinch and swell. Orthoclase and sanidine may
display simple twins that divide grains into two domains. When untwined,
distinguishing the different k-feldspar varieties may be difficult. Orthoclase is
biaxial (-) with a large 2V. sanidine is biaxial (-) with a very small 2V
(pseudouniaxial sometimes).
The most significant endmembers are orthoclase (KAlSiO8) and albite
(NaAlSi3O8).
k-feldspar is similar to quartz , but quartz lacks cleavage, lacks twinning, does not
alter, exhibits undulatory extinction, and is unaxial.

QUARTZ
Formula: SiO2
Crystal system: trigonal
Colour: colourless
Fracture: conchoidal
Cleavage: indistinct (never has cleavage)
Mohs scale hardness: 7
Luster: vitreous- waxy to dull when massive
Streak: white
Relief: low relief
Diaphaneity: transparent to nearly opaque
Specific gravity: 2.65; variable 2.59-2.63 in impure varieties
Optical properties: uniaxial
Pleochroism: none
Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in the Earth’s continental crust,
after feldspar. It I made of a continental framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedral, giving an
overall formula SiO2. The ideal shape of quartz is a six sided pyramids at each end.
In nature quartz crystals are often twinned, distorted, or so intergrown with
adjacent crystals of quartz or other minerals as to only show part of this shape, or
to lack obvious crystal faces altogether and appear massive. Well-formed crystals
typically form in ‘bed’ that has unconstrained growth into a void; usually the
crystals are attached at the other end to a matrix and only one termination
pyramid is present. However doubly-terminated crystals do occur where they
develop freely without attachment, for instance within gypsum. A quartz geode is
such a situation where the void is approximately spherical in shape, lined with a
bed of crystals pointing inward.
Quartz is a common and often essential mineral in a wide variety of sedimentary,
metamorphic and igneous rocks. It is typically anhedral in igneous and
metamorphic rocks, rarely euhedral prismatic. Quartz is an essential constituent
of granite and other felsic igneous rocks. It is very common in sedimentary rocks
such as sandstone and shale and is also present in variable amounts as an
accessory mineral in most carbonate rocks. It is also a common constituent of
schist, gneiss, quartzite and other metamorphic rocks. Because of its resistance to
weathering it is very common in stream sedimentsand in residual soils. Quartz,
therefore, occupies the lowest potential to weather in the Goldich dissolution
series.
 Quartz occurs in hydrothermal veins as gangue along with ore minerals. Large
crystals of quartz are found in pegmatites. Well formed crystals may reach several
meters in length and weigh hundreds of kilograms.

There are many different varieties of quartz. They include pure quartz, citrine,
rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others.

Pure quartz traditionally called rock crystal (sometimes called clear quartz), is
colourless and transparent (clear) or translucent, and has often been used for
hardstone carvings.

Citrine is a variety of quartz whose colour ranges from a pale yellow to brown.
Natural citrines are rare; most commercial citrines are heat-treated amethyst or
smoky quartz. The name citrine is derived from the latin citrine which means
yellow. Sometimes citrine and amethyst can be found together in the same
crystal, which is then referred to ametrine.

Rose quartz is a type of quartz which exhibits a pale pink to rose red hue. The
colour is usually considered as due to trace amount of titanium, iron, or
manganese, in the massive material. Some rose quartz contains microscopic rutile
needles which produces an asterism in transmitted light. Recent X-ray diffraction
studies suggest that the colour is due to thin microscopic fibers of possibly
dumotierite within the massive quartz. In crystal form (rarely found) it is called
pink quartz and its colour is thought to be caused by trace amounts of phosphate
or aluminium. The colour in crystals is apparently photosensitive and subject to
fading. Rose quartz is not popular as a gem- it is generally too clouded by
impurities to be suitable for that purpose. Rose quartz is more often carved into
figures such as people.

Amethyst is a popular form of quartz that ranges from a bright to dark or dull
purple colour.

Smoky quartz is a gray, translucent version of quartz. It ranges in clarity from

almost complete transparency to a brownish-gray crystal that is almost opaque.
Some can also be black.
 Milk or milky quartz may be the most common variety of crystalline quartz and
can be found almost everywhere. The white colour may be caused by minute fluid
inclusions of gas, liquid, or both, trapped during the crystal formation. The
cloudiness caused by the inclusions effectively bars its use in most optical and
quality gemstone applications.

Quartz crystals have piezoelectric properties; they develop an electric potential

upon the application of mechanically stress. One of the most common
piezoelectric uses of quartz today is as a crystal oscillator. The quartz clock is a
familiar device using the mineral.

3.0.4. ROCKS
Elements are atoms, the smallest piece that we can split matter into. Elements
are often stacked together with other elements to form minerals. Minerals are
simply a collection of one or more elements that are stacked neatly together in a
form called a crystal structure. A rock can be made up of only one mineral or a
number of different minerals. Rock is therefore defined as naturally occurring
solid aggregate solid aggregate of minerals.
Rocks are forced to change shape at or near plate boundaries. Rocks can
experience squeezing, stretching, or pushing in different directions in response to
stress. The response depends on the type of stress, the rate at which it is applied,
the environmental conditions of the rocks (such as temperature and pressure),
and their composition.
3.0.4.1. ROCK CYCLE

Like most Earth materials, rocks are created and destroyed in cycles. The rock
cycle is a model that describes the formation, breakdown, and reformation of a
rock as a result of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic processes.

IGNEOUS ROCK CYCLE

Igneous rocks are formed from molten magma when magma cools and
crystallizes. Igneous rock formation can happen when sedimentary rocks are
remelted. This takes place at subduction zones. Subduction zones occur when one
of the earth’s plate moves under another. Any sedimentary rock sitting atop the
subducting plate is pulled down. Tremendous heat is generated as the two plates
grind against each other. This heat and the heat of the underlying magma melts
the rock. Volcanoes are usually present along subduction zones. They allow the
heat and energy created by the grinding plates to escape to the surface of the
earth. When magma reaches the surface through volcanoes it cools quickly (a
matter of days or weeks) and when magma forms pockets underground it cools
much more slowly (this could take thousands or even millions of years). The rate
at which the magma cools determines the kind of igneous rocks that will be
formed. Faster cooling surface lava creates rock that is fine grained or aphanitic.
The rapid cooling doesn’t allow large crystals to form and in addition, most of the
gasses are driven off into the atmosphere. The slower cooling that takes place
underground allows for larger crystal formation and as such, the rocks are coarse
grained.
Igneous rock formation can also happen when metamorphic rocks are remelted.
This also takes place at subduction zones and the processes are same with that of
formation from sedimentary rocks described above.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK CYCLE

Sedimentary rock formation begins with igneous, metamorphic, or other
sedimentary rocks. When these rocks are exposed at the earth’s surface they
begin the long slow but relentless process of becoming sedimentary rock.
Weathering: All rocks are subject to weathering. Weathering is anything that
breaks the rocks into smaller pieces or sediments. This can happen by the forces
of wind, rain, and freezing water.

Deposition: The sediments that form from these actions are often carried to
other places by the wind, running water, and gravity. As these forces lose energy
the sediments settle out of the air or water. As the settling takes place the rock
fragments are graded by size. The larger heavier pieces settle out first. The
smallest fragments travel farther and settle out last. This process of settling out is
called deposition.

Erosion: The combination of weathering and movementof the resulting sediments

is called erosion.

Lithification: This is the changing of sediments into rocks. There are two
processes involved in this change. They are compaction and cementation.
Compaction occurs after the sediments have been deposited. The weight of the
sediment squeezes the particles together. As more sediments are deposited the
weight on the sediments below increases. Waterborne sediments become so
tightly squeezed together that most of the water is pushed out. Cementation
happens as dissolved minerals become deposited in the spaces between the
sediments. These minerals act as glue or cement to bind the sediments together.

The process of sedimentary rock formation takes millions of years to complete

only to begin a new cycle of rock formation.

METAMORPHIC ROCK CYCLE

Metamorphic rock formation from sedimentary rocks is caused by heat and
pressure. The heat and pressure comes from inside the earth. From the upper
mantle up to within a few kilometers of the surface of the earth, there is a
tremendous amount of heat and pressure. This heat and pressure increases with
depth. There is something else that adds to both the heat and pressure, and that
is plate tectonics. When the plates of the earth collide, they squeeze the rocks at
the borders with unbelievable force. This force increases the pressure in this and
surrounding areas. Friction is also created by the plates grinding together. This
friction generates enough heat to melt the rocks at the point of contact. For
metamorphism to occur, energy is needed to fuel the chemical reactions. Heat is
the primary source of this energy. The pressure within the earth is the result of
gravity pulling the crust of the earth downward. Like heat, pressure increases with
depth. This pressure can actually squeeze the spaces out of the mineral within the
rock. This makes the rocks denser. The heat and pressure together cause the rock
to flow instead of break or fracture. The mineral grains become realigned. They
flatten out and get longer. Sedimentary rocks exposed to this kind of heat and
pressure. Limestone changes to marble. Shale changes to slate. Also igneous rocks
exposed to this kind of heat and pressure is equally transformed into new kinds of
rocks. Granite changes to gneiss.

3.0.4.2. TYPES OF ROCKS

There are three basic types of rocks. They are
1. Igneous rock
2. Sedimentary rock
3. Metamorphic rock
IGNEOUS ROCK
The word comes from the latin word igneus which means fire. The name is
appropriate because these rocks are born of fire (magma). Igneous rocks are
crystalline solids which cool from magma: the liquid phase of solid rock. Magmas
occur at depth in the crust, and are said to exist in ‘magma chambers’ a rather
loose term indicating an area where the temperature is great enough to melt the
rock, and the pressure is low enough to allow the material to expand and exist in
the liquid state. This magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing
rocks in either a planet’s mantle or crust. Many different types of igneous rocks
can be produced. The key factors to determining which rock you have are the
rock’s texture and composition.
There are two kinds of igneous rocks; intrusive and extrusive. When the magma
solidifies below the surface, the igneous rock is called an intrusive igneous rock
and when it solidifies at the surface, the igneous rock is called extrusive. Both
have different textures. In the case of extrusive, the magma cools faster and as
such the rock is fine grained or aphanitic. The rapid cooling doesn’t allow large
crystals to form. In the case of intrusive, the magma cools slowly and this allows
for larger crystal formation giving the rock a coarse texture.

The other factor is composition: the elements in the magma directly affect which
minerals are formed when the magma cools. The composition of igneous magma
is directly related to where the magma formed. Magmas associated with crustal
spreading are generally mafic, and produce basalt if the magma erupts at the
surface, or gabbro if the magma never makes it out of the magma chamber. It is
important to remember that basalt and gabbro are two different types of rocks
based on textural differences- they are compositionally the same. Intermediate
and felsic magmas are associated with crustal compression and subduction. In
these areas, mafic seafloor basalt and continental sediments are subducted back
into the crust, where they re-melt. This allows the differentiation process to
continue, and the resulting magma is enriched in the lighter elements.
Intermediate magmas produce diorite (intrusive) and andesite (extrusive). Felsic
magmas, the final purified result of differentiation process, lead to the formation
of granite (intrusive) or rhyolite (extrusive).

Mafic is used for magmas and rocks which are relatively high in the heavier
elements. The term is derived from using the MA from magnesium and the FIC
from the latin word for iron, but mafic magmas also are relatively enriched in
calcium and sodium. Mafic minerals are usually dark in colour and have relatively
high specific gravities (greater than 3.0). Common rock-forming mafic minerals
include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite mica, and the plagioclase feldspars.
Mafic magmas are usually produced at spreading centers, and represent material
which is newly differentiated from the upper mantle. Common mafic rocks
include basalt and gabbro. Felsic, on the other hand is used for magmas and rocks
which have a lower percentage of the heavier elements, and are correspondingly
enriched in the lighter elements, such as silicon and oxygen, aluminium and
potassium. The term comes from FEL for feldspar (in this case the potassium rich
variety) and SIC, which incates the higher percentage of silica. Felsic minerals are
usually light in colour and have specific gravities less than 3.0. Common felsic
minerals include quartz, muscovite mica, and the orthoclase feldspar. The most
common felsic rock is granite, which represents the purified end product of the
earth’s internal differentiation process. It is important to note that there are
many intermediate steps in the purification process, and many intermediate
magmas which are produced during the conversion from mafic to felsic. We call
the magmas associated with these intermediate stages ‘intermediate magmas’.
They form through partial melting of subducted ocean crust in areas of crustal
convergence (subduction zones). In areas of island arc formation, they are the
dominant magma type. In areas of crustal compression and thickening
(subduction near continent) they occur together with granitic magmas that
originate in the lower crust. Common intermediate rocks include andesite and
dacite.

The magma temperature and the chemical composition of the magma

determine what minerals crystallize and thus what kind of igneous rock we get.
Different minerals crystallize at different temperatures (olivine at high
temperatures, quartz at low temperatures), and therefore the mineral
composition of an igneous rock can tell us something about the cooling history of
that rock. The realization that types and mode of occurrences of igneous rocks
can be tied to a common history of cooling was formulated by the petrologist
Bowen, who related laboratory experiments on mineral crystallization with
Petrographic observations in a theoretical scheme that is nowadays known as
BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES.

About 64.7% of the earth’s crust by volume consists of igneous rocks; making it
the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are
granites, and 17% granodiorites and diorites. Only 0.6% are syenites and 0.3%
peridotites and dunites. The oceanic crust is 99% basalt. Granites and similar
rocks, known as meta- granitoids form much of the continental crust. Over 700
types of igneous rocks have been descriped, most of them having formed beneath
the surface of the earth’s crust. These have diverse properties, depending on their
composition and how they were formed.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK
Sedimentary rocks are a product of the surface processes of the earth
(weathering, erosion, rain, streamflow, wind, wave action, ocean circulation). The
starting materials for sedimentary rocks are the rocks outcropping on the
continents. Processes of physical and chemical weathering break down these
source materials into the following components: small fragments of the source
rock (gravel, sand, or silt size) that may be identifiable rock fragments or
individual minerals, new minerals produced by weathering processes (mainly
clays), dissolved portions of the source rock (dissolved salts in rivers and ocean
water), from accumulations of these materials (fragmental material, clays, and
dissolved salts), do all sediments on the earth’s surface form. Sediments may
form by: mere mechanical accumulation (wind, water) such as gravel and sand
deposits in a river or sand dunes in a dessert, chemical precipitation such as salt
and calcite precipitation in shallow seas and lakes, activity of organisms such as
carbonate accumulation in coral reefs (organic precipitation) or accumulation of
organic matter in swamps (coal precursor). Sediments form when these initial
sediments solidify by cementation and compaction. The probably most significant
feature of sedimentary rocks is the fact that they are stratified, that means the
sediments of any particular time period form a distinct layer that is underlain and
overlain by equally distinct layers of respectively older and younger times.
Therefore sediments are the preserved record of former climates and landscapes.
The study of sedimentary rocks allows therefore to look back in time and to
decipher the sequence of events that made today’s earth what it is. In addition,
because the animals that lived during this time periods are found preserved in
their respective sediment units, a record of the animal and plant life is kept
throughout earth history. This record allows us to see the changes of animal and
plant communities through a time interval of more than 3 billion years (3.2 b.y.
the oldest algae) and is therefore a prime piece as well as a prime source of
evidence for the theory of evolution.
Because sedimentary processes shape the surface of the earth, the processes
that form sediments are much more accessible to observation, and because about
75% of the earth’s exposed land surface consists of sediments and sedimentary
rocks, most people have more familiarity with sedimentary rocks than with
igneous or metamorphic rocks. Because we can study them in the making, we
probably know more details about the origin of sedimentary rocks, than that of
igneous and metamorphic rocks combined.
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Several different types of sedimentary rocks can be distinguished according to
mineral composition, and origin of the sediment. The main groupings are
Clastic sedimentary rocks: those that are composed of fragments of other rocks
(igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary). Depending on grain size, they are
subdivided into conglomerate (grain size larger than 2mm), sandstone (2mm –
0.0625mm), and shale (mudstone).

Conglomerates are consolidated gravel deposits with variable amounts of sand

and mud between the pebbles, and are the least abundant sediment type. They
usually occur as lenticular bodies that are interbedded with sandstones and
sometimes mudstones. Conglomerate accumulate in stream channels (mountain
streams), along the margins of mountain ranges (brought out by streams), and
may also accumulate on beaches. The basic conditions for formation are either
closeness to a source area (usually high relief, fast flowing streams), and/or a high
energy environment of deposition (beach, winnowing is the important
ingredient). The source rock of a conglomerate can easily be determined by
examining the lithology of the pebbles (granite pebbles, basalt pebbles, etc).

Sandstones comprise about 30% of all sedimentary rocks. Because in many

igneous and metamorphic source rocks the grain size of component minerals is
larger than or equal to that of sandstone (as compared to a conglomerate). The
most abundant mineral in sandstone is usually quartz, because it is the hardest
one of the rock forming minerals and therefore the most resistant to abrasion
during transport. The second most abundant mineral is feldspar (potassium
feldspar), followed by micas. These minerals are also the chemically most stable
(under conditions of the earth’s surface) among the rock forming minerals. The
softer and less stable minerals (hornblende, pyroxene, olivine) are absent or at
least fairly rare. Even though the mineral composition of sandstone does not give
us lots of direct clues as to the source rock composition, we can gain some insight
into climate and transport history from the mineral composition of a sandstone.
In the case of a quartzite (or quartz arenite), a sandstone that consists more or
less entirely of quartz grains, we may assume that chemical weathering in the
source area was very effective, or, that the transport path was very long
(multicyclicity). In the case of sandstone that contains abundant feldspars on the
other hand we may assume that the source area was relatively close, and that
chemical weathering was less intense. The degree of rounding of sand grains may
also be an indicator of transport history. The sand particles in a sandstone are
usually cemented together by calcite, silica (quartz), iron oxide and clays (either
single or in combination).

Shale or mudstone consists of consolidated mud (clay and other fine particles),
and comprises about 60-70% of sedimentary rocks on earth. Shale is not as
conspicuous as sandstone because it is softer, and therefore tends to form
smooth hills and slopes during weathering. Generally they require a relatively
quiet environment of depositon (deep sea, lagoon, lake, tidal flat) because
otherwise the fine material can not settle out of the water (too much agitation).
The colour of a shale may indicate if deposition occurred in stagnant water (black,
organic matter), or in an oxidizing environment (well aerated, usually higher
energy level).

Chemical and organic sedimentary rocks are the other main groups of
sediments besides clastic sediments. They usually form by inorganic or organically
mediated mineral precipitation, and as the result of biological activity. Usually it
takes some special conditions for these rocks to form, such as small or absent
clastic sedimentation (would dilute chemical and organic input), high
temperatures and high evaporation (cause supersaturation), and high organic
activity (reefs, tropical swamps).

Limestones are the most common type of chemical sediment. They consist
predominantly of calcite (CaCO3), and may form by inorganic precipitation as well
as by organic activity. If looked at in detail, however, organic activity contributed
practically all of the limestones in the geologic record. Limestones may consist of
gravel to mud sized particles, and thus classifications of limestones exist that are
similar to those of clastic rocks.

Dolostones consist of the carbonate mineral dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), and occur

in more or less the same setting as limestones. Even though dolomite can
precipitate theoretically from seawater, it only rarely does, and probably most of
the dolostones in the sedimentary record are due to post-depositional
replacement of calcite by dolomite (Mg for Ca exchange by Mg-rich pore waters).

Evaporates are chemical sediments. They consist mostly of salt (table salt {NaCl}
and various others) and/or gypsum (CaSO4). They usually form from evaporation
of seawater. They require high evaporation rate (high temperatures) for their
formation, and usually the sedimentation basin has to be partially or totally
closed off (otherwise supersaturation is not reached because of influence of new
water). They usually indicate arid (dry) climate at their site of deposition.

Carbonaceous sedimentary rocks are those that contain abundant organic

matter in various forms. Although they make only a small fraction of sedimentary
rocks, they are important energy resources. Coal, for example is a carbonaceous
rock that consists of the altered (due to increase pressure and temperature)
remains of trees and other plant material. It has been used since the last century
for energy production and chemical industry. Oil shales are black mudstones that
contain abundant organic matter that has been altered into solid (kerogen) or
very viscous hydrocarbons (bitumen) that can be extracted from the rock through
heating. Tar sands are sandstones whose pore spaces are filled with heavy crude
oil and bitumen. The hydrocarbons are usually extracted with steam.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Sedimentary structures are another feature of sedimentary rock that allows
distinction between different rock units. Sedimentary structures are a
consequence of the depositional process at a site of deposition. The investigation
of these structures in ancient rocks allows us to reconstruct physical conditions in
the past, such as velocity and direction of depositing currents, emergent or
submerged conditions, frequency of depositing events (storms, tides), and in that
way may allow reconstructions of climates and paleogeographic setting. Probably
the most important sedimentary structures are:
Stratification
Cross-bedding
Graded bedding
Ripple marks
Mud-cracks
There are of course many more sedimentary structures than these. Infact, there
are thick books whose sole object is to describe and discuss sedimentary
structures and there meaning. In a way, sedimentary structures are the alphabet
in which a lot of earth history is written, and the better we can decipher them the
better will our understanding of the geologic past (as well as the future) be.
The sedimentary structures that we find in today’s sediments are the same that
occur in the very oldest sediments known on earth. The implications of these
observations of sedimentary structures are twofold: (A) the surface processes of
the earth have been the same throughout earth history, and have been of
comparable magnitude. (B) Because we can examine what processes produce
these structures today, we can go back and reconstruct the ancient world.

THE ORIGIN OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A sedimentary rock that we can examine in an outcrop has a long history and has
been subjected to modification by various processes. The first process,
WEATHERING, produces the material that a sedimentary rock is composed of by a
mechanical (freezing, thawing) and chemical (dissolution of minerals, formation of
new minerals {clays}) interaction between atmosphere, hydrosphere and earth
surface rocks.
The second process, TRANSPORT, moves these materials to their final
destination. Rivers are the main transporting agent of material to the oceans
(glaciers are at times important). During transport the sediment particles will be
sorted according to size and density and will be rounded by abrasion. Materials
that have been dissolved during weathering will be carried away in solution.
Winds may also play a role. The sorting during transport is important because it is
the reason that we have distinct clastic rock types (conglomerates, sandstones,
shales).

The third process, DEPOSITION, of sediment, occurs at a site with a specific

combination of physical, chemical and biological conditions, the sedimentary
environment. Each sedimentary environment is characterized by a distinctive set
of features such as, type of sediment, sediment association, sediment texture,
sedimentary structures, and animal communities, and is in this way (by using
modern analogues) that we can go back and reconstruct ancient landscapes.

Finally, after sediment has come to rest, COMPACTION and CEMENTATION of

the sediment occur and a sedimentary rock is formed. Compaction is effected by
the burden of younger sediment that gets piled on top of older sediments
(rearrangements of older particles, packing, dewatering). Minerals precipitated
from the pore waters in these sediments cement together adjacent sediment
grains. Thus, a coherent solid rock is formed.

3.0.1.2.3 METAMORPHIC ROCK

Metamorphic rocks are those whose original texture, composition and mineralogy
have been changed by conditions of high pressure and temperature (higher than
conditions of conditions of starting material). The materials from which
metamorphic rocks form are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and previously
existing metamorphic rocks. Mineralogical and chemical changes during
metamorphism occur essentially in the solid state. Metamorphic rocks form when
the precursor materials (igneous, sediment, etc.) are buried deeply and are
consequently brought into an environment of high temperature and pressure.
They are therefore most commonly encountered in the core zones of mountain
belts (uplifted root zone), in old continental shields, and as the basement rock
below the sediment veneer of stable continental platforms. Metamorphic rocks
and associated igneous intrusions (from rock buried deep so deep that it melted)
make up about 85% of the continental crust. Usually, the older a portion of
continental crust is, the more widespread are outcrops of metamorphic rocks
(erosion to very deep crustal levels, isostasy finally exposes root zones of
mountain ranges). In older metamorphic rocks oftentimes several successive
episodes of metamorphism can be determined with modern methods of
investigation (age determination of minerals of different stability, different
isotopic systems). Thus, deformation of the earth’s crust occurred repeatedly
during geologic history. This is evidence for continued tectonic movements and
readjustment of the earth’s crust throughout documented geologic history.
 Metamorphic rocks record how temperature and pressure affected an area
when it was forming. The rocks provide clues to their transformation into
metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are best identified when looking at the
rock as you see them in nature. You can clearly see the deformation and features
that are characteristic of an entire area. Metamorphic rocks were once
sedimentary, igneous, or another metamorphic rock. These rocks are physically
deformed and chemically changed due to different temperatures and pressures.
The elements in the minerals can actually “move” to form new minerals. The rock
does not melt, or else it would be considered an igneous rock. A rock looks
different after it has been metamorphosed. The rocks texture and overall
appearance changes also. It now has a squished look. Metamorphism is difficult to
understand because there are many combinations of temperature and pressure
that can create rocks. For example, mud and clay quietly settle on the ocean floor.
As more mud and clay settle on top of it, the weight of the sediments “squeezes”
the water from the mud and clay on the bottom. It becomes cemented together
by chemical interactions and it becomes a sedimentary rock called shale. The
shale is put under moderate pressure and low temperature due to burial or plate
movements. The new pressure and temperatures changed the chemical make up
of the shale into the metamorphic rock called slate.

If not enough heat and temperature were applied another metamorphic rock
could have been formed called phyllite, which is not as hard as slate. However, if
the shale was in an area that was exposed to higher pressures and moderate
temperatures, it might have been transformed into schist. The clay in the shale
could have been converted to mica, which gives schist its shiny look. Granite is a
light-colored rock made of quartz, feldspars, mica, and small amounts of
hornblende. The crystals of all these minerals are randomly arranged. Granite can
be metamorphosed into a rock called gneiss (pronounced like “nice”). Gneiss has
about the same mineral composition as granite, but the pressure of
metamorphism causes the minerals to line up, giving gneiss a distinct banded
appearance. Schist may also be converted into gneiss, if increased pressure and
temperature is added. Metamorphic rocks are a mixed up group that have been
under a lot of stress.
The metamorphic system can also react differently if fluids are part of the
system. Serpentinite, a mottled green rock, is usually formed with high pressure
and low temperature. The original rock could contain a large amount of olivine
(i.e., basalt). The olivine (Mg2SiO4) reacts with water (H2O) to form the mineral
serpentine (Mg3Si2O5(OH)4)plus magnesium oxide (MgO). Serpentinite is found
in areas where faulting occurs. Along the San Andreas Fault zone in California,
serpentinite is so abundant it is recognized as the California state rock. The
pressure of shearing seems to be ideal for the serpentinite to form a fibrous
pattern. This form of serpentinite is a variety of asbestos, which is used as a fire
retardant.
How do rocks metamorphose? Rocks metamorphose by the partial or complete
recrystallization of minerals in the rocks over long periods of time. These rocks
remain essentially solid during metamorphism, but can flow in a plastic-like
manner.

METAMORPHISM
Three Principal Factors that Drive Metamorphism are:
Temperature
Pressure
Fluids
Temperature
Temperature (heat) is the most important of the three factors in metamorphism.
For metamorphism to occur energy is needed to fuel the chemical reactions. Heat
is the primary source of this energy. Temperature drives the chemical changes
that result in the recrystallization of existing minerals or the creating of new
minerals. Earth’s internal heat comes from energy being released by radioactive
decay and thermal energy left over from the formation of the planet. Heat as well
as pressure also comes from inside the earth. From the upper mantle up to within
a few kilometers of the surface of the earth there is a tremendous amount of heat
and pressure which increases with depth. Plate tectonics also adds to both heat
and pressure. When the plates of the earth collide, they squeeze the rocks at the
borders with unbelievable force. This force increases the pressure in this and
surrounding areas. Friction is also created by the plates grinding together. This
friction generates enough heat to melt the rocks at the point of contact.
The rate at which the temperature increases as you go deeper into the Earth’s
crust is called the geothermal gradient
 Effects of Temperature
Heat, by itself, can greatly affect a rock’s texture and mineralogy. Heat breaks
chemical bonds and alters the crystal structure. Atoms and ions re-crystallize into
new mineral assemblages. Many new crystals will grow larger than they were in
the parent rock. Given the initial mineral composition of the rock, the
metamorphic changes that occur with a change in temperature follow a
predictable and repeatable path. Minerals crystallize (and remain stable) at
different temperatures in a predictable manner. Therefore, given a specific set of
minerals in a metamorphic rock, you can infer the temperature at which the
metamorphic rock formed.
With rising temperature, water that is contained in minerals (crystal water) will
be expelled into the pore spaces, fractures and crystal boundaries. As the pore
fluid content increases, chemical changes mediated through the pore fluids will
speed up as well. The rate of diffusion also increases with temperature. Thus, new
mineral assemblages will appear faster than at lower temperatures. At
temperatures below 200 degree Celsius, chemical changes proceed so very slow
that essentially no changes occur within geologically significant time spans. At
temperatures of about 700 to 800 degree Celsius, we approach eutectic
conditions for most rocks of the continental crust, and a vapour-rich (water,
possibly CO2) partial melt will form. Metamorphic rocks that have been heated to
those temperatures show textural evidence that significant portions of the rock
existed as a melt at one time (e.g. migmatite). Layers of rock with metamorphic
texture alternate with layers of rock with igneous texture, meaning that part of
the rock recrystallized from a melt. Those melts are of granitic composition and
may rise in the crust to form granite plutons (we have thus two types of granites
in the crust: those that originated by differentiation of melts created from partial
melting of subducted ocean crust (andesitic granites), and those that formed by
partial melting of deeply buried continental crust {root zones of mountain chains,
granitic magmas}).
Metamorphic changes can occur with increasing or decreasing temperature.
Prograde refers to mineral changes that take place during an increase in
temperature. Retrograde refers to mineral changes that take place during a
decrease in temperature.

Pressure
The pressure within the earth is the result of gravity pulling the crust of the crust
downwards. This pressure can actually squeeze the spaces out of the minerals
within the rock. This makes the rocks denser. The heat and pressure together
cause the rock to flow instead of to break or fracture.
Pressure, like temperature, changes a rock’s mineralogy and texture in a
predictable manner. Pressure, like temperature, also increases with depth
(Increases 1kbar per 4.4 km). There are two major types of pressure:
Confining pressure applies pressure from all directions while differential pressure
applies pressure from a particular direction (such as from the collision of two
tectonic plates). Buried rocks are subject to confining pressure, where the
pressure is applied equally in all directions.
Confining pressure causes the spaces between mineral grains to close, producing
a more compact rock with a greater density.
Confining pressure does not fold or deform rocks.
Rocks subject to differential stress are preferentially shortened in the direction
that pressure is applied and lengthened in the direction perpendicular to that
pressure.
Effects of Pressure
Directed pressure guides the shape and orientation of the new metamorphic
minerals. Metamorphic minerals can be compressed, elongated and/or rotated by
being forced into preferred orientations and can form spectacular and erratic
banding.
At low pressures, rocks are brittle and tend to fracture when subjected to
differential stress. At high pressures, rocks are ductile and flow like plastic. Under
ductile conditions, mineral grains tend to flatten and elongate when subject to
differential stress.
An increase in pressure tends to favour minerals of higher density, because are
atoms are more tightly packed and the minerals occupy less space. An increase in
pressure can be produced by deep burial of the rock (lithostatic pressure), or by
directed (horizontal) pressure (stress) at convergent plate margins (subduction
zones). Minerals will not grow in the direction of highest pressure, but rather in
the direction of the lowest pressure. Therefore in rocks that were subject to high
pressures, the metamorphic minerals will be elongated perpendicular to the
direction of highest pressure, but rather in the direction of the lowest pressure.
Because these pressures do affect very large volumes (or regions) of the rock,
metamorphism that causes preferred orientations of minerals is also called
regional metamorphism.
Under directed pressure, platy minerals such as micas will be oriented
perpendicular to the pressure. Elongate minerals like hornblende will point with
their long axis in the direction of least pressure. The development of preferred
mineral orientation in metamorphic rocks is called foliation, and is typical for
regional metamorphism.

Fluids
Fluids composed of water and other volatile components, such as carbon dioxide,
play an important roll in metamorphism. Metamorphism can add or remove
chemical components that dissolve in water. Water acts as a catalyst during
metamorphism.
Water also aids in the exchange of ions between growing crystals. Clay minerals
can contain up to 60% water. Water is part of the crystal structure in many
minerals, such as mica and amphibole. When subject to low to medium
temperatures, water molecules can be removed from minerals. Once expelled,
the water moves along the individual mineral grains and is available to transport
ions. At higher metamorphic temperatures, the water and fluids are driven from
the rock.

Effects of fluids
In general, metamorphic changes take place without significant changes in the
overall composition of the rock (we can consider it a closed chemical system),
only local (mm to cm scale) rearrangement of components occurs. The original
minerals break down and a new set of minerals is formed that is stable under the
new conditions (of pressure and temperature). Fluid between crystals promotes
chemical exchange within the otherwise solid state system. As seen earlier, this
fluid derives from original pore water and water on fractures, and the fluid is
enriched by atoms that are released from crystals. As temperature rises, bound
crystal water is expelled, and some unstable minerals of comparatively low
melting point will start to melt or dissolve into these pore fluids. Then diffusion
will carry the dissolved materials to a nearby site of formation of a new
metamorphic mineral. The process of local diffusion and reorganization of the
rock into new minerals is called recrystallization. If on the other hand we have an
open or partially open system (plenty of fluid available, high porosity {fractures},
e.g. rocks adjacent to a magma during contact metamorphism), then material can
be imported from sources outside of a particular rock body (which has specific
composition), or can be exported to adjacent rock bodies. In that case, (addition
or removal of large quantities of mineral bearing fluids) the overall rock
composition will change. This later process is called metasomatism.

Parent Rocks
The initial composition of the parent rocks is a fourth major factor. Most
metamorphic rocks have the same overall composition as the parent rock from
which they formed Except for the possible loss or accumulation of volatiles such
as water and carbon dioxide.

METAMORPHIC GRADE
Metamorphic grade tells us the maximum temperature and pressure to which a
rock was subject. However, metamorphism is a dynamic process and a
metamorphosed rock may have a very complex history. Most minerals are stable
over a relatively narrow range of pressure and temperature. The stability range of
different minerals sometimes overlaps and provides insights into the
metamorphic history of rocks. The grade is related to both temperature and
pressure, which is related to depth.
Metamorphic rocks are classified by how much metamorphic changes they have
undergone.
High-grade: Formed in deeper crustal regions, perhaps as deep as the upper
mantle, under high temperature and/or high pressure.
Low-grade: Formed in shallower crustal regions under low temperature and/or
low pressure.

Low grade Slate

Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
High grade Migmatite

TEXTURE & COMPOSITION

Metamorphic rocks are classified by their texture and composition, which is also
related to their grade.
 Metamorphic Texture
Metamorphism creates new textures on the rock it alters. In general, the grain
size of a crystal increases as the grade of metamorphism increases.
Four main criteria:
-The size of their crystals
-How the mineral grain shape is changed
-The degree to which minerals are segregated into light and dark bands
-Metamorphic grade
There are three major types of metamorphic rock textures: foliation,
granoblastic, and large-crystal.
The most common of these textures is foliation (layered texture), meaning that
the minerals are aligned and grew under directed pressure. Foliation is caused by
formation
of new and the recrystallization (grain growth, coarsening) of preexisting minerals
grains (change in pressure and temperature). Foliation is a fundamental and
prominent textural feature of regional metamorphosed rock. Foliation can be said
to be a set of flat or wavy parallel planes produced by directed stress
deformation.
Presence of platy or elongated minerals (chiefly micas and chlorite) helps create
the foliation. Stress deformation causes mineral grains in preexisting rocks to
develop parallel, or nearly parallel, alignment. Ductile deformation (flattening) of
mineral grains can occur in one of two ways expressed in the diagram below
The first mechanism is a solid-state plastic flow by intracrystalline movement
within each grain. The second mechanism involves the dissolving of ions from
areas of high stress and the moving and deposition of the ions in low stress areas.
Both mechanisms change the shape of the mineral grains (but the volume and
overall composition remains essentially unchanged).

Depending on the degree of foliation we distinguish several major metamorphic

rock types. Slates are the finest grained variety of foliated rocks and are produced
by low grade metamorphism of shales and mudstones. The most characteristic
feature is the so called slaty cleavage (from newly formed micas). Slaty cleavage
usually is oriented at a high angle to the original bedding of the shales. Slates tend
to split apart at this cleavage, and fall apart in platy fragments. The development
of slaty cleavage depends on the amount of clay and detrital micas available in a
rock (starting material for metamorphic mica growth). Chalk blackboards are
made of thin sheets of slate. Slate can be used for roofing (see figure below), but
weight is a problem of slate. Slate does not contain visible minerals, but with a
microscope, you would see that all its minerals (usually the clay minerals) are
lined up. It is formed by regional metamorphism.

Phyllites are another foliated metamorphic rock that form during low-grade
metamorphism of mud- and clay-rich sedimentary rocks. They represent an
intermediate step between slate and schist. Phyllites are very fine grained rocks
with a grain size barely visible in a hand specimen. They usually exhibit cleavage
(see figure below). Phyllite resembles slate but has a somewhat coarser texture.
The flat surfaces have a lustrous sheen due to mica and chlorite. However, it is
not as flat or hard as slate, and not used in construction like slate.

phyllite

Schists are medium to coarse grained foliated rocks, in which the parallel aligned
micas and the foliation are readily visible to the eye. They are produced by
medium grade metamorphism, and contain in addition to micas other visible
minerals such as quartz, feldspar, garnet, pyroxene and amphibole. They do not
only form from shales but also from other parent rocks such as basalts, granites,
sandstones and tuffs. They are by volume the most abundant metamorphic rock
type. Most schists have in all probability been derived from clay and mud
sedimentary rocks which have passed through a series of metamorphic processes
involving the production of shales, slates and phyllites as intermediate steps.
 Schist looks like is composed of ‘glitter’ (see figure below).

Schist

Gneisses are very coarse grained metamorphic rocks that form during high grade
metamorphism. It is common only in areas of regional metamorphism. Several
different rocks, such as granite, schist, and diorite can be metamorphosed to
make gneiss. They are distinctly banded (segregation of newly formed minerals
into bands), and their main minerals are quartz, potassium feldspar, and biotite or
hornblende (ferromagnesian minerals). The bands differ in composition. Many of
the light coloured bands are composed of either quartz or feldspar. The dark
bands belong to the augite/hornblende groups. Is of similar composition with
granite, and if a gneissis heated just a little bit further, granitic melt will rise from
it.

Gneiss
Migmatite, another foliated metamorphic rock, is a very high-grade of
metamorphic rock. Migmatite is a rock at the frontier between metamorphic and
igneous rocks. Temperatures are just high enough to start melting the rock. As a
consequence, migmatite is typically very badly deformed and contorted with
veins, pods and lenses of melted rock (see figures below).

migmatite

migmatite

Granoblastic Rocks
Not all metamorphic rocks have foliated texture. Many metamorphic rocks have a
massive or coarse granular appearance and exhibit no deformation. They are
composed mainly of crystals that grow in equidimensional shapes. Therefore they
are catalogued by mineral composition, and not texture. These are referred to as
granoblastic rocks and they include Quartzite, Marble, Hornfels, Greenstones and
Amphibolite.
Metamorphic rocks can of course only be foliated if the composition of their
parent rocks allows mica formation. Thus, the metamorphic products of certain
parent rocks will be non-foliated. Such rocks would for example be quartz
sandstones (transforms into quartzite, interlocking quartz crystals), limestones
(transforms into marble, coarse crystalline, interlocking calcite crystals, impurities
in the original limestone will show as coloured streaks or as mottling), and basalt
(transforms into amphibolites, predominantly hornblende and plagioclase).
Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock formed from quartz sandstone. Pure
quartzite is white, but reddish/pinkish and grayish colors caused by impurities are
common. The recrystillization is so complete that when broken, quartzite will split
through the quartz grains rather than along their boundaries. Quartzite can also
form from chert. Quartzite can be made by contact or regional metamorphism.
Like marble, it is made up of crystals that are all about the same size, so it does
not have foliation.
Marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone or
dolostone. Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is mainly composed of calcite
derived from the shells of living organisms like clams and snails. Marble does not
develop foliation like schist, because the calcite crystals are all about the same
size. There is no way for them to line up. The temperatures and pressures
necessary to form marble usually destroy any fossils and sedimentary textures
present in the original rock. This metamorphic process causes a complete
recrystallization of the original rock into an interlocking mosaic of calcite,
aragonite and/or dolomite crystals. Marble is white in its pure form, but is
available in beautiful variety of colors, which are caused by mineral impurities
such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert. Marble can be produced by contact
or regional metamorphism and it often contain other minerals such as quartz,
mica, and hematite.
Hornfels (a rock {from German ‘Fels’} that is as hard as a horn), is a fine grained
metamorphic rock. Usually is dark coloured and hard. It occurs typically in
metamorphic aureolas around intrusions (contact metamorphism)
Large-crystal Textures
Metamorphic rocks can exhibit a great variation in crystal size during the
recrystallization process, certain metamorphic minerals, including garnet,
Staurolite and andalusite, tend to develop a few very large crystals. In contrast,
minerals such as muscovite, biotite and quartz typically form a large number of
small crystals.
Porphyroblasts are metamorphic rocks having a matrix of fine-grained minerals
with large crystals. Especially in the case of higher grade metamorphism, crystals
can grow in the rock that are considerably larger than the average grain size in the
rock (garnets, staurolite). These large grains are called porphyroblasts from the
Greek ‘blastos’ meaning ‘to grow’ in analogy to porphyric crystals in igneous
rocks. The garnets grew much faster than the matrix in this schist below.

Garnets are only found in metamorphic rock and can be used to judge the grade
of the metamorphism. Most garnet is not of gem quality. In fact, the most
common use of garnet is as abrasive, such as in garnet sandpaper. When of gem
quality, garnets are typically red, but they occur in a wide variety of other colors.
The rarest color is blue.
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks on Texture

As described in the figure below:

1. Metamorphism causes sedimentary rocks, like shale, to form slaty cleavage

planes perpendicular to their bedding planes
2. Original bedding was thin clay layers
3. Metamorphism changes the shale to slate
4. Folliation is the result of directed compression
5. Mineral crystals become elongated perpendicular to the compression
6. Platy minerals develop a preferred orientation

7. As intensity of metamorphism increases, so does crystal size and coarseness of

foliation.
8. Foliated rocks are classified by the degree of cleavage, shistosity and banding,
which corresponds to the intensity of metamorphism.

METAMORPHIC ENVIRONMENTS/ ORIGIN OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Contact (or thermal)
Hydrothermal
Burial
Regional
Shock (impact)
Fault Zone
Contact Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occur when magma intrudes or forces its way into
existing rock. That is to say that Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs when
an intrusive magma heats the surrounding country (or host) rock and changes the
mineralogy and texture. The heat of the magma bakes the surrounding rocks
causing them to change. This is a local event which occurs typically around
intrusive igneous rocks as a result of the temperature increase caused by the
intrusion of magma into cooler country rock. The changes due to contact
metamorphism are relatively small and are said to be low grade metamorphism.
Contact metamorphism does not affect as large an area as regional
metamorphism as is associated with areas around a magma chamber as well as
other smaller igneous structures like dikes or sills. Contact metamorphism zones
can be a few centimeters to several kilometers, especially around large plutons.
The rocks that are formed will depend on the country rock that the intrusion
invades. An example of contact metamorphism is the metamorphic rock marble.
Marble is created from limestone that has been subjected to heat.

The zone where the rocks are subject to metamorphism, that is, the area
surrounding the intrusion where the contact metamorphism effects are present is
called the metamorphic aureole (see the above figure). The metamorphic aureole
is the darker rock that once roofed over the igneous pluton. The sedimentary
rocks are turned into metamorphic rock by contact metamorphism as shown in
the figure below. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not present signs
of strong deformation and are often fine grained.
Contact metamorphism is greater adjacent to the intrusion (igneous intrusion)
and dissipates with distance from the contact. The size of the aureole depends on
the heat of the intrusion, its size, and the temperature difference with the wall
rocks. Dikes generally have small aureole with minimal metamorphism whereas
large ultramafic intrusions can have significantly thick and well developed contact
metamorphism.

The metamorphic grade of an aureole is measured by the peak metamorphic

mineral which forms in the aureole. This is usually related to the metamorphic
temperatures of politic or aluminosilicate rocks and the minerals they form. The
metamorphic grades of aureole are andalusite hornfels, sillimanite hornfels and
pyroxene hornfels.
Magmatic fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in the
metamorphic reactions. Extensive addition of magmatic fluids can significantly
modify the chemistry of the affected rocks. In this case, the metamorphism
grades into metasomatism. If the intruded rock is rich in carbonate, the result is a
skarn. Fluorine-rich magmatic water which leave a cooling granite may often form
greisens within and adjacent to the contact of the granite. Metasomatic altered
aureoles can localize the deposition of metallic ore minerals and thus are of
economic interest.
Contact metamorphism is common at both convergent and divergent plate
boundaries, in areas where molten rock is produced while Regional
metamorphism largely occurs at convergent plate boundaries (see diagram
below). Each of these types of metamorphism produces typical metamorphic
rocks, but they may occur in different sequences. For example, both regional and
contact metamorphism produces schists and shales. However, gneiss would be
common in regional metamorphism.

Plate Tectonics & Metamorphism

The pressure-temperature history of the rock can often be tied to the plate
tectonic setting
Continent-continent collision
Continent-ocean convergence
Seafloor
spreading
Transform-fault

Plate tectonics moves rocks through different temperature and pressure zones,
from shallow to deep levels in the crust and back to the shallow crust and even
the surface. The two diagrams below are examples involving continent-ocean
convergence.
The association of metamorphic facies with the various types of plate tectonic
metamorphic environments is shown in the diagram below

Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Magma contains many different gasses including H2O (as shown in the diagram
below) or more probably steam. Minerals are carried by steam. When this hot
fluid escapes from the magma, it is called hydrothermal solution. These hot
fluids can change the crystallization in rock by dissolving the minerals and then
depositing new ones. Rocks that come in contact with this hydrothermal
solution can have their composition altered as a result of this recrystallization.
Hydrothermal fluids can carry dissolved calcium dioxide, sodium, silica, copper
and zinc. Ascending hydrothermal fluids can react with overlying rock, creating
new minerals (which may have great economic value).
The most widespread occurrence of hydrothermal metamorphism is along the
mid-oceanic ridges as seen in the figure below. As seawater percolates through
the newly created crust, it is heated and chemically reacts with the mafic (Fe
and Mg rich) basalt.

The ferromagnesian igneous minerals, such as olivine and pyroxene, are

changed into metamorphic minerals such as serpentine, chlorite and talc.
Calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars become more sodium-rich as the sea salt
(NaCl) exchanges calcium for sodium.
Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of the interaction of a rock with a
high temperature fluid of variable composition. The difference in composition
between existing rock and the invading fluid triggers a set of metamorphic and
metasomatic reactions. The hydrothermal may be magmatic (originate in an
intruding magma), circulating groundwater, or ocean water. Convective
circulation of hydrothermal fluids in the ocean floor basalts produces extensive
hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to spreading centers and other
submarine volcanic areas. The fluids eventually escape through vents in the
ocean floor known as black smokers.

Burial Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism occurs when thick accumulations of sedimentary strata
on the ocean floor are subducted beneath another plate.
This is a low grade metamorphism that typically begins when the subducted
sediments reach a depth of 6-10 kilometers (3-6 miles) or when the
temperature reaches about 200oC.

Regional Metamorphism
Principally, metamorphic rocks form in two types of settings one of which is at
convergent plate boundaries where crustal rocks are buried deeply and
experience high pressures and temperatures. Because of the moving plates,
there is a direction of highest pressure and foliation typically develops. This
type of metamorphism affects very large areas and is known as regional
metamorphism.
Regional or barrovian metamorphism covers large areas of continental crust
typically associated with mountain ranges, and particularly those associated
with convergent tectonic plates or the roots of previously eroded mountains.
Conditions producing widespread regionally metamorphosed rocks occur
during an orogenic event. The collision of two continental plates or island arcs
with continental plates produce the extreme compressional forces required for
the metamorphic changes typical of regional metamorphism. These orogenic
mountains are later eroded, exposing the intensely deformed rocks typical of
their cores. Regional metamorphism can be described and classified into
metamorphic zones of temperature/pressure conditions throughout the
orogenic terrane.

Most metamorphic rocks are created during the process of regional

metamorphism associated with mountain building. During these dynamic
events, large segments of the Earth’s crust are intensely deformed along
convergent plate boundaries.
Regional metamorphism at the subduction zone
The conditions within the subducting slab as it plunges toward the mantle in a
subduction zone also produce regional metamorphic effects. In areas of
collision between oceanic and continental lithospheric plates such as the
circum-pacific region, the denser oceanic plate is subducted (carried into
earth’s mantle) beneath the more buoyant continental lithosphere. Rapid
subduction of the cool oceanic lithosphere perturbs the thermal regime in such
a way that high pressures can be obtained at relatively low temperatures,
thereby generating blueschist and eclogites (high pressure facies series) from
ocean floor basalts transported down the subduction zone. Continued
subduction of these rocks to great depth may eventually result in either (1)
rising temperatures and partial melting of subducted rocks or (2) the melting of
hydrated peridotites created by fluids released from metamorphic reactions in
the subduction that rise into the overlying mantle wedge. These melts
contributes to the formation of the volcanoes that overlie subduction zones in
areas such as the Andes of South America, Japan, and the Aleutian Islands.
Upward migration of subduction-related magmas also contributes to the
development of paired metamorphic belts, in which high pressure, low
temperature metamorphic rocks are flanked on the continental side by a
parallel belt of low-pressure, high-temperature rocks. The latter rocks are
thought to reflect perturbation of the crustal thermal regime by the passage of
silicate melts generated above the subducting slab. Continued intrusion of
magma over a period of time would cause an increase in crustal temperatures
at relatively shallow depths and produce the high temperature rocks adjacent
to the high pressure rocks generated in the subduction zone. Well developed
paired metamorphic belts (in 1961, Miyashiro noted that belts of high
pressure/low temperature metamorphism on the oceanic side in the Circum-
Pacific region were associated with belts of high pressure/high temperature
metamorphism on the continental side. He termed such occurrences paired
metamorphic belts) are exposed in Japan, California, the Alps, and New
Zealand.
Data obtained from deep earthquakes in subduction zones indicate that a
descending slap of oceanic lithosphere can remain intact to depths of several
hundred kilometers before undergoing complete melting or fragmentation or
both and being incorporated into the surrounding mantle. Clearly, the
blueschists and eclogites exposed in orogenic belts around the world did not
undergo such a process and were instead returned to the earth’s surface. The
processes by which rocks that have been partially subducted are returned to
the surface are not well understood. Models have been proposed to account
for uplift and exposure of these high pressure, high density rocks; they include
scraping material from the subducting plate against the overlying crustal
lithosphere, upward flow of material in response to forced convection above
the subducted slab, and removal of overlying thickened crust by low-angle
extensional faulting. Testing these models requires considerable petrologic and
structural work in areas where high pressure rocks are exposed.
The facies associated with regional metamorphism include, at low grade, the
zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies. In areas belonging to high-pressure
facies series, the rocks are predominantly in the blueschist and eclogite facies.
Medium and low pressure facies series are typified by rocks belonging to the
greenschist, amphibolites, and granulite facies.

The mountain building applies differential stress literally over a wide regional
area. Sediments and crustal rock lifted up from the ocean floor are folded and
faulted. Metamorphism of all grades, from low to high occurs. The Andes
Mountains and the Himalaya Mountains are prime examples where regional
metamorphism has occurred along thousands of miles of mountain range. The
Swiss and Austrian Alps in Europe are other famous examples where extensive
regional metamorphism has occurred.

Impact Metamorphism
Impact metamorphism occurs when an asteroid or comet impacts the Earth’s
surface. These objects can be moving as fast as 100,000 miles per hour (~28
miles per second)
In a fraction of a second, the energy of the rapidly moving object is transferred
into heat energy and shock waves as it smashes into the Earth. The impacting
asteroid or comet is vaporized. The impacted rock is shattered, pulverized and
sometimes even melted. Minerals in the rock are instantly subjected to both
high temperature and high pressure. Rare and unusual metamorphic minerals
such as coesite, which are normally never found on the Earth’s surface, are
nearly instantly formed. Staggering quantities of matter are blown into the
atmosphere. Fortunately for life on Earth, this is a rare event, but these impacts
have repeatedly caused mass extinctions.

Fault Zone/dynamic Metamorphism

Dynamic metamorphism is associated with zones of high to moderate strain
such as fault zones. Cataclasis, crunching and grinding of rocks into angular
fragments, occurs in dynamic metamorphic zones, giving cataclastic texture.
Near the surface, rock behaves like a brittle solid. So near the surface,
movement along a fault zone fractures and pulverizes the rock, creating what
is called fault breccias. In contrast, at depth under higher heat and pressure,
rock is ductile and flows like plastic. At depth along a fault zone, the mineral
structures are deformed by the ductile flow, giving the metamorphic rock a
foliated or lineated appearance.
The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on the depth at
which they were formed, as the temperature and confining pressure
determine the deformation mechanisms which predominate. Within depths
less than 5km, dynamic metamorphism is not often produced because of the
confining pressure is too low to produce frictional heat. Instead a zone of
breccias or cataclasite is formed, with the rock milled and broken into random
fragments. This generally forms a mélange. At depth, the angular breccias
transit into a ductile shear texture and into mylonite zones. Within the depth
range of 5-10km pseudotachylite is formed, as the confining pressure is
enough to prevent brecciation and milling and thus energy is focused into
discrete fault planes. Frictional heating in this case may melt the rock to form
pseudotachylite glass. Within the depth range of 10-20km, deformation is
governed by ductile deformation conditions and hence frictional heating is
dispersed throughout shear zones, resulting in a weaker thermal imprint and
distributed deformation. Here deformation forms mylonite, with
dynamothermal metamorphism observed rarely as the growth of
porphyroblasts in mylonite zones.

Metamorphic Facies
The amount of heat and pressure is the main factor that control mineral
development. The length of time of metamorphism is also a major factor on
the eventual rock. The
varying temperature and pressures are found in different regions of the Earth,
depending on its position according to the plate tectonic model. How do we
know this? It took geologists a long time to understand metamorphic rocks.
They mapped the different area and found that minerals were clues to the
temperature and pressure an area experienced. George Barrow, in the late
1900's was the first to map zones in Scotland. He recognized six zones on the
first appearance of six minerals including chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite,
kyanite, and sillimanite. He did not know for sure if the zones had anything to
do with the physical conditions of metamorphism, because he could not
confirm his observations in a lab. Eventually the idea of metamorphic facies
developed that included contact and regional metamorphism. About a century
ago, it was realized that there are groups of associated metamorphic minerals
(metamorphic facies) that were formed under similar temperatures and
pressures.
Different metamorphic rocks containing the same assemblage of minerals are
said to belong to the same metamorphic facies. These facies were defined by
geologists in the field, but also experimental data helped to define the
minerals more precisely. A facies is a metamorphic mineral assemblage that
provides a geologist with a predictable relation between mineral composition
and chemical composition with respect to the pressure and temperature of its
formation. These metamorphic facies are defined by the minerals and
corresponding rocks that they produce. This facies concept is an important way
of relating rocks in time and space.
Zeolite facies is the lowest grade of burial metamorphism. It main minerals are
quartz, muscovite and chlorite. Recrystallization is usually incomplete so these
rocks don’t look as squished.
Hornfels facies is confined to high temperature with lower pressured and
associated with contact metamorphisms. The minerals present include
plagioclase, orthoclase, and quartz. Lower temperatures to higher
temperatures produce other types of minerals.
Blueschist facies is a low grade type of regional metamorphism especially in
mountain building areas. Blue minerals like glaucophane are common, with
quartz, chlorite, muscovite and garnet.
Greenschist facies is a common low grade metamorphism that produces
rocks that are greenish because of the chlorite and biotite present.
Amphibolite facies is a medium to high grade type of regional
metamorphism, which is very common. The minerals include members from
the amphibolite (hornblende) family.
Granulite facies is the maximum grade of region metamorphism found in
older metamorphic rock formation.
Eclogite facies represents a very deep, high grade form of metamorphisms
found with high pressures and temperatures.
With increasing metamorphic grade, mineral compositions change and these
minerals define the metamorphic facies for the metamorphic environment.
Metamorphic facies are determined by the temperature and pressure. In
turn, these temperatures and pressures define the metamorphic environment;
therefore, we can plot the metamorphic environments as shown in the
diagram below
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 HISTORY OF THE EARTH

THE PREGEOLOGIC PERIOD

Earth history is synonymous with historical geology and deals with our planet-
Earth, starting from its origin, development and subsequent evolution to the
present stage of existence including life forms that have inhabited it. It is
concerned with long term changes like mountain building and destructions.
The records of the earth history are kept in the rocks. It is pertinent to note
that the events of the earth history were never actually witnessed, rather, is
built of mosaic pictures of geologic events which occurred from different parts
of the earth and at different periods of the earth’s existence. It requires a great
skill and training to understand the language in which the records are kept in
order to make any meaningful interpretation.

Earth is the third planet from the sun (as shown in the diagram below). it is the
only planet known to have an atmosphere containing free oxygen, oceans of
liquid water on its surface, and, of course, life. Earth is the fifth largest of the
solar system- smaller than the four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune, but larger than the three other rocky planets: Mercury, Mars and
Venus. The four smaller inner planets (mercury, venus, earth, and mars) are
also called the terrestrial planets and are primarily composed of rock and
metal. The four outer planets also called the gas giants are substantially more
massive than the terrestrials. The two largest, Jupiter and Saturn, are
composed mainly of hydrogen and helium; the two outer most planets, Uranus
and Neptune, are composed largely of substances with relatively high melting
points (compared with hydrogen and helium), called ices, such as water,
ammonia and methane, and are often referred to separately as ‘ice giants’.
Earth has a diameter of roughly 8000 miles (13,000km), and is round because
gravity pulls matter into a ball, although it is not perfectly round, instead being
more of an ‘oblate spheroid’ whose spin causes it to be squashed at its poles
and swollen at the equator. Roughly 71 percent of the earth’s surface is
covered by water, most if it in the oceans. About a fifth of its atmosphere is
made up of oxygen, produced by plants. The earth spins on an imaginary line
called an axis that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole, while also
orbiting the sun. It takes earth 24 hours to complete a rotation on its axis, and
roughly 365 days to complete an orbit around the sun. From the point at which
the planet first began to form, the history of the earth spans approximately 4.6
billion years. The oldest known rocks, however, have an isotopic age of only
about 3.9 billion years. There is in effect a stretch of 700 million years for
which no geologic period exists; the evolution of this pregeologic period of
time is, not surprisingly, the subject of much speculation. To understand this
little known period, the following factors have to be considered: the age of
formation at 4.6 billion years ago, the processes in operation until 3.9 billion
years ago, the bombardment of the earth by meteorites, and the earliest
zircon crystals.

It is widely accepted by both geologists and astronomers that the earth is

roughly 4.6 billion years old. This age has been obtained from the isotopic
analysis of many meteorites as well as of soil and rock samples from the moon
by such dating methods as rubidium-strontium and uranium-lead. It is taken to
be the time when these bodies formed and, by inference, the time at which a
significant part of the solar system developed. When the evolution of the
isotopes of lead-207 and lead-206 is studied from several lead deposits of
different age on earth, including oceanic sediments that represent a
homogenized sample of the earth’s lead, the growth curve of terrestrial lead
can be calculated, and, when this is extrapolated back in time, it is found to
coincide with the age of about 4.6 billion years measured on lead isotopes in
meteorites. The earth and the meteorites thus have had similar lead isotopes
histories, and so it is concluded that over a period of about 30 million years
they condensed or accreted as solid bodies from a primeval cloud of
interstellar gas and dust, the so called solar nebula from which the entire solar
system is thought to have formed at about the same time.

Particles in the solar nebula condensed to form solid grains, and with
increasing electrostatic and gravitational influences they eventually clumped
together into fragments or chunks of rock. One of these planetesimals
developed into the earth. The constituent metallic elements sank towards the
center of the mass, while lighter elements rose towards the top. The lightest
ones (such as hydrogen and helium) that might have formed the first, or
primordial, atmosphere probably escaped into outer space. In these earliest
stages of terrestrial accretion heat was generated by three possible
phenomena: (1) the decay of short lived radioactive isotopes, (2) the
gravitational energy released from the sinking of metals, or (3) the impact of
small planetary bodies (or planetesimals). The increase in temperature became
sufficient to heat the entire planet. Melting at depth produced liquids that
were gravitationally light and thus rose toward the surface and crystallized to
form the earliest crust. Meanwhile, heavier liquids rich in iron, nickel, and
perhaps sulphur separated out and sank under gravity, giving rise to the core
at the center of the growing planet; and the lightest volatile elements were
able to rise and escape by outgassing, which may have been associated with
surface volcanic activity, to form the secondary atmosphere and the oceans.
This chemical process of melting, separation of material, and outgassing is
referred to as the differentiation of the earth. The earliest thin crust was
probably unstable and so foundered and collapsed to depth. This in turn
generated more gravitational energy, which enabled a thicker, more stable,
longer lasting crust to form. Once the earth’s interior (or its mantle) was hot
and liquid, it would have been subjected to large scale convection, which may
have enabled oceanic crust to develop above upwelling regions. Rapid
recycling of crust-mantle material occurred in convection cells, and in this way
the earliest terrestrial continents may have evolved during the 700 million year
gap between the formation of the earth and the beginning of the rock record.
It is known from direct observation that the surface of the moon is covered
with a multitude of meteorite craters. There are about 40 large basins
attributable to meteorite impact. These depressions were filled in with basaltic
lavas caused by the impact induced melting of the lunar mantle. Many of these
basalts have been analyzed isotopically and found to have crystallization ages
of 3.9 to 4 billion years. It can be safely concluded that the earth, with a
greater attractive mass than the moon, must have undergone more extensive
meteorite bombardment. According to the English-born geologist Joseph V
Smith, a minimum of 500 to 1000 impact basins were formed on the earth
within a period of about 100 to 200 million years prior to 3.95 billion years ago.
Moreover, plausible calculations suggest that this estimate represents merely
the tail end of an interval of declining meteorite bombardment and that about
20 times as many basins were formed in the preceding 300 million years. Such
intense bombardment would have covered most of the earth’s surface, with
the impacts causing considerable destruction of terrestrial crust up to 3.9
billion years ago. There is, however, no direct evidence of this important phase
of earth history because rocks older than 3.9 billion years have not been
preserved.

An interesting discovery was made in 1983 by William Compston and his

research group at the Australian National University with the aid of an ion
microprobe. Compston and his associates found that a water-laid clastic
sedimentary quartzite from mount Narryer in weatern Australian contained
detrital zircon grains that were 4.18 billion years old. In 1986, they further
discovered that one zircon in a conglomerate only 60 kilometers away was
4.276billion years old; 16 other grains were determined to be the same age or
slightly younger. This is the oldest dated material on earth. The rocks from
which the zircons in the quartzites and conglomerates were derived have
either disappeared or have not yet been found. The ages of these single zircon
grains are significantly older than those of the oldest known intact rocks, which
are granites discovered near the Great Slave Lake in northwestern Canada. The
latter contain zircons that are 3.96 billion years old.

4.1 GEOLOGIC TIME AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

This is the time extending from the end of formative stage of the earth to the
start of human history. The end of formative stage of the earth is put at about
4.5 billion years while the beginning of human history is about 6000 years
before present.
The geologic time scale is composed of intervals of geologic time during which
the rocks represented in the geologic column (bedded succession of rocks that
are available from the oldest at the base to the youngest at the top on a global
scale or within any given locality. Geologic column for the entire globe ranges
from the Precambrian rocks at the base to the quaternary/recent rocks at the
top.) were deposited. It can also be defined as a sub-division of ancient time
and the associated events. The sub-division is made possible from the detailed
investigations of fossil bearing rocks as well as the studies of radiometric
dating.

The history of the earth is divided into four eons (based on context of life
record) –starting with the earliest, these are Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic,
and Phanerozoic. The first three eons which together lasted for about 4 billion
years, are together known as the Precambrian. Evidence for life has been
found in the Archean about 3.8 billion years ago, but life did not become
abundant until the phanerozoic. The phanerozoic is divided into three eras-
starting with the earliest; these are the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

The Paleozoic era saw the development of many kinds of animals and plants
in the seas and on land, the Mesozoic era was the age of dinosaurs, and the
Cenozoic era we are in currently, is the age of mammals. Most of the fossils
seen in Paleozoic rocks are invertebrate animals lacking backbones, such as
corals, mollusks and trilobites. Fish are first found about 450 million years ago.
By 300 million years ago, large forests and swamps covered the land, and the
earliest fossils of reptiles appear during this period as well.

The Mesozoic saw the ascendance of dinosaurs, although mammals also

appear in the fossil record about 200 million years ago. During this time,
flowering plants become the dominant plant group and continue to be so
today.

The Cenozoic began about 65 million years ago with the end of the age of
dinosaurs, which many scientists think was caused by a cosmic impact.
Mammals survived to become the dominant land animals of today.

4.2 RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING

Geological events can be given a precise date at a point in time, or they can be
related to other events that came before them and after them. Geologists use
a variety of methods to give both relative and absolute dates to geological
events. They then use these to find the rates at which processes occur. Both
relative and absolute dating is essential in the study of the earth history.

RELATIVE DATING
Relative dating is a method of placing geological events in their sequential or
chronological order without giving actual dates. Methods for relative dating
were developed when geology first emerged as a formal science. Geologists
still use the principles of relative dating today as a means to provide
information about geologic history and timing of geologic events.
 (1) The principle of uniformitarianism
The principle of uniformitarianism states that that the geologic processes
observed in operation that modify the earth’s crust at present have worked in
much the same way over geologic time. A fundamental principle of geology
advanced by the 18th century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton is
that ‘the present is the key to the past’. In Hutton’s words: ‘the past history of
our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now’.

(2)The principle of intrusive relationships

The principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In
geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary
rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the
sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of intrusions including
stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and dikes.

(3)The principle of cross cutting relationships

The principle of cross cutting relationships pertains to the formation of faults
and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than
the rock they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some
formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are
older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the
fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the
fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault.

(4)The principle of inclusions and components

The principle of inclusions and components states that, with sedimentary
rocks, if inclusions (or clasts) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must
be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary
rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and
included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when
xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up from magma or lava
flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths
are older than the rock which contains them.
 (5)The principle of original horizontality
The principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of sediments
occurs as essentially horizontal beds (although they may be dipping steeply).
The principle is associated with Steno in 1669. Observation of modern marine
and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this
generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of
cross-bedded units is horizontal).

(6)The principle of superposition

The principle of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in a
tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and
older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a
layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be
viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of time
elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to the deposition of the highest
bed.
The principle resulted as the first effort to recognize a sequence of historical
or geologic events in sedimentary strata by Nicolas Steno in 1669 in the Mount
of Italy. Sedimentary rocks may be overturned, folded, tilted thereby making
the principle unreliable if applied straightaway. The principle is only applicable
to undisturbed sedimentary strata. Before the application of the principle,
certain methods must be pursued to detect overturned sequences. The
methods includes examination of cross bedding, ripple marks, pillow lava, u-
shaped burrows and graded bedding which may be embedded in such
sequence.

(7)The principle of fauna succession

The principle of fauna succession is based on the appearance of fossils in
sedimentary rocks. The principle states that fossil faunas succeed one another
in a definite order so that the age of strata can be determined by the faunas
they contain. This principle was discovered and applied by William Smith at the
beginning of the 19th century. Smith is regarded as the father of modern
Stratigraphy. As organism exist at the same time period throughout the world,
there presence or sometimes absence may be used to provide a relative age of
the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by William
Smith almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin’s
theory of evolution, the principles of succession were developed
independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex,
however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, the localization of fossil types
due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in sedimentary strata), and that
not all fossils may be found globally at the same time.
It was the publication of Darwin’s origin of species that explained faunal
succession in terms of continuous evolution rather than successive
catastrophes by which one assemblage of species was killed and replaced later
by another. Thus Darwin’s evolution theory laid the foundation for modern
methods in paleontological correlation of rocks or biostratigraphy.

The principle of fauna succession attributed to William Smith and

subsequently refined by Cuvier made it possible for rocks of the same age to
be recognized even in widely separated places. This phenomenon also makes it
possible for the definition of the major or fundamental units of sedimentary
rocks. These fundamental units each of which represents an important
segment of geologic time scale are known as geologic systems. System
represents a rock unit deposited during the time unit of period. The geologic
systems in use today were not proposed by a single individual. They grew up
without plan through the efforts of many geologists working independently.
Most of the outcrop which actually constitutes the basis for the definition of a
system is called its ‘type area’ or ‘type locality’.

ABSOLUTE DATING
Geologists can also give precise and absolute dates to geologic events. These
dates are useful on their own, and can also be used in conjunction with relative
dating methods or to calibrate relative dating methods.
Absolute dating is the provision of units of time usually in years to geologic
events in rocks. This is feasible by the process of radioactivity discovered by a
French scientist (physicist) Antonio Henri-Becquerel in 1895. Radioactive decay
is not controlled and is not also affected by chemical combination and physical
conditions such as temperature and pressure.

A large advance in geology in the advent of the 20th century was the ability to
give precise absolute dates to geologic events through radioactive isotopes and
other methods. The advent of radiometric dating changed the understanding
of geologic time. Before, geologists could only use fossils to date sections of
rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, absolute dating became
possible, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in
which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new
absolute ages.

Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of some elements that are unstable in

nature to a lower energy state. In a radioactive decay, the atomic nucleus can
emit an alpha or beta particle or an electromagnetic radiation in the form of X-
ray particles. When a parent radioactive atom decays, it changes into another
kind of atom termed the daughter. In alpha decay, the nucleus of the parent
atom loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the mass number decreases by 4 and the
atomic number by 2. In beta decay, the nucleus emits an electron and one of
its neutrons turns into a proton so the atomic number increases by 1. In the
electron capture, a proton in the nucleus picks up orbital electron and changes
into neutron so the atomic number decreases by 1. In both beta and gamma
decay, the mass number is the same.

4.3 METHODS OF GEOLOGY EMPLOYED IN EARTH HISTORY

Geologists use a number of field, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods

to decipher earth history and understand the processes that occur on and in
the earth. In typical geological investigations, geologist use primary
information related to petrology (the study of rocks), Stratigraphy (the study of
sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units
and their deformation). In many cases, geologists also study modern soils,
rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and current life and
biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the
subsurface.

Structural geology
Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of
geologic samples to observe the fabric within the rocks which gives
information about strain within the crystal structure of the rocks. They also
plot and combine measurements of structures in order to better understand
the orientations of faults and folds in order to reconstruct the history of rock
deformation in the area. The analysis of structures is often accomplished by
plotting the orientations of various features onto stereonets. A stereonet is a
stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are
projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find
the locations of fold axes, relationships between several faults, and
relationships between other geologic structures.

Stratigraphy
In the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that
can be returned from the field, such as those from drill cores. Stratigraphers
also analyze data from geophysical surveys that show the locations of
stratigraphic units in the subsurface. Geophysical data and well logs can be
combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and stratigraphers often
use a computer programs to do this in three dimensions. Stratigraphers can
then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface
of the earth, interpret past environments, and locate areas for water, coal and
hydrocarbon extraction.
In the laboratory, biostratigraphers analyze rock samples from outcrop and
drill cores for the fossils found in them. These fossils help scientists to date the
core and to understand the depositional environment in which the rock units
formed.

Geochronologists precisely date rocks within the stratigraphic section in order

to provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of deposition.

Magnetic stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock

units within drill cores.

Other scientists perform stable isotope studies on the rocks to gain

information about past climate.
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. PROCESSES SHAPING THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH

The evidence is overwhelming that the earth’s surface is constantly changing,

although the rate and magnitude of change vary considerably from region to
region. The changes reflect an on going contest between forces that raise the
lithosphere (tectonic and isostatic uplift, volcanism) and the force of gravity
which, aided by physical and chemical weathering that break down rock,
causes various erosional agents to transfer rock debris from high places to low
places. The net result is the progressive sculpture of the land into a surface of
varied topography and relief.

If erosion were the only process actively shaping the surface of the earth, the
continents will all by now eroded to sea level. The active process and
depositional environment lead to a unique end product or landform. ‘Process’
then is one factor that helps dictate the character of landforms. Climate in turn
helps determine which surface processes are active in any area. In humid
climates, streams may be the primary agent that moves and deposits
sediment, whereas in an arid region wind may locally assume the dominant
role. Relief of the land is another factor in landscape development, is related to
tectonic environment. Tectonically active regions may have high rates of uplift,
leading to high submit altitudes and steep slopes. Such landscape tends to be
extremely dynamic and generate high erosion rates. In areas far away from
active tectonism, relief typically is low; erosion rates are much lower, and
landscape changes takes place gradually.

5.1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Continental drift is the movement of the earth’s continents relative to each
other by appearing to drift across the ocean bed. The speculation that the
continents might have drifted was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in
1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred
Wegener in 1912. The theory of continental drift was superseded by the theory
of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move.
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
(1)The first idea leading to the idea of continental drift was a close match in
shape of the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa that
faces it across the Atlantic Ocean. Francis Bacon in 1620, Francois Placet
(1658), Antonio Snider Pelligrini (1858) had noted the similarity but it was
Antonio Snider Pelligrini that was first to suggest that the similarity of the
coastline was due to the break-up of the formerly continous landmass.
In matching the continent, it should be borne in mind that the continents do
not end where the waters begin. The edge of the continental shelf or the line
half way down the continental slope is used to fit the pieces together.

(2)Gondwana land, flora and fauna, the southern continent of Africa, Antartica,
Australia, India, Madagasca and South America have in common, fossil remains
of a distinctive Permian flora, glossopteris (fern). It has not been found on any
other continent. If all continent have always been in their present position, this
flora could not have spread amoung the southern continent.

Also Antartica, where the fossil flora also exist now is not capable of
supporting such vegetation in its present climate. It is more reasonable suggest
that the places on which glossopteris grew had formed a simple continental
mass in the Permian. Such a reconstruction of present day southern continent
in the permain is referred to as gondwana land.

(3)Similarly, a small fossil of amphibious Permain reptile called mesosaurus is

found only in south Africa and south America in very similar sedimentary bed
laid down in shallow lakes. The home lands of this mesosaurus, are more likely
to have been one and continous in the past. Breeding pair of mesosaurus could
not have swarn across more than 6000km deep water Atlantic especially given
the fact that they are shallow water creature. This could mean that South
America and South Africa were once very close together.

(4)Although the broad fabric of geologic research has many threats stretching
far back into the past, the key figure in marine geological research leading to
plate tectonics was Harry Hess as a navigator and then commanding officer of
the US naval ship ‘Cape Johnson’. Hess discovered flat top submarine
volcanoes in the ocean which he termed guyots (Hess 1946). He interpreted
that these guyots formed as volcanic island (seamounts) near rise crest and
were truncated by wave erosion with time and then submerged to depths of
several kilometers as they were passively moved down the flanks of the rises.
This was very exciting to marine geologists and oceanographers.

The flat top seamounts originated as a full peak having a V-shape at the mid
oceanic ridge, but later denudation cut off the V-shape edges as the guyots
moved down the flanks of the ocean rises. But by this, he was the ffirst to
demonstrate that the floors of the ocean are very mobile.

Ewing and Heezen (1956) discovered that the very crest of ocean ridges
usually have narrow troughs or rift valleys from which new oceanic crust is
constantly accreting. This rift valleys lead to the enormous interpretation that
the earth was undergoing expansion.

(5)The results of paleomagnetism developed in the 1960s lead to the wider

acceptance of the idea of the continental drift. Some rocks in the continent like
the rocks formed during seafloor spreading preserved the magnetic field
present at their time of formation.

By measuring the direction of this magnetic field, it can be calculated where

the magnetic poles were, relative to the rock’s location where the rocks were
formed. Fold positions deduced from older rocks on different continents did
not agree. However, if the continents were put back together into the original
positions indicated by their shapes and the paleomagnetic poles were moved
with them, the agreement for certain time period was very much approved.
This suggested that the rocks had acquired their magnetism when the
continents were together and had since drifted apart. The ship or airplane
towing a magnetometer which is a device that measures magnetic field
strength above the sea floor will reproduce alternating normal and reverse
magnetization of the ocean floor. In some places, the filed due to
magnetization locked into the thin upper layer of the crust will reinforce the
earth’s deep field to produce a positive magnetic anomaly. In other places, a
negative anomaly will result. The anomalies are linear and narrow because
seafloor spreading generates new oceanic crust along narrow and linear mid
ocean ridges. This idea relating marine magnetic anomalies and magnetic
reversals is called Vine-Mathews Hypothesis, after the two men who first
published the idea. By applying this method, it is possible to date vast areas of
seafloor simply by towing a marine magnetometer over them and interpreting
their magnetic anomalies. Also since all the ridges record the same sequence
of reversals but spread at different speed, their rate can be measured by
comparing the width of the anomalies with the time between the reversals
that created them.

(6)Sudden thick Permo-carboniferous glacial deposits (fossil boulder clays

known as tillites) occur in both Africa (Dwyka series) and South America. They
were formed in the time interval between 350 to 250 million years ago. The
average thickness of the deposit is in many places as much as 600m or ten
times average thickness of the Pleistocene glacial deposits in North Europe
formed during the last ice age. The change in climate recorded by this glacial
tillite suggest either that the climatic belts of the world has changed their
positions relative to one another or that South America and Africa moved from
high paleo latitude near the south pole into lower and warmer latitude nearer
the equator, sometimes between the permo-carboniferous glaciations and the
formation of the upper Triassic basins.

(7)In 1960, Harry Hess also stated that no material older than 100 million years
has ever been recovered from the deep ocean floors of the world or from truly
oceanic islands. This is much younger than the continental rocks which are
billions of years in age and times. This discovery coupled with the discovery of
mid ocean ridges with anomously high heat flow value due to the
emplacement of hot mantle derived material there, show that the ocean floor
are spreading or expanding and renewing themselves.

(8)As recently as 1984, NASA(National Aeronatic and Space Administration)

scientists released the first direct measurement of continental drift using long
based line interferonitary and reflected lasser signals as published in journals
(new scientists of 31st May 1984, page 6). They showed over 10 years of
continuous measurement that Europe and North America are moving apart at
the rate of 1.5 plus or minus cm per year. The Pacific plate is found to be
moving away from North America at 4cm per year. Australia or the Indian plate
is encroaching on the Pacific plate at a remarkable rate of 7cm per year while
both the Pacific and Indian plate appear to be moving away from South
America at 5 to 6cm per year. Motion along the San Andreas Fault in California
was found to average a steady 6cm per year building up the strains that lead to
the recurrent earthquake there.

5.2 PLATE TECTONIC PROCESSES

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motions of
the earth’s lithosphere. The model builds on the concepts of continental drift,
developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific
community accepted the theory after the concepts of seafloor spreading were
developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The lithosphere is broken up into
tectonic plates. On earth, there are seven or eight major plates (depending on
how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where plates meet, their
relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or
transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and oceanic
trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. Tectonic plates are
composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere each
topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction
carries plates into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the
formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor
spreading. In this way, the total surface of the globe remains the same.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the earth’s lithosphere has a higher
strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variation in the
mantle result in convection. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a
combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due
to variations in topography and density of the crust, which results in
differences in gravitational forces) and drag, downward suction, at the
subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by
the rotation of the globe and the tidal forces of the sun and the moon. The
relative importance of each of these factors is unclear, and is still subject to
debate.
Three types of plate boundaries exist. They are associated with different
types of surface phenomena. Transform boundaries (conservative) occur
where two lithospheric plates slide, or perhaps more accurately, grind past
each other along transform faults, wherein plates are neither created nor
destroyed. The relative motion of the two plates is either sinistral ( left side
towards the observer) or dextral (right side towards the observer). Transform
faults occur across a spreading center. Strong earthquakes can occur along
fault. Divergent boundaries (constructive) occur where two plates slide apart
from each other. At zones of ocean to ocean rifting, divergent boundaries form
by seafloor spreading, allowing for the formation of new ocean basin as
continent splits: the ridge forms at spreading center; the ocean basin expands;
plate area increases; and causes many small volcanoes and/or shallow
earthquakes. At zones of continent to continent rifting, divergent boundaries
may cause new ocean basin to form as continent splits: continent spreads;
central rift collapses; and ocean fills basin. Convergent boundaries (destructive
or active margins) occur where two plates slide towards each other to form
either a subduction zone (if one plate moves underneath the other) or a
continental collision. At zones of continent to continent subduction: the dense
oceanic lithosphere plunges beneath the less dense continental; earthquakes
trace path of downward-moving plate as it descends into asthenosphere; a
trench forms; the subducted plate partially melts; and magma rises to form
continental volcanoes. At zones of ocean to ocean subduction: older, cooler,
denser crust slips beneath less dense crust; strong quakes, deep trench forms
in arc shape; subducted plate heats in upper mantle; magma rises to form
curving chains of volcanic islands. Deep marine trenches are typically
associated with subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active
boundary are often called foreland basins. The subducting slap contains many
hydrous minerals, which release their water on heating; this water then causes
the mantle to melt, producing volcanism. Closure of ocean basin can occur at
continent to continent boundaries: collision between masses of granitic
continental lithosphere; neither mass is subducted; plate edges are
compressed, folded, uplifted.

Generally, it is accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the
relative density of the oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the
asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the
original source of energy driving plate tectonics, through convection or large
scale upwelling and doming. As a consequence, in the current view, although is
still a matter of some debate, because of the excess density of the oceanic
lithosphere sinking in subduction zones a powerful source of plate motion is
generated. When the new crust forms at mid ocean ridges, this oceanic
lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it
becomes denser with age, as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater
density of the old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows
it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the
driving force for plate motions. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the
tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zones. Although
subduction is believed to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it
cannot be the only force since there are plates such as North American Plate
which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the
enormous Eurasian Plate. The sources of plate motions are a matter of
intensive research and discussion among earth scientists. One of the main
point is that the kinematic pattern of the movements itself should be
separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as
the driving force of the observed movements, as some patterns may be
explained by more than one mechanism. Basically, the driving forces that are
advocated at the moment, can be divided in three categories: mantle dynamics
related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces), and earth rotation related.
For a considerable period of 25 years (last quarter of the 20th century) the
leading theory envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle
which are transmitted through the asthenosphere as the main driving force of
the tectonic plates. The theory was launched by Arthur Holmes and some
forerunners in 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the
acceptance of the theory discussed since its occurrence in the papers of Alfred
Wegener in the early years of the century. It was, though, long debated
because the leading theory was still envisaging a static earth without moving
continents, up until the major break-through in the early 60s. two and three
dimensional imaging of the earth’s interior (seismic tomography) shows that
there is a laterally varying density distribution throughout the mantle. Such
density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from
variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and
contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density
is mantle convection from buoyancy forces. How mantle convection relates
directly and indirectly to the motion of the plates is a matter of ongoing study
and discussion in geodynamics. Somehow, this energy must be transferred to
the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two types of
forces that are thought to influence plate motion: friction and gravity. Basal
drag (friction) drives the plate motion between the convection currents in the
asthenosphere and the more rigid overlying floating lithosphere. For slap
suction (gravity), local convection currents exert a downward frictional pull on
plates in subduction zones at ocean trenches. Slab suction may occur in a
geodynamic setting wherein basal tractions continue to act on the plate as it
dives into the mantle (although perhaps to a greater extent acting on both the
under and upper side of the slab). Any discussion about convection is
speculative. Evidence from seismic tomography and heat flow indicates that
convection of some sort does occur beneath the lithosphere. Even so, it is
difficult to see how plate motions can be due entirely to convective motions.
For this reason, most scientists believe that lithosphere motion is due to a
combination of processes and that convection is only one of the processes.
One important thing that convection must do is to keep the asthenosphere hot
and weak by bringing up heat from the deep mantle and core. In tis sense at
least, convection is essential for plate tectonics.

Three forces might play a role in moving the lithosphere. One is push away
from the spreading center. Rising magma at the spreading center creates new
lithosphere and in the process pushes the sideways. Once the process is
started, it tends to keep itself going. The problem is that pushing involves
compression, but the existence of normal faults along mid ocean ridge
indicates a state of tension. The second one is dragging. The dense slab of the
lithosphere must sink under its own weight and exert a pull on the entire plate.
To compensate for the descending lithosphere, rocks in the asthenosphere
must flow slowly back toward the spreading edge. The third possible
mechanism is for the plate to slide downhill away from the spreading center.
The lithosphere grows thicker and cooler away from a spreading center. As a
consequence, the boundary between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere
slopes away from the spreading center. The slope is only one part in a hundred
but its own weight can cause the lithosphere to slide at a rate of several
centimeters per year. The prevailing idea at present is that subduction starts
when old, cold lithosphere breaks and begins to sink thereby pulling on the
plates and starting the movements, and then the other processes combine to
keep the movement going. Only future research will resolve the question.

The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of

the underlying bed rock fabric that more or less controls what kind of local
morphology tectonics can shape. Long term plate tectonic dynamics give rise
to orogenic belts, large mountain chains with typical life times of many tens of
millions of years, which form local points for high rates of fluvial and hill slope
processes and thus long term sediment production.

The process of plate tectonics has played a major role in the shaping of
earth’s oceans and continents, as well as the life they harbor. Due to the forces
of plate tectonics, our planet is also a dynamic one; new mountains forming,
old ones wearing down, volcanoes melting and reshaping new crust. The
continual changing and reshaping of the earth’s surface that involves the
melting down and reconstructing of old rock has pretty much eliminated most
of the original rocks that came with earth when it was newly formed.

IGNEOUS PROCESSES
Both volcanic (eruptive) and plutonic (intrusive) igneous processes can have
important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to
rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with lava and tephra,
releasing pyroclastic material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones
built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted
upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at
depth can cause both uplift and subsidence of the surface depending on
whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.

5.3 SEAFLOOR SPREADING

This is a process that occurs at the mid ocean ridges where new oceanic crust
is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the
ridge. Seafloor spreading helps to explain continental drift in the theory of
plate tectonics.
Earlier theory of continental drift by Alfred Wegener was that continents
moves through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and carries the
continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry
Hess from Princeton University in the 1960’s. Seafloor spreading dusted out
any doubt that was still held against continental drift.
 It was suggested that new oceanic lithosphere is created at the ocean ridges
by the upwelling and partial melting of material from the asthenosphere. This
upwelling of material has been proposed to be as a result of convection
currents in the mantle.

Hot plastic rocks in the asthenosphere rises toward the surface beneath the
ridges and some small portion of the asthenosphere melts giving rise to
magma (basaltic). When oceanic plates diverge at the mid ocean ridge,
tensional stresses causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. This basaltic
magma then rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form a new
seafloor. Note that the plates have the so called leading edge and the trailing
edge. The leading edge is the front of the plate that is leading it in the direction
that it is moving as it diverges from the mid oceanic ridge while the trailing
edge is the back end. New seafloor forms on the trailing edge of the plates
such that older rocks will be found further away from the spreading zone while
younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone.

The idea of seafloor spreading is that new crust is continuously added along
the ocean ridges making one to wonder how new crust be continuously added
along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the earth. This is
because the increasing size of the oceanic crust is balanced by destruction or
removal of oceanic crust (at the same rate) at a subduction zone. Near the
spreading edge, the lithosphere is thin and it has a low density because it is
heated and expanded by the rising magma. As the lithosphere moves away
from the spreading edge, it cools and becomes denser and then starts to sink
downwards. Therefore the old lithosphere disappears back into the mantle.
The edge along which the lithosphere turns into the mantle is marked by deep
trenches in the seafloor.

Evidence supporting seafloor spreading includes;

(1) Samples of the deep ocean floor show that basaltic oceanic crust and the
overlying sediment become progressively younger as the mid ocean
ridge is approached, and the sediment cover is thinner near the edge.
(2) The rock making up the ocean floor is considerably younger than the
continents, with no sample found over 200 million years old, as
contrasted with maximum ages of over 3 billion years for the continental
 rocks. This confirms that older ocean crust has been reabsorbed in ocean
trench systems.
(3) Magnetic surveys conducted near the mid oceanic ridge showed
elongated patterns of normal and reversed polarity of the ocean floor in
bands paralleling the rift and symmetrically distributed as mirror images
on either side of it.

5.4 ISOSTASY

This is a term used in geology to refer to the state of gravitational equilibrium

between the earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic
plates float at an elevation which depends on the thickness and density. This
process is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at the
earth’s surface. When a certain area of the lithosphere reaches a state of
isostasy, it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy is not a process that
upsets equilibrium, but rather one which restores it (a negative feedback). It is
generally accepted that the earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in
many different ways. However, isostasy provides an important view of the
processes that are happening in areas that are experiencing vertical
movement. Certain areas (such as the Himalayas) are not in isostatic
equilibrium, which have forced researchers to identify other reasons to explain
their topographic heights (in the case of the Himalayas which is still rising, by
proposing that their elevation is ‘propped-up’ by the force of the impacting
Indian plate).

In the simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy when an object

immersed in a liquid is buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid. On a geological scale, isostasy can be observed where the
earth’s strong lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker asthenosphere which,
over geological time flows laterally such that the load of the lithosphere ia
accommodated by height adjustments.

Isostatic equilibrium is not an immediate process. The asthenosphere has to

flow away when a load is added and flow back when a load is taken away. This
takes thousands of years. When a load is removed, the lithosphere slowly
returns to its original shape by a process known as isostatic rebound. When
large amount of sediments are deposited on a particular region, the immense
weight of the new sediment may cause the crust below to sink. Similarly when
large amount of materials are eroded away from a region, the land may rise to
compensate.

MODELS OF ISOSTASY

(1) THE AIRY-HEISKANEN MODEL

This model assumes an upper layer of constant density floating on a denser

substratum. That is, where different topographic heights are accommodated
by changes in crustal thickness in which the crust has a constant density.

(2) THE PRATT-HAYFORD MODEL

This model assumes that different topographic heights are accommodated by

lateral changes in rock density.

LOCAL ISOSTATIC COMPENSATION

The Airy-Heiskanen and the Pratt-Hayford models represents local isostatic

compensation in which each column exerts an equal pressure at the
compensation level. Local isostatic compensation implies that the root zone of
a mountain lies directly under it. Pratt and Airy models achieved compensation
locally by equalization of the pressure below vertical columns under a
topographic load. According to Airy’s model of isostatic compensation, an
upper layer of the earth floats on a denser magma-like substratum. The upper
layer is equated with the crust and the substratum with the mantle. The height
of the mountain above sealevel is much less than the thickness of the crust
underneath it, just as the visible tip of iceberg is much smaller than the
subsurface part. The density of the crust and the mantle is assumed to be
constant; the thickness of the root zone varies in proportion to the elevation of
the topography.

(3)THE VENING MEINESZ OR FLEXURAL ISOSTASY MODEL

This model illustrates that the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and its
inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by
bending.
REGIONAL ISOSTATIC COMPENSATION (according to the elastic plate model of
Vening Meinesz)
The effect of the load can be distributed over a wide area depending on the
flexural rigidity of the supporting material. A common model of regional
isoatatic compensation is that of an elastic plate that is bent by topographic
and subsurface loads. The flexural rigidity of the plate determines the degree
to which the plate supports the load. A thin weak diving board bends greatly,
especially near the diver. A thicker board of the same material behaves more
rigidly; the diver causes a smaller deflection. The flexural rigidity (resistance to
bending) thus depends on the thickness of each board. Subducting plate is
analogous to the diving board, the load is primarily the overriding plate.
Flexure of the down going plate results in a depression (trench), and farther
out to the sea, it result to a bulge on the oceanic crust.
Airy and Pratt isoatasy are both statements of buoyancy, but Flexural isostasy
is a statement of buoyancy while deflecting a sheet of finite elastic strength.

5.5 EARTHQUAKE

Earthquakes can in terms of minutes submerge large areas of land creating

new wetlands. An earthquake is a trembling or shaking of the ground caused
by sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath earth’s surface. When
a rock breaks, waves of energy are released and sent out through the earth.
These are seismic waves (waves of energy produced by an earthquake). It is
the seismic waves that cause the ground to tremble and shake during an
earthquake. These seismic waves can be divided into two; surface and body
waves. The body waves are the P and S waves while the surface waves are the
Rayleigh and love waves.

BODY WAVES
These are waves that travel through the interior of the earth and they arrive
before the surface waves. They are of higher frequency than the surface
waves. Examples are as follows;
P WAVE (PRIMARY WAVE)
This is also called pressure wave, longitudinal wave or compressional wave.
They are called compressional waves because of the pushing and pulling they
do. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave and consequently the first to arrive
at the seismic station. It can move both through solid and liquid material.
Subjected to a P-wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is
moving, which is the direction that the energy is travelling in, and is sometimes
called the direction of wave propagation.

S WAVE (SECONDARY WAVE)

This is also called shear wave. This is the second wave you feel in an
earthquake arriving after P-wave. Is slower than P-wave and can only move
through solid rock and through any liquid medium. It is this property of S wave
that led seismologists to conclude that the earth’s outer core is liquid. S wave
move rock particles up and down or side to side perpendicular to the direction
that the wave is travelling in the direction of wave propagation).

SURFACE WAVES
They travel only through the crust and they are of lower frequency and larger
amplitude than the body waves and are thus easily distinguished on
seismograms. Though they arrive after body waves, it is the surface waves that
are entirely responsible for the damage and destruction associated with
earthquakes. This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced
in deeper earthquakes. This is because they are guided by the surface of the
earth and thus their energy is trapped near the earth’s surface. They are
particularly strongly excited when their source is close to the surface of the
earth, as in a shallow earthquake or explosion. Examples are as follows;

LOVE WAVE
This is named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the
mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It is the fastest surface wave
and moves the ground from side to side. Confined to the surface of the earth,
Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
REYLEIGH WAVE
This is named after John William Strutt, Lord Reyleigh, who mathematically
predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A reyleigh wave rolls
along the surface of the ground and because it rolls, it moves the ground up
and down and side to side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most
of the shaking from an earthquake is due to reyleigh wave, which can be much
larger than other waves.
The reyleigh wave has some compressional motion whereas the love wave
does not.

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

The classic explanation of why an earthquake takes place is called elastic
rebound theory. It involves the sudden release of progressively stored strain in
rocks, causing movement along a fault. Deep seated internal forces (tectonic
forces) act on a mass of rock over many decades. Initially the rock bends, but
does not break. More and more energy is stored in the rock as the bending
becomes more severe. Eventually the energy stored in the rock exceeds the
breaking strength of the rock and the rock breaks suddenly, causing an
earthquake. Two masses of rock move past one another along a fault. The
movement may be vertical, horizontal or both. The strain on the rock is
released; the energy is expended by moving the rock into new positions and by
creating seismic waves.
5.6 GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN AREA

An originally horizontal sequence of sedimentary rock is affected by igneous

activity. Deep below the surface are a magma chamber and large associated
igneous bodies. The magma chamber feeds the volcano, and sends off shoots
of magma that will later crystallize into dikes and sills. Magma also advances
upwards to form intrusive igneous bodies.

Strike slip faults occur when rock units slide past one another, normal faults
occur when rocks are undergoing horizontal extension, and thrust faults occur
when rocks are undergoing horizontal shortening. The geology of an area
changes through time as rock units are deposited and inserted and
deformational processes change their shapes and locations.

Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or
intrusion into the overlying rock. Deposition can occur when sediments settle
onto the surface of the earth and later lithify into sedimentary rock, or when as
volcanic materials such as volcanic ash or lava flows blanket the surface.
Igneous intrusions such as batholiths, laccoliths, dikes, and sills, push upwards
into the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude.

After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be
deformed and/or metamorphosed. Deformation typically occurs as a result of
horizontal shortening, horizontal extension, or side- to- side (strike slip)
motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries,
divergent boundaries, and transform boundaries, respectively, between
tectonic plates.

When rock units are placed under horizontal compression, they shorten and
become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly
change in volume, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting
and folding. In the shallow crust where brittle deformation can occur, thrust
fault form, which cause deeper rock to move on top of shallower rock. Because
deeper rock is often older as noted by the principle of superposition, this can
results in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along fault
can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar, or because the
rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds, as slip occurs along the fault.
Deeper in the crust, rocks behave plastically, and fold instead of faulting. These
folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles
upwards, creating ‘antiforms’ or where it buckles downwards, creating
‘synforms’. If the top of the rock units within the folds remain pointing
upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines, respectively. If some of the
units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called overturned
anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct
up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms,
antiforms and synforms.

Even higher pressures and temperatures during horizontal shortening can

cause both folding and metamorphism of the rocks. This metamorphism
causes changes in the mineral composition of the rocks; creates a foliation, or
planar surface, that is related to mineral growth under stress; and can remove
signs of the original textures of the rocks, such as bedding in sedimentary
rocks, flow features of lavas, and crystal patterns in crystalline rocks.

Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner. This
is primarily accomplished through normal faulting and through the ductile
stretching and thinning. Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below
those that are lower. This typically results in younger units being placed below
older units. Stretching of units can result in their thinning. Rocks at depth
which are ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed. These stretched
rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as boudins, after the French word for
‘sausage’ because of their visual similarity.
 Where rock units slide past one another, strike-slip faults develop in shallow
regions, and become shear zones at deeper depths where the rocks deform
ductilely.

The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often
occurs during deformation. Faulting and other deformational processes result
in the creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that
is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels. These
sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down. Continual motion
along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of
sediment, and continues to creat accommodation space for the material to
deposit. Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and
igneous activity. Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on the surface, and
igneous intrusions enter from below. Igneous intrusions enter along cracks,
and therefore enter in large numbers in areas that are being actively
deformed.

All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment, and

do not necessarily occur in a single order. Although any amount of rock
emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number
of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the geological
history of an area.
CHAPTER SIX

6.0. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The ‘basics of geology’ proves that virtually all we were thought to acquire a
B.Sc in geology is just the definition of geology. Note the key points in the
definition of geology;

(1)Study of the history of the earth

(2)Study of the materials of which the earth is composed
(3)Study of the structure of the earth
(4)Study of the processes by which these materials change or processes
affecting the development of the earth
(5)Explanation of the phenomena attributed to the earth’s constantly changing
character.
In studying the history of the earth, we learnt Earth History as a course. In
studying the materials (soil, water, mineral and rock), we learnt courses like
Engineering Geology, Hydrogeology, Marine Geology, Sedimentology, Igneous
Petrology, Metamorphic Petrology, Mineral Resources and Optical mineralogy.
In studying the structure of the earth, we learnt Global Tectonics (and of
course, part in Earth History). In studying about the processes that bring about
these changes to the earth, we have topics like continental drift, plate
tectonics, seafloor spreading, isostasy, earthquake etc. which we learnt mainly
in Global tectonics. And finally in an attempt to explain the phenomena
attributed to the constantly changing character of the earth, due to little or
entirely lack of direct observation, a number of methods are applied; in this
context, courses like Stratigraphy, Structural Geology and Applied Geophysics
comes into play.
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