Agenda Item 3h

Attachment 9

BALANCING AND FREQUENCY

CONTROL (Part 1)

A Technical Concepts Document

Prepared by the NERC Resources Subcommittee

November 9, 2009
Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 3
Background ................................................................................................................................. 3
Note to Trainers .......................................................................................................................... 3
Disclaimer ................................................................................................................................... 3
Balancing Fundamentals................................................................................................................. 4
Balancing and Frequency Control Basics ................................................................................... 4
Control Continuum ..................................................................................................................... 9
Primary Control ...................................................................................................................... 9
Secondary Control ................................................................................................................ 12
Tertiary Control .................................................................................................................... 12
Time Control......................................................................................................................... 12
Control Continuum Summary............................................................................................... 13
Area Control Error (ACE) Review ........................................................................................... 13
Bias (B) vs. Frequency Response (Beta) .................................................................................. 14
Useful References ......................................................................................................................... 15
Review Questions ......................................................................................................................... 17

Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Introduction
Background
The NERC Resources Subcommittee drafted this reference at the request of the NERC Operating
Committee as part of a series on Operating and Planning Reliability Concepts. The document
covers the basics of balancing and frequency control. This is part 1 of a 2 volume set. Part 1
deals with the fundamentals, while Part 2 covers deeper technical details. Send questions and
suggestions for changes and additions to [email protected].

Note to Trainers
The end of this reference contains questions that can be used to support local training on these
concepts. Trainers are encouraged to develop and share materials based on this reference. The
Resources Subcommittee will post shared material at:
http://www.nerc.com/filez/rs_tutorials.html.

Disclaimer
This document is intended to explain the concepts and issues of balancing and frequency control.
The goal is to provide a better understanding of the fundamentals. Nothing in this document is
intended to be used for compliance purposes or establish obligations.

Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Balancing Fundamentals
Balancing and Frequency Control Basics
The power system of North America is divided into four major Interconnections. These
Interconnections can be thought of as independent islands. The Interconnections are:

 Western – Generally everything west of the Rockies.

 Texas - Also known as Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT).
 Eastern – Generally everything east of the Rockies except Texas and Quebec.
 Quebec
Each Interconnection is actually a large machine, as every generator within the island is pulling
in tandem with the others to supply electricity to all customers. The “speed” of the
Interconnection is frequency, measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). If the total
Interconnection generation exceeds customer demand, frequency increases beyond the target
frequency, typically 60 Hz 1 , until a balance is achieved. Conversely, if there is a temporary
generation deficiency, frequency declines until balance is again restored at a point below the
scheduled frequency. Balance is initially restored in each case due to load that varies with
frequency because some electric devices, such as electric motors, use more energy if driven at a
higher frequency and less at a lower frequency.

Figure 1. North American Interconnections

1 Target frequency (termed Scheduled Frequency) is sometimes offset by a small amount (presently +/- 0.02Hz) via
a mechanism called Time Error Corrections.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

The actual operation of the Interconnections is handled by entities called Balancing Authorities.
The Balancing Authorities dispatch generators in order to meet their individual needs. Some
Balancing Authorities also control load to maintain balance.

Figure 2. North American Balancing Authorities and Regions

There are over 100 Balancing Authorities of varying size in North America. Each Balancing
Authority in an Interconnection is connected via high voltage transmission lines (called tie-lines)
to neighboring Balancing Authorities. Overseeing the Balancing Authorities are wide-area
operators called Reliability Coordinators. The relationship between Reliability Coordinators to
Balancing Authorities is similar to air traffic controllers and pilots.

Frequency does not change in an Interconnection as long as there is a balance between resources
and customer demand (including various electrical losses). This balance is depicted in Figure 3.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Sales Interchange Purchases

Power
Load Generated
Losses

Hertz
DEMAND SUPPLY

59 60 61
58 62

Figure 3. Generation-Demand Balance

To understand how Interconnection frequency is actually controlled, it helps to visualize a

traditional water utility. If a municipality operated its own system, it would need sufficient
pumps (generation) to maintain level in a storage tank (frequency) to serve its customers. If
demand exceeded supply, the level would drop. Level (frequency) is the primary parameter to
control in an independent system.

Utilities quickly learned the benefits in reliability and reduced operating reserves expense by
connecting to neighboring systems. In our water utility example, an independent utility must
have pumps in standby equivalent to its largest online pump if it wants to maintain level.
However, if utilities are connected together via pipelines (tie-lines), reliability and economics are
improved, both because of the larger storage capability of the combined system and the ability to
share pump capacity when needed.

Once the systems are interconnected, the level (steady state frequency) is the same throughout.
If one utility (Balancing Authority) loses a pump, there is a drop in level, although it is now
much less than in an independent system. The Balancing Authority that needed water (energy)
could purchase output from others.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

M
M P

P P

P Pump

P M Meter

Customers

Figure 4. Balancing Authority Analogy

Thus, there are two inputs to the Balancing Authorities’ control process 2 :

 Interchange Error, which is the net outflow or inflow compared to what it is buying or
selling.
 Frequency Bias, which is the Balancing Authority’s obligation to stabilize frequency. In
other words, if frequency goes low, each Balancing Authority is asked to contribute a
small amount of extra generation in proportion to its size.

Each Balancing Authority uses common meters on the tie-lines with its neighbors for control and
accounting. In other words, there will be a meter on one end of each tie-line that both
neighboring Balancing Authorities use against which they control and perform accounting.
Thus, all generators, load, and transmission lines in an Interconnection fall within the metered
bounds of a Balancing Authority.

If the Balancing Authority is not buying or selling energy 3 , and its generation is exactly equal to
the load and losses within its metered boundary. If the Balancing Authority chooses to buy
energy, say 100 Megawatts (MW), it tells its control system to allow 100 MW to flow in.
Conversely, the seller will tell its control system to allow 100 MW to flow out. If all Balancing

2 There are two control inputs in multi-Balancing Authority Interconnections. Texas and Quebec are single
Balancing Authority Interconnections and need only control to frequency.
3 In most cases, Balancing Authorities do not buy and sell energy. Transactions now are arranged by agents called
Purchasing-Selling Entities (PSEs) that represent load or generation within the Balancing Authority.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Authorities behave this way, the Interconnection remains in balance and frequency remains
stable. If an error in control occurs, it will show up as a change in frequency.

EEI IESO
M
M M
M
TVA
M MISO

M M

EKPC M

M = Meter M M PJM

I
Figure 5. Interconnected Balancing Authorities

Customer demand and generation are constantly changing within all Balancing Authorities. This
means Balancing Authorities will have some unintentional outflow or inflow at any given
instant. This mismatch in meeting a Balancing Authority’s internal obligations, along with the
small additional obligation to maintain frequency, is measured via a real-time value called area
control error (ACE), measured in MW.

Dispatchers at each Balancing Authority fulfill their NERC obligations by monitoring ACE and
keeping the value within limits that are generally proportional to Balancing Authority size. This
balancing typically is accomplished through a combination of computer-controlled adjustment of
generators, telephone calls to power plants and through purchases and sales of electricity with
other Balancing Authorities, and possible emergency actions such as automatic or manual load
shedding.

Conceptually, ACE is to a Balancing Authority what frequency is to the Interconnection. Over-

generation makes ACE go positive and puts upward pressure on Interconnection frequency. A
large negative ACE causes Interconnection frequency to drop. Highly variable, or “noisy” ACE
tends to contribute to similarly “noisy” frequency. However, it depends on whether ACE is
coincident with frequency error. Frequency error tends to be made larger when ACE is of the
same sign as the error, and is made smaller when ACE is of opposite sign to the frequency error.
This principle is captured in the way CPS1 measures performance.

Failure to maintain a balance between load and resources causes frequency to vary from its target
value. In addition, other problems on the grid, such as congestion or equipment faults also

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dictate rapid adjustments of generation or loss of load and are seen as changes in frequency.
Frequency can therefore be thought of as the pulse of the grid and a fundamental indicator of the
health of the power system.

Control Continuum
Balancing and frequency control occur over a continuum of time using different resources,
represented in Figure 6.

Primary
Control Seconds

Secondary
Control
Minutes

Tertiary
Control

Time Hours
Control

Spinning Reserves
Non-Spinning Reserves
Other Reserves
Figure 6. Control Continuum

Primary Control
Primary Control is more commonly known as Frequency Response. Frequency Response occurs
within the first few seconds following a change in system frequency (disturbance) to stabilize the
Interconnection. Frequency Response is provided by:
1. Governor Action. Governors on generators are similar to cruise control on your car.
They sense a change in speed and adjust the energy input into the generators’ prime
mover.
2. Load. The speed of motors in an Interconnection change in direct proportion to
frequency. As frequency drops, motors will turn slower and draw less energy. Rapid
reduction of system load may also be effected by automatic operation of under-frequency
relays which interrupt pre-defined loads within fractions of seconds or within seconds of
frequency reaching a predetermined value. Such reduction of load may be contractually
represented as interruptible load or may be provided in the form of resources procured as
reliability (or Ancillary) services. As a safety net, percentages of firm load may be
dropped by under-frequency load shedding programs to ensure stabilization of the
systems under severe disturbance scenarios.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

These load characteristics assist in stabilizing frequency following a disturbance.

The most common type of disturbance in an Interconnection is associated with the loss of a
generator, which causes a decline in frequency. In general, the amount of (frequency-
responsive) Spinning Reserve in an Interconnection will determine the amount of available
Frequency Response.

Primary Control relates to the supply and and load responses, including generator governors
(speed controls) that stabilize Interconnection frequency whenever there is a change in load-
resource balance. Primary Control is provided in the first few seconds following a frequency
change and is maintained until it is replaced by AGC action. Frequency Response (or Beta) is
the more common term for Primary Control. Beta (β) is defined by the total of all initial
responses to a frequency excursion.

Figure 7 shows a trace of the Western Interconnection’s frequency resulting from a generating
unit trip. The graph plots frequency from 5 seconds prior to the loss of a large generator until 60
seconds thereafter.

NERC references three key events to describe such a disturbance. Point A is the pre-disturbance
frequency, typically close to 60 Hz. Point C is the maximum excursion point, which occurs
about 5–8 seconds after the loss of generation. Point B is the settling frequency of the
Interconnection.

Hz Typical WECC Frequency Excursion

(T-5 to T+60)
60.02
A

60

59.98

B
59.96

59.94

59.92

C Seconds >
59.9
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

Figure 7. Points “A”, “B” and “C”

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Figure 8 overlays frequency traces following a trip of a large generator from the Eastern,
Western and ERCOT Interconnections. The frequency data is from 5 seconds before the unit
tripping until 60 seconds thereafter.

The difference in profiles is due to the load and generation differences (size) and also they types
of generation within the Interconnections. The Eastern Interconnection has the most load and
generation. The Western Interconnection has proportionally more hydroelectric generation,
which provides slightly slower primary control.

Figure 8. Typical Frequency Traces Following a Unit Trip

It is important to remember that Primary Control will not return frequency to normal, but only
stabilize it. Other control components are used to restore frequency to normal.

Operating Tip: Frequency Response is particularly important during

disturbances and islanding situations. Operators should be aware of their
frequency responsive resources. Blackstart units must be able to control to
frequency and arrest excursions.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Secondary Control
Secondary Control typically includes the balancing services deployed in the “minutes” time
frame. Some resources however, such as hydroelectric generation, can respond faster in many
cases. This control accomplished using the Balancing Authority’s control computer 4 and the
manual actions taken by the dispatcher to provide additional adjustments. Secondary Control
also includes initial reserve deployment for disturbances.

In short, Secondary Control maintains the minute-to-minute balance throughout the day and is
used to restore frequency to its scheduled value, usually 60 Hz, following a disturbance.
Secondary Control is provided by both Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves. The most
common means of exercising secondary control is through Automatic Generation Control
(AGC).

Tertiary Control
Tertiary Control encompasses actions taken to get resources in place to handle current and future
contingencies. Reserve deployment and Reserve restoration following a disturbance are
common types of Tertiary Control.

Time Control
Frequency and balancing control are not perfect. There will always be occasional errors in tie-
line meters, whether due to transducer inaccuracy, problems with SCADA hardware or software,
or communications errors. Due to these errors, plus normal load and generation variation, net
ACE in an Interconnection cannot be maintained at zero. This means that frequency cannot
always be maintained at exactly 60Hz, and that average frequency over time usually is not
exactly 60 Hz.

Each Interconnection has a Time Control process to maintain the long-term average frequency at
60 Hz. While there are some differences in process, each Interconnection designates a
Reliability Coordinator as a “Time Monitor” to provide Time Control.

The Time Monitor compares a clock driven off Interconnection frequency against “official time”
provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). If average frequency
drifts, it creates a Time Error between these two clocks. If the Time Error gets too large, the
Time Monitor will notify Balancing Authorities in the Interconnection to correct the situation.

For example, if frequency has been running 2 mHz high (60.002Hz), a clock using
Interconnection frequency as a reference will gain 1.2 seconds in a 10 hour interval (i.e. 60.002
Hz-60.000 Hz)/60 Hz * 10 hrs * 3600 s/hr = 1.2 s). If the Time Error accumulates to a pre-
determined value (for this example, +10 seconds in the Eastern Interconnection), the Time
Monitor will send notices for all Balancing Authorities in the Interconnection to offset their
scheduled frequency by -0.02Hz (Scheduled Frequency = 59.98Hz). This offset, known as Time
Error Correction, will be maintained until Time Error has decreased below the termination
threshold (which would be +6 seconds for our example in the eastern interconnection).

4 Terms most often associated with this are “Load-Frequency Control” or “Automatic Generation Control”.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

A positive offset (Scheduled Frequency = 60.02Hz) would be used if average frequency was low
and Time Error reached its initiation value (-10 seconds for the eastern interconnection). See the
NAESB business practice on Manual Time Error Correction for additional information,
including the initiation and termination Time Error values for North American interconnections.

Control Continuum Summary

Table 1 summarizes the discussion on the control continuum and identifies the service 5 that
provides the control and the NERC standard that addresses the adequacy of the service.

Control Ancillary Service/IOS Timeframe NERC Standard

Primary Control Frequency Response 10-60 Seconds FRS-CPS1
Secondary Control Regulation 1-10 Minutes CPS1– CPS2
Tertiary Control Imbalance/Reserves 10 Minutes - Hours BAAL - DCS
Time Control Time Error Correction Hours TEC
Table 1. Control Continuum Summary

Area Control Error (ACE) Review

The Control Performance Standards are based on measures that limit the magnitude and direction
of the Balancing Authority’s Area Control Error (ACE). The equation for ACE is:

ACE = (NIA- NIS) - 10B (FA - FS) - IME

Where:

NIA is Net Interchange, Actual

NIS is Net Interchange, Scheduled
B is Balancing Authority Bias
FA is Frequency, Actual
FS is Frequency, Scheduled
IME is Interchange (tie line) Metering Error

NIA is the algebraic sum of tie line flows between the Balancing Authority and the
Interconnection. NIS is the net of all scheduled transactions with other Balancing Authorities. In
most areas, flow into a Balancing Authority is defined as negative. Flow out is positive.

The combination of the two (NIA - NIS) represents the ACE associated with meeting schedules,
without consideration for frequency error or bias, and if used by itself for control would be
referred to as “flat tie line” control.

The term 10B (FA - FS) is the Balancing Authority’s obligation to support frequency. B is the
Balancing Authority's frequency bias stated in MW/0.1Hz (B’s sign is negative). The “10”

5 NERC calls these services “Interconnected Operations Services” while the FERC uses the term Ancillary Services.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

converts the Bias setting to MW/Hz. FS is normally 60 Hz but may be offset ± 0.02 Hz for time
error corrections. Control using “10B (FA - FS)” by itself is called “flat frequency” control.

IME is a correction factor for meter error. The meters that measure instantaneous flow are not
always as accurate as the hourly meters on tie lines. Balancing Authorities are expected to check
the error between the integrated instantaneous and the hourly meter readings. If there is a
metering error, a value should be added to compensate for the estimated error. This value is IME.
This term should normally be very small or zero.

Here is a simple example. Assume a Balancing Authority with a Bias of -50 MW / 0.1 Hz is
purchasing 300 MW. The actual flow into the Balancing Authority is 310 MW. Frequency is
60.01 Hz. Assume no time correction or metering error.

ACE = (-310 - - 300) – 10* (-50) * (60.01 – 60.00) = (-10) – (-5) = -5 MW.

The Balancing Authority should be generating 5 MW more to meet its obligation to the
Interconnection. Even though it may appear counterintuitive to increase generation when
frequency is high, the reason is that this Balancing Area is more energy-deficient at this moment
(-10 MW) than its bias obligation to reduce frequency (-5 MW). The decision on when or if to
correct the -5 MW ACE would be driven by control performance standard (CPS) compliance.

Bias (B) vs. Frequency Response (Beta)

There is often confusion in the Industry when discussing Frequency Bias and Frequency
Response. Even though there are similarities between the two terms, Frequency Bias (B) is not
the same as Frequency Response (β).

Frequency Response, defined in the NERC Glossary, is the mathematical expression of the net
change in a Balancing Area’s actual net interchange for a change in interconnection frequency.
It is a fundamental reliability service provided by a combination of governor and load response.
Frequency Response represents the actual MW primary response contribution to stabilize
frequency following a disturbance.

Bias is an approximation of β used in the ACE equation. Bias prevents AGC withdrawal of
frequency response following a disturbance. If B and β were exactly equal, a Balancing
Authority would see no change in ACE following a frequency decline, even though it provided a
MW contribution to stabilize frequency.

Bias and Frequency Response are both negative numbers. In other words, as frequency drops,
MW output (β) or desired output (B) increases. Both are measured in MW/0.1Hz

Important Note: When people talk about Frequency Response and Bias, they often
discuss them as positive values (such as “our Bias is 50MW/0/1Hz”). Frequency
Response and Bias are actually negative values.
Early research (Cohn) found that it is better to be over-biased (absolute value of B greater than
the absolute value of β) than to be under-biased.

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

Useful References
Cohn, N. (May 1982). Decomposition of Time Deviation and Inadvertent Interchange on
Interconnected System, Parts I & II. IEEE PAS, Vol. PAS-101, No. 5.

Cohn, N. (1956). Some Aspects of Tie-Line Bias Control on Interconnected Power Systems,
AIEE Transactions, vol. 75, pt. III (Power Apparatus and Systems), 1415-1436.

Cohn, N. (1984). Recollections of the Evolution of Realtime Control Applications to Power

Systems, Automatica, vol. 20, no. 2, 145-162.

Electric Power Research Institute (1992). Impacts of Governor Response Changes on the
Security of North American Interconnections.

Electric Power Research Institute (1996). Control Performance Standards and Procedures for
Interconnected Operations, EPRI RP3555-10.

Ingleson, J., & Nagle, M. (May, 1999). Decline of Eastern Interconnection Frequency Response.
Prepared for the Fault and Disturbance Conference at Georgia Tech. Retrieved May 19, 2004
from http://truc.org/files/1999/fda1999_jwi_final.pdf.

Ingleson, J., & Ellis, D. (2005). Tracking the Eastern Interconnection Frequency Governing
Characteristic. Summer, 2005 IEEE/PES.

Jaleeli, N. & VanSlyck, L.S. (August 1999). NERC's New Control Performance Standards.
IEEE T-PWRS Vol. 14, No. 3, pp 1092-1099.

Jaleeli, N., VanSlyck, L. S., Ewart, D. N., Fink, L. H. and Hoffmann, A. G. (August 1992).
Understanding Automatic Generation Control. IEEE T-PWRS Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 1106-1122.

Kirby, B., Dyer, J., Martinez, C., Shoureshi, R., Guttromson, R., & Dagle, J. (December 2002).
Frequency Control Concerns In The North American Electric Power System, ORNL/TM-
2003/41. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Lindahl, S.(2002). Verification of Governor Response during Normal Operation. Retrieved
November 5, 2003 from http://www.eeh.ee.ethz.ch/downloads/psl/research/psdpc/.

Moran, F. & Williams, D.R. (April 1968). Automatic control of power-system frequency by
machine controllers, Proceeding of the IEE, vol. 115, no. 4, 606-614.

Moran, F., Bain, D.K.S., & Sohal, J.S. (July 1968). Development of the equipment required for
the loading of turbogenerators under automatic power-system control, Proceedings of the IEE,
vol. 115, no 7, 1067-1075.

NAESB WEQ Manual Time Error Correction Standards - WEQBPS – 004-000

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Balancing and Frequency Control (Part 1)

NERC (2002, August 28). Frequency Excursion Task Force Report. North American Electric
Reliability Council.

NERC (2006). Frequency Response Characteristic Survey Training Document. North American
Electric Reliability Council.

NERC Frequency Response Standard White Paper, April 6, 2004

NERC (2004). Inadvertent Interchange Accounting Training Document.

NERC (2004). Performance Standard Training Document. North American Electric Reliability
Council.

NERC (2004). Area Interchange Error Survey Training Document. North American Electric
Reliability Council.

NERC. Area Interchange Error Reports. Available at www.nerc.com/~filez/aie.html.

NERC Joint Inadvertent Interchange Task Force (2001). Draft Guiding Principles for an
Inadvertent Interchange Standards. North American Electric Reliability Council.

NERC Reliability Standards for the Bulk Electric Systems of North America. North American
Electric Reliability Council.

UCTE. Policy 1 — Load-Frequency Control and Performance. Draft Operating Standard for
Europe. Available at: http://www.entsoe.eu/resources/publications/ce/oh/

VanSlyck, L.S., Jaleeli, N. & Kelley, W.R. (May, 1989). Implications of Frequency Control Bias
Settings on Interconnected System Operation and Inadvertent Energy Accounting. IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 4, no. 2, 712-723.

U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force (2004, April 5). Final Report on the August 14,
2003 Blackout in the United States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations. Retrieved
November 5, 2004 from www.nerc.com/~filez/blackout.html.

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