UNIT-1

Computer Operation and Number System

 CONTENTS

• Overview
• Introduction to Computers
– Characteristics of Computers
– History/Evolution
– Generation Of Computers
 Introduction To Computers
• Definition:
• Its an electronic Device that is used for information
Processing.
• Computer.. Latin word.. compute
• Calculation Machine
• A computer system includes a computer,
peripheral devices, and software
 Introduction To Computers
• Accepts input, processes data, stores data, and produces output
• Input refers to whatever is sent to a Computer system
• Data refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, and ideas
• Processing is the way that a computer manipulates data
• A computer processes data in a device called the central
processing unit (CPU)
 Introduction To Computers
• Memory is an area of a computer that holds data that is waiting to
be processed, stored, or output
• Storage is the area where data can be left on a permanent basis
• Computer output is the result produced by the computer
• An output device displays, prints or transmits the results of
processing
Introduction To Computers
 Introduction To Computers
Computer
Performs computations and makes logical decisions
Millions / billions times faster than human beings
Computer programs
Sets of instructions for which computer processes data
Hardware
Physical devices of computer system
Software
Programs that run on computers
• Definition:

• Introduction To Computer Software

• Operating system
• Problem solving Techniques
• Computer Prog ramming languages
• Computer Threats
 Introduction To Computers
• Capabilities of Computers
• Huge Data Storage
• Input and Output
• Processing
 Introduction To Computers
• Characteristics of Computers
• High Processing Speed
• Accuracy
• Reliability
• Versatility
• Diligence
Introduction To Computers

History Of Computers
•Before the 1500s, in Europe, calculations were made
with an abacus
Invented around 500BC, available in many
cultures (China, Mesopotamia, Japan, Greece,
Rome, etc.)

•In 1642, Blaise Pascal (French mathematician,

physicist, philosopher) invented a mechanical
calculator called the Pascaline

•In 1671, Gottfried von Leibniz (German

mathematician, philosopher) extended the Pascaline to
do multiplications, divisions, square roots: the Stepped
Reckoner

None of these machines had memory, and they

required human intervention at each step
• In 1822 Charles Babbage (English
mathematician, philosopher), sometimes called
the “father of computing” built the Difference
Engine

• Machine designed to automate the computation

(tabulation) of polynomial functions (which are
known to be good approximations of many
useful functions)
– Based on the “method of finite difference”
– Implements some storage

• In 1833 Babbage designed the Analytical

Engine, but he died before he could build it
– It was built after his death, powered by
steam
Introduction To Computers

Generations of Computers
 Introduction To Computers
• Generation of Computers
• First Generation (1946-59)
• Second Generation(1957-64)
• Third Generation(1965-70)
• Fourth Generation(1970-90)
• Fifth Generation(1990 till date)
 Introduction To Computers
Generation 0: Mechanical Calculators
Generation 1: Vacuum Tube Computers
Generation 2: Transistor Computers
Generation 3: Integrated Circuits
Generation 4: Microprocessors
Introduction To Computers
First Second Third Fourth Gen.
Generation Gen. Gen.
Technology Vacuum Transistors Integrated Microchips
Tubes Circuits (millions of
(multiple transistors)
transistors)
Size Filled Whole Filled half a Smaller Tiny - Palm
Buildings room Pilot is as
powerful as
old building
sized
computer
Introduction To Computers
Some Pictures…..
Generation 1 : ENIAC
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was unveiled in
1946: the first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer
THE USE OF BINARY
IN THE 30S CLAUDE SHANNON (THE FATHER OF
“INFORMATION THEORY”) HAD PROPOSED THAT THE
USE OF BINARY ARITHMETIC AND BOOLEAN LOGIC
SHOULD BE USED WITH ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

THE VON-NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

CPU Memory

I/O
System
Generation 2: IBM7094
Generation 3: Integrated Circuits

Seymour Cray created the Cray Research

Corporation
Cray-1: $8.8 million, 160 million
instructions per seconds and 8 Mbytes of
memory
Generation 4: VLSI Improvements to IC technology made it
possible to integrate more and more transistors
in a single chip
SSI (Small Scale Integration): 10-100
MSI (Medium Scale Integration): 100-
1,000
LSI (Large Scale Integration): 1,000-
10,000
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration):
Microprocessors >10,000
Generation 5?

The term “Generation 5” is used sometimes to refer to all

more or less “sci fi” future developments
Voice recognition
Artificial intelligence
Quantum computing
Bio computing
Nano technology
Learning
Natural languages
 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

• Simply put, a computer is a sophisticated electronic calculating machine that:

• Accepts input information,
• Processes the information according to a list of internally stored instructions and
• Produces the resulting output information.
• Functions performed by a computer are:
• Accepting information to be processed as input.
• Storing a list of instructions to process the information.
• Processing the information according to the list of instructions.
• Providing the results of the processing as output.
• What are the functional units of a computer?

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 FUNCTIONAL
Input unit accepts UNITS OFArithmetic
A COMPUTER
and logic unit(ALU):
•Performs the desired
information:
•Human operators, operations on the input
•Electromechanical devices information as determined
•Other computers by instructions in the memory

Memory Arithmetic
Input Instr1 & Logic
Instr2
Instr3
Data1
Output Data2 Control

I/O Stores Processor

information: Control unit coordinates
Output unit sends various actions
results of processing: •Instructions,
•Data •Input,
•To a monitor display, •Output
27 •To a printer •Processing
 INFORMATION IN A COMPUTER --
INSTRUCTIONS
• Instructions specify commands to:
• Transfer information within a computer (e.g., from memory to ALU)
• Transfer of information between the computer and I/O devices (e.g., from keyboard to
computer, or computer to printer)
• Perform arithmetic and logic operations (e.g., Add two numbers, Perform a logical AND).
• A sequence of instructions to perform a task is called a program, which is stored in the
memory.
• Processor fetches instructions that make up a program from the memory and performs
the operations stated in those instructions.
• What do the instructions operate upon?

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 INFORMATION IN A COMPUTER -- DATA

• Data are the “operands” upon which instructions operate.

• Data could be:
• Numbers,
• Encoded characters.

• Data, in a broad sense means any digital information.

• Computers use data that is encoded as a string of binary digits called bits.

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 INPUT UNIT
Binary information must be presented to a computer in a specific format. This
task is performed by the input unit:
- Interfaces with input devices.
- Accepts binary information from the input devices.
- Presents this binary information in a format expected by the computer.
- Transfers this information to the memory or processor.
Real world Computer

Memory

Keyboard
Audio input
Input Unit
……

Processor
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 MEMORY UNIT
• Memory unit stores instructions and data.
• Recall, data is represented as a series of bits.
• To store data, memory unit thus stores bits.
• Processor reads instructions and reads/writes data from/to the
memory during the execution of a program.
• In theory, instructions and data could be fetched one bit at a time.
• In practice, a group of bits is fetched at a time.
• Group of bits stored or retrieved at a time is termed as “word”
• Number of bits in a word is termed as the “word length” of a
computer.
• In order to read/write to and from memory, a processor should
know where to look:
• “Address” is associated with each word location.
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 MEMORY UNIT (CONTD..)
• Processor reads/writes to/from memory based on the memory
address:
• Access any word location in a short and fixed amount of time based
on the address.
• Random Access Memory (RAM) provides fixed access time
independent of the location of the word.
• Access time is known as “Memory Access Time”.
• Memory and processor have to “communicate” with each other in
order to read/write information.
• In order to reduce “communication time”, a small amount of RAM
(known as Cache) is tightly coupled with the processor.
• Modern computers have three to four levels of RAM units with different
speeds and sizes:
• Fastest, smallest known as Cache
• Slowest, largest known as Main memory.
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 MEMORY UNIT (CONTD..)

• Primary storage of the computer consists of RAM units.

• Fastest, smallest unit is Cache.
• Slowest, largest unit is Main Memory.

• Primary storage is insufficient to store large amounts of data and programs.

• Primary storage can be added, but it is expensive.
• Store large amounts of data on secondary storage devices:
• Magnetic disks and tapes,
• Optical disks (CD-ROMS).
• Access to the data stored in secondary storage in slower, but take advantage of the fact that some
information may be accessed infrequently.
• Cost of a memory unit depends on its access time, lesser access time implies higher cost.

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 ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

• Operations are executed in the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

• Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction.
• Logic operations such as comparison of numbers.
• In order to execute an instruction, operands need to be brought into the ALU from the
memory.
• Operands are stored in general purpose registers available in the ALU.
• Access times of general purpose registers are faster than the cache.
• Results of the operations are stored back in the memory or retained in the processor
for immediate use.

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 OUTPUT UNIT
•Computers represent information in a specific binary form. Output units:
- Interface with output devices.
- Accept processed results provided by the computer in specific binary form.
- Convert the information in binary form to a form understood by an
output device.

Computer Real world

Memory Printer
Graphics display
Speakers
……
Output Unit

Processor
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 CONTROL UNIT

• Operation of a computer can be summarized as:

• Accepts information from the input units (Input unit).
• Stores the information (Memory).
• Processes the information (ALU).
• Provides processed results through the output units (Output unit).

• Operations of Input unit, Memory, ALU and Output unit are coordinated by Control unit.
• Instructions control “what” operations take place (e.g. data transfer, processing).
• Control unit generates timing signals which determines “when” a particular operation
takes place.

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 HOW ARE THE FUNCTIONAL UNITS
CONNECTED?
•For a computer to achieve its operation, the functional units need to
communicate with each other.
•In order to communicate, they need to be connected.

Input Output Memory Processor

Bus

•Functional units may be connected by a group of parallel wires.

•The group of parallel wires is called a bus.
•Each wire in a bus can transfer one bit of information.
•The number of parallel wires in a bus is equal to the word length of
a computer
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 ORGANIZATION OF CACHE AND MAIN
MEMORY
Main Cache
memory memory Processor

Bus

Why is the access time of the cache memory lesser than the
access time of the main memory?

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