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Part 2: Characteristics of A Measurement System

This document discusses the general structure and characteristics of measurement systems. It covers topics such as: - The main components of a measurement system including sensing elements, signal conditioning, processing, and data presentation. - Key static characteristics like resolution, accuracy, sensitivity and dynamic characteristics for first and second order sensor responses. - Sources of noise in measurement systems and common noise reduction techniques like filtering and shielding. - Signal conditioning circuits that are used to amplify, filter, and convert signals prior to processing. - Analog to digital conversion and factors like quantization error and sampling rates.

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123andyb
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68 views

Part 2: Characteristics of A Measurement System

This document discusses the general structure and characteristics of measurement systems. It covers topics such as: - The main components of a measurement system including sensing elements, signal conditioning, processing, and data presentation. - Key static characteristics like resolution, accuracy, sensitivity and dynamic characteristics for first and second order sensor responses. - Sources of noise in measurement systems and common noise reduction techniques like filtering and shielding. - Signal conditioning circuits that are used to amplify, filter, and convert signals prior to processing. - Analog to digital conversion and factors like quantization error and sampling rates.

Uploaded by

123andyb
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Part 2: Characteristics of a Measurement System

General Structure of a Measurement System


 Sensing Element – this is in contact with physical process being measured
 Signal Conditioning element – takes the output from sensing element and converts it
into a form more suitable for further processing – usually dc voltage or current or
frequency signal
 Signal Processing Element – further amplification of signal, linearization, error
compensation and data conversion from analogue to digital form
 Data presentation – presents measured value in recognisable form

Characteristics of Measurement System


 Static Characteristic – system response to an input which is either constant or
changing slowly
o Systematic characteristics
o Statistical characteristics
o Covers: range, resolution, accuracy, precision and repeatability, linearity,
sensitivity, hysteresis and thermal drif
o Resolution – smallest amount of input signal change than can be detected.
 Limited by: noise in analogue instrument; least significant bit in digital
instruments.
 Resolution of 12 bit A/D converter has input range of 10V. The
resolution is given by (1/2^12)*10V
o Linearity – relationship between output and input expressed by straight line.
Gradient is called the sensitivity. Non linearity (delta) is max deviation of
output reading from the straight line.
δ
Non−linearity : ∗100
y max − y min
o Hysteresis – for a given input, the output may be different depending
whether input is increasing or decreasing
hmax
H (x )= ∗100
y max − y min
o Thermal Drif
 Zero drif – when x=0, y has drifed from 0 due to change in ambient
temperature
 Sensitivity drif – sensitivity of instrument varies with the ambient
temperature

 Dynamic Characteristic – system response to an input which is either sudden change


or periodic change
o Measurement systems can be classified into two types
 First order systems
 Second order systems
o First Order Systems
 To identify a first order system  there is no mechanical movement,
movement of mass, in the detection part in a sensor or an instrument
dy (t)
a1 + ao y (t )=b0 x(t )
dt
a b
let τ= 1 , k= 0
a0 a0
dy ( t ) Y (s) k
τ + y ( t )=kx ( t ) τsY ( s ) +Y ( s )=kX ( s ) =
dt X (s) τs+1
 Input has two types: Step input  x(t>0)=1; Sinusoidal Input
x(t)=x0sin(wt)
For step input:

1
k

[ ]
1 Y ( s) k s 1 1 −t
X ( s )= =
s X ( s ) τs+1
Y ( s )=
τs+1
=k −
s
s+
1 (
y ( t )=k 1−e τ )
τ
( τ =time constant , k=steady state value )

For response with non-zero initial input:


−t
τ
y ( t )=k−( k−initial value ) e

o Second Order System


 If there is mechanical movement
 Can be modelled by a spring-mass-damper system
Characteristics of Signals
Two types:
 Deterministic Signals
o Future values can be exactly predicted by mathematical models
 Random Signals
o Not predictable, treated as noise, but can be estimated statistically
o Mean, std dev, probability density function…
 Real Signals – predictable with superimposed noise signal

Fourier Analysis of Signals


 Power Spectral Density
o Any periodic signal can be expressed by Fourier series
 = sum of sine and cosine waves with frequencies which are harmonics
of the fundamental frequency.
 Power Spectral Density – the power at the ith harmonic frequency

1 2 2
w i= (a + b )
2 i i
dW
Total Power , W =w0 + w1 +w 2+ …+w n PSD , ∅ ( w ) =
dw

 Bandwidth – range of frequencies for which steady state gain is greater than
1
1/sqrt(2), or decibel change of N N=20 log ( )
√2
=−3 dB

Noise Sources and Reduction


 Internal Noise Sources
o Thermal/Johnson Noise
 Random, temperature-induced motion of electrons and other charge
carriers
 Has uniform power spectrum called white noise
V rms =√ 4 RkT ∆ f
o Shot Noise
 Caused by random charge fluctuations across a junction in diodes and
transistors
 Uniform power spectrum
I rms = √ 2 q I dc ∆ f
o 1/f noise (flicker noise)
 Has 1/f spectrum
 Examples: base current in transistors, cathode in vacuum tubes,
current based sensing elements
 External Noise Sources
o Interference – EM interference from power source, motors, machines
o Vibration
 Signal to noise Ratio

V 2s
SNR=10 log 10
( )
V 2n

 Noise Reduction
o External Noise
 EM shielding – reduce inductive coupling by twisted pairs to reduce
loop area (magnitude of induced voltage is proportional to the loop
area)
 Electrostatic screening and shielding to reduce capacitive coupling by
proper grounding/earthed screen
o Internal Noise
 Generally irreducible, but can be bypassed through physical
decoupling mechanisms
 Transformer-coupled isolation amplifier
 Opto-coupled analogue isolation amplifier
 Modulation and demodulation techniques
o Filtering

Filtering
*** Specific filter characteristics/equations in slides ***
 Used to reduce/remove noise signal from useful signal
o Low pass, band pass, high pass, band stop
 Can be analogue filters (passive and active) and digital filters
 Digital Filters
o Should have high attenuation rate, ideally straight vertical line
o Very small phase shif – ideally zero
o The higher order, the sharper drop edge
o Analogue are normally first or second order ones
o Digital filters can be made to any order – limited by computing time

Signal Conditioning Circuits


 Used to:
o Amplify weak signal
o Filter out nosie
o Convert voltage to current or current to voltage
o Implement special functions (linearization, log etc)
 Bridge Circuits – measure difference in signals
 Ideal Amplifier
o Amplication, A = infinity
o Input impedance = infinity
o Output impedance = 0
−RF R
Inverting:G= R¿ =R1 + F ≈ R1
R1 A +1
R R1
(
Non−Inverting:G=1+ F R ¿=r ¿ 1+ A
R1 )
R 1+ R F
 Bridge Circuits, balance condition: R1R3=R2R4

Analog-to-Digital Converters
 A to D or A/D = converts continuous signals to discrete digital numbers
 Quantisation error
 Sampling Rate/frequency
o Nyquist theorem – need sampling rate higher than twice frequency of signal

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