\

Preface

Communications* Standard Dictionary is a comprehensive compilation of terms and

definitions used in the field of communications.

Communications is defined as the branch of science and technology concerned with the

process of representing, transferring, and interpreting the meaning as- signed to data by and
among persons, places, or machines.

Communicatrbn is defined as the transfer of informationbetweenasource(trans- mitter, light source)

and a sink (receiver, photodetector) over one or more chan- nels in accotdance with a protocol, and
in a manner suitable for interpretation or comprehension by the receiver; or as a method or means
of conveying informa- tion of any kind from one person or place to another.

In short, communications is a branch of science and technology, whereas com- munication pertains to the actual
transfer of information. Thus, the word com- munication should be used as a modifier, as in

communication center, communi- cation deception, and communication line, just as in the field

of electronics one speaks of electronic devices and electronic circuits.

Only data is actually transferred by acommunication system, that is, physically moved. But data is the
representation of information. Therefore, it may be said that information is moved by a
communication system, with the proviso that the sender and the receiver agree on the meaning
assigned to the data. In a properly designed communication system data integrity will be
preserved. The meaning will not be lost and errors will not be made during storage and
transmission. However, it is the responsibility of Ihe source user to enter the proper data and the
responsibility of the destination user Io properly interpret the data.

+Italics indicates that the term is defined in this dictionary.

vi Preface

SCOPE

This dictionary covers the terminology used in the following subfields: Acoustic
communications Microwave communications Aeronautical
communications Military communications Air-air
communications Navigation communications Air-surface
 communications Networking Analog communication sytems Optical
communications Battlefield surveillance Optics Communication devices
Radar Communication systems Radio Communication theory

Radionavigation Computer engineering Satellite communications Computer

programming Signaling Cybernetics Signal processing Data

conversion Space communications Data processing Spread spectrum
systems Data transmission Strategic communications Digital systems

Switching systems Display devices Tactical communications

Documentation Telecommunications Electromagnetic theory

Telegraphy Electronic warfare communications Telemetering Fiber optics

Telephony Facsimile Television Information management

Transmission security Information systems Video telephony Information

theory Visual communications Lightwave communications Wire

cgmmunication systems Coverage is also given to hundreds of subtopics, for example:

Antennas Gating Broadcasting Interactive systems Checking

systems Interference Circuits Jamming Coding Layering Command

guidance Modulation Computing systems Multiplexing Control

Noise Data base management Office machines Data integrity Polarization

Detection Reception Direction finding Signal distortion Emanation

security Transmission Error control Word processing
Preface vii

SOI.JRCES

The terms defined in this dictiotary arc those written and spoken by designers, developers,
manufacturers, vendors, users, managers, administrators, operators, and maintainers of
communication systems and components. They are also the terms used by educators and standards
organizations in the field of communica- tions.

The terms were taken primarily from the technical literature. Terms were also taken from oral presentations

and discussions. The definitions are based ontech- nical society, international, national,

Federal, military, industrial, carrier, and communication system user standards. For those
terms for which standardized definitions could not be found, definitions were based on
context, common usage, and authoritative sources.
Since definitions contained in standards are usually highly precise, technical, and professional, and often the
result of compromise, explanations, examples, illus- trations, and cross-references were added.
Certain editorial changes were made to provide clarity, logical consistency, and uniformity of
format.

ORGANIZATION

Entries are arranged in natural spoken English alphabetical word order. Spaces, hyphens, slashes, and other
forms of punctuation are ignored in the sequencing.

Every significant word in a multiple-word entry is also entered in the main list- ing, with a See reference to
the multiple-word entry. For example, in the entry for modulation, one would find the

statement "See frequency modulation" fol- lowing the definition of modulation. Synonyms are
also entered in the main list- ing.with a See referetce to the preferred term. Definitions are
always placed with the preferred term in the case of synonyms.

USE

This dictionary is designed to be used in the manner of an encyclopedia. The italicu,ed

words in a definition are also defined in the dictionary. The standard defining phrase,
explanatory remarks, examples, illustrations, cross-references, and italicized terms enable the
reader to obtain a thorough understanding of the concept for which the entry term is really only
a label.

viii Preface
eference manual. It can readilY be oral presentations, contract specifi- studying or teaching; or
for holding For examPle, it meets the Profes- sional needs in the field of communications by
presenting the meanings given in standards. It satisfies the needs of communication system users
for effective in- teraction with communication systems by providing explanatory remarks in
ad- dition to the defining phrase, and it meets the needs of students and teachers by providing
examples, illustrations and cross-references to other entries.

MARTIN H, WPTT, D.SC.

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Acknowledgments
 The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge the technical and editorial assis_ tance given by

Mr. Eric Fallick of Van Nostrand Reinhold.

paul
and James wheeler; and Messrs. Dennis Bodson, Marstrall cain, rolovi, and George White.

Appreciation is especially extended to my wife, Helen Harrison weik, RN, for her

assistance in organizing the material for this volume, and her contributions in those areas of

communication systems that are related to the human factors in the man-machine

interface.

MARTIN H. WEIK, D.Sc,

rx

A-AND-NOr-B gate; sine-junction three performing B is a combinations with statement, A tll.e gate; except logic gate.

the with of operations B result A A gate; subiunction two-input, and is with B, true of the AND A only binary, gate;

result AND NOT if Nor and A is logic is false. gate; with true B. coincidence Thus, with and negative Synonymous B

NOT if is A false. (A is circuit if-then a implies statement wit]n For capable gate; exclusion the B) other gate. witln and of
See Figure A-1.
IN0 1 B IN
A0
0U

t.) OUT
I0
A-1. A table showing the input and output digits of an A-AND-NOT-B gate.

chromatic abbe constant. aberuation A mathematical of an optical expression system. It for is usually determining expressed
the as

correction for Y = (na - l)l(nr- n") when the D n4, line n1, df sodium and n" and are the tll.e E refractive and.C lines
indices of hydrogen, for light respectively. of. ttre wavelengths The ratio of. may also be considered as tll^e

refractivityldispersion. Synonymous with Nu val- ue; Vee value.

abbreviated usually scribers). for For special address. example, communication An a address fotn digit that and telephone
has other fewer services number characters or for for a than user certain the calling full users address, another (sub- zip-code user
connected only. Synonymous to the sameswitchingexchange,oramessageaddressee's with short address. nameand
abbreviated address calling. calling that enables ausertoemployanaddresshav- ing fewer characters than the full address when

initiatinga call. communication network users may be allowed to designate agven numberof aDbreviatedaddress
2 abbreviated answer

codes. The allocation of abbreviated address codes to a destination or group of destinations may be changed
as required by means of a suitable procedure. See gr oup ab br ev ia te d-a d dr e s s callin g.

abbreviated anstver. ln radiotelegraph communications, a response to a prelimi- nary call in

which t}re call sign of the calling station is omitted. An abbreviated answer is usually used after
good communication has been established.

abbreviated title. See short title.

abbreviation. See aeronautical communication system abbreviation.

aberration. l. In an optical system, any systematic departure from an idealized path of light

rays forming an image, causing the image to be imperfect. 2. In physical optics, any

systematic departure of a wovefront from its ideal plane or spherical form. Common

aberrations include spherical and chromatic aberra- tion, coma, distortion of image, curvature

of field, and, astigmatism. See chro- matic aberration.

abort. lndata transmission, a function invokedby apimary or secondary sending station

causing the recipient to discard (or ignore) all bir sequences transmitted by the sender since

the precedingflag sequence.

 absent user service. A service furnished by a user (subscriber, customer) to automatically
advise all callers that the called terminal is not available.

absolute coordinate. lndisplay systems, a coordilate, expressed inabsolute coor- dinate data, that identifies an
addressable point tnttle display space onthe display surface of a display device or nthe image storage

space. ltindicatesthedisplace- ment of the given addressable point from the origin of the

particular coordinate system in which it lies. Contrast with relative coordinate.

absolute coordinate data. ln display systems, such as computer interactive CRT display terminals or

faceplates on the end of a coherent bundle of optical fibers, values that specify the actual

coordinates inthe display space onthe display sur- face of a display device or int}re image
storage space. Tll'e absolute coordinate data may, for example, be contained in a computer

program, stored in a storage unit (memory or buffer) within a display device, or recorded on a

hard-copy d.oc- ument, such as a sheet of paper. Ina coherent bundle of optical fibers, the coor-
dinate that specifies the actual physical location in the bundle would constitute absolute
coordiaate data. Contrast with relative coordinate dcfa. Synonymous wit}r absolute data.

absolute data, See absolute coordinate data.

absolute delay. The interval or the amount of time that a signal is delayed. It may be
expressed in time units, such as microseconds, or as a number of charac-
absolute temperature scale 3

/ers, such as pulse times, word times, major cycles, or minor cycles. Also see delay equalizer; delay line.

absolute luminance threshold. The lowest limit of luminance necessary for vi- sual perception
to occur in a person with normal or average vision.

absolute luminosity curve. The plot of spectral luminous efficiency verstswave- length.

absolute magnetic permeability. The ratio of the magnetic flux density, fl to tlae magnetic
field intensity, H, at a point in a material medium. Mathematically lt*bs = Bf H. Also see

incremental magnetic permeability and relative magnetic permeability.

absolute magnification. The magnification produced by a lens placed in front of a o normal eye at

such a distance from the eye that either the rcar focal point of the lens coincides with the center
of rotation of the eye or the front focal point of the eye coincides with the second principal
point of the lens. The obiect must be located close to the front focal point of the lens. This
magnification is numerically equal to the distance of distinct vision divided by the equivalent
/ocal length of the lens, with both distances expressed in the same units.

absolute order. In display systems, a display commdnd that can cause a display device to interpret the data
following the order as absolute coordinate data rathet than relative coordinate data. Contrast
wlthrelative order. The display command can occur in a segment, a display file, or a computer
program, or it may simply be listed in an instruction repertory.
 absolute potential. A voltage (potential difference) between a specified point and ground

(zero potential reference level). An electric circuit element functions with other circuit

elements in accordance with potential differences across its terminals and in accordance
with relative potential differences (bias) maintained between its terminals and the terminals of
the same circuit. However, for the cir- cuit to exist and operate in its environment, the

absolute potential may be signif- icant, requiring that the circuit be insulated from its
environment.

absolute power. The active power developed, dissipated, transferred, or used in a circuit. Also
see d,Br.

absolute refractive index. See refractive index.

absolute signal delay. The time difference between the generation or occurrence of the leading
edge or other point of a signal waveform at the beginnirrgof atrans- mission medium, such as a
waveguide, and the arrival or reception of the corre- sponding point or same edge of the same
signal at the end of the transmission medium; i.e., the transit time from one place to another
for a specified point on a signal waveform.

absolute temperature scale. See Kelvin temperature scale.

4 absolute vector

absolute vector. ln display systems lhathave display devices with display surfaces such as computer
graphic CR I scre ens, fiberscope faceplates, or LED or gas panels, a vector with starting and ending

points that are specified by vectors that originate from a designated point, usually from the

point designated as the origin. Con- trast with relative vector.

absorptance. See internal absorptance and spectral absorptance.

absorption. The transference of some or all of the energy contained inanelectro- magnetic wave
to the substance or medium in which 7t is propagatrng or upon which it is incident. Absorbed
energy from incident or trdnsmitted lightwaves is converted into energy of other forms, usually

heat, within the transmission me- dium, wlth the resultant attenuation of the intensity of

the light beams. See atomic defect absorption; band edge absorption; bulk material
absorption; ex- tramural absorption; fiber absorption; hydroxyl ion absorption; hydroxyl ion
overtone absorption; impurity absorption; infrared absorption; intrinsic absorp- tion; selective
absorption. Also see Bouger's law.

absorption coefficient. The coefficient in the exponent of the absorption equa- tion that expresses Bouger's

law, nameIy,F = Foe-bx,whereFis the electromag- netic (light) flux or intensity at the
point x; Fs is the initial value of flux at x = O; and b is the absorption coefficient. If an

infinitesimally thia layer of absorp- tive material is considered, making x nearly zero, the
 absorption coefficient is proportional to the rate of change of flux intensity with respect

to distance; i.e., it is proportional to the slope of the absorption curve at that point. The

absorp- tion coefficient is a function of wavelength. See spectral absorption coefficient.

Also see absorptivity.

absorption electronic countermeasure. ln electonic warfare, anelectronic coun- termeasure

involving devices and materials that reduce theelecftomagnetic reflec- tivity of a target.

absorption index (AI). 1. The ratio of tll'e electromagnetic radiation absorption constant to
tlre refractive index as given by the relation:

AI = KN4nn
where K is the absorption coefficienr, ), is the wavelength in vacuum, and n is the refractive index of the absorptive
material. 2. The functional relationship between the sun's angle (at any latitude and local time) and
ttre ionospheric absorption.

absorption loss. When a wave travels inatransmission medium, the loss of energy, experienced by
the wave, caused by inffinsic (material) absorption and by impuri- ties consisting primarily of metal

and OH ions in the transmission medium. Absorp- tion losses may also be caused from atomic

defects in the transmission medium.

absorptive modulation. Modulation of a lightwave by variation of the optical absorption

of the transmission medium in which the wave is propagating. The

acceptance angle plotter 5

optical absorption is usually varied by means of an applied electric fietd. oplical absorption
takes place near the edges of ttle absorption band.

absorption peak. ln lightwave transmission media, the specific wavelength at which a

particular impurity absorbs the most power - that is, creates maximum attenuation of the

propagated lightwaves. Absorption by these impurities at other wavelengths is less than

the absorption peak. Glass, quartz, silica, and plas- tics used in optical fibers, slab dielectric

waveguides, integrated optical circuits, and similar devices, usually display absorption peaks.

Particular impurities that cause absorption peaks are copper, iron, nickel, chromium, manganese,

and hy- droxyl ions.

absorptivity. The internal absorptance per unit thickness of a material medium. Numerically,
 absorptivity is unity minus the transmissivity. Also see absorption coefficient and

transmissivity.

AC. Alternating curuent.

accentuated contrast. ln transmission systems involving the transmission of im- ages, such as facsimile or optical
fiber systems, the contrast in a picture or docu- ment that is produced when it is required that
elements witl:' a luminance less than a specified value be transmitted as nominal black and that
elements with a lumi- nance greater than a specified value be transmitted as nominal white, while
all values in between are transmitted at their respective level.

accept. li data tansmission, the condition assumed by aprimary or secondary station upon accepting a
correctly received frame for processing.

acceptance angle. The maximum angle, measured from the longitudinal axis or centerline of an optical

fiber to anincident ray, within which the incident ray will be accepted for

transmission along the fiber, that is, total internal reJ'lection of the incident ray occurs.
If the acceptance angle for the fiber is exceeded, total internal reflection will not occur and the
incident ray will be lost by leakage, scattering, diffusion, or absorption in the cladding. The

acceptance angle is dependent upon the refrdctive indices of the two mediathat determine tlle
critical angle. Fot a cladded fiber in air, the sine of the acceptance angle is given by the square

root of the difference of the squ:ues of the indices of refrac- tion of the fiber core and the

cladding. In mathematical notation, sin 0 = (no2 - ,r')'/" where d is the acceptance angle,
ns is the refractive index of the core, and n1 is the refractive index of. the cladding.
Synonymous withacceptance one- half angle andwithcollection angle. See maximum acceptance
angle; totalaccep- tance angle.

acceptance angle plotter. A device capable of varying the incidence angle of. a nar- row beam that is

incident upon a surface (such as the end face ofan optical fiber) and measuring the intensity of

the transmitted light, i.e., the light coupled into

6 acceptance cone

the fiber for each angular position of lll:e source relative to the face of the incident surface (i.e., the incidence
angle). See Figure A-2.
 A-2. An acceptance anfleplotter schematic. acceptance cone. A solid angle whose
included apex angle is equal to twice the acceptance angle. Rays of light within the acceptance
and still maintain total internal
cone can be coupled into the end of. an optical fiber
reflection for all the
rays in the cone. Typically, an acceptance cone is 40o.

acceptance one-half angle. See acceptance angle.

acceptance pattern. For an optical fiber or liber bundle, a curve of. total trans' mitted power
plotted against ttre launch angle. Thle total transmitted power or radiation intensity is
dependent upon the incident intensity, launch angle (input or incident angle), the transmission
coefficienf at the fiber interface, and the illu' mination atea.

acceptancetrials, Trials or tests carried out by representatives of the eventual users of

equipment to determine if specified performance characteristics have been met.

accepted. See call-accepted signal.

accepted signal. See call-not-accepted signal.

acceptor. In an intrinsic semiconductiag material (such as germanium or silicon), a dopant (such

as gallium that has nearly the same electronic bonding structure as the intrinsic material, but with
one less elecfton among its valence electrons than that required to complete the intrinsic bonding
structural pattern. This pattern leaves a "space" ot "hole" for one electron for each dopant atom
in the structure. The dopant atoms are relatively few and are far apart and hence do not interfere
with the electrical conductivity of the intrinsic material. An electron from a
access denial 7

neighboring intrinsic material atom can fill the hole at the dopant site, leaving a hole from

whence it came; thus, the hole can appear to move or wander about, although with less

mobility than the electrons that are free and that are excess to donor ztoms. Also see donor;
hole.

access. The ability to approach, store, or retrieve data;to communicate with or to make use

of any resource (component) in communication sys_ tem. See closed user group with

outgoing ac sion multiple access (cDMA); direct access; dual access; failure o cr
division multiple access; multiple Lccess; pulse-address multiple access; remote access;

sdtellite access; satellite-switched time-division multiple access (ss-TDMA); serial access;

space-division multiple-access (sDMA); spread-spectrum multiple-access (ssMA); time-

division multiple access ( TDMA ).

access attempt. The process by which one or more users interact withatelecom- munication system in

order to enable initiation of user information transfer. An accessattempt

beginswithanissuanceof anaccessrequestbyanaccessoriginator. An access attempt ends

either jn access success or in access failure, Also see oc ce s s re qu es t; calle d-p ar ty cam p -o n ; c

allin g-par ty ca m p -on.

access-barred signal. rn a communication system, a signal sent in the backward direction indicating that a

call will not be completed because of a called or calling n.rer (subscriber, customer) facitity

requirement. This may occur as a result of fail- ure of a closed user group validation check or

because of anincoming-calls-barred facility.

access category. A class to which a user (person, program, process, or equipment) of a system

may be assigned based on the resources each useris authorized to use.

access code. The preliminary digits that a user must dial or key to be connected to a particular

outgoing trunk, channel, or line.

access control. l. Actions taken to permit or deny use of the components of a

communication system, 2. The process of limiting access to the resources of a system to

authoized, users. synonymous with controlted access and with con- tr olle d a c ce s sibility.

to enable signals tobe

access coupler. A unit placed between optical fiber ends withdrawn

from or entered into an optical fiber cable that is passing through the junction, station, or

position. For example, a mixing rod. Also see coupler.

access denial. l. Access failure due either to the issuing of a system blocking signal by a
communication sy stem that does not include provision for calling-party camp-on. 2. To

exceed the maximum access time and nominal sy stem access time fraction during an access

attempt. synonymous with system blocking. Also see blocking; system blocking signal.
8 accessdenial ProbabilitY

access-denial probability. The ratio of access attempts that result inaccess denial (system
blocking) to total access attemptr counted during a measurement period.

due to access denial (system

access-denial time. Elapsed time between the start of anaccess attempt andaccess failure

blocking). Access denial times are measured

only on access attempts that result in access denial.
access digit. ln automatic telephone direct outward dialing, a digit that enables access to outside a local
switchboard or exchange. The access digit is dialed be- fore the long distance number. It is
usually dialed before artarea code number. It is often a I or a 9.

. In a communication system, an unsuccessful access that results in termination of an

access failure
accessattempt in any manner other than initiation of user in' formation transfer between the
intended source and destination (sink) witlrin the specified maximum access time. Access
failure can be the result of access denial (system blocking), user blocking, orincorrect access.
Also seeaccess srtc' cess; blocking; system blocking signal.

access line. The part of a circuit between a user and a switching center. Also see data link. See
dual'use access line; marked-access line; network access line; special grade access line.

access list. A catalog of users (persons, programs, processes, equipment) and the access categories to which each is
assigned.

access originator. ln a communication system, the function entity responsible for initiating a
particular access attempt An access attempt can be initiated by a source uEer, a destination user, ot
the communication system itself. Also see drs- engage m e n t o riginat or.

access period. The time interval during which access rights prevail.

accessphase. Inacommunication system, thefirstphaseof anlnformdtiontrans' fer transaction and the phase

during which an access attempf is made. Also see disengagement phase ; information transfer phase.

access plan. See demand-assignment access plan; predssignment access plan.

accesspoint. lnatelephonesystem,ajunctionpointinanoutsideplant:asemi' permanent

cable arrd distribu'
splice point at a junction between a branch feeder tion cables; or a point at
which connections may be made for testing or utilization of particular communication circuits.

access request. A control message issued by anaccess originator for the purpose of initiating
anaccess dttempt. Also see access attempt.

access-rights terminal. See multiple-access-rights-terminal.

accruacy g

access success. rn a communication system, termination of an access attempt in such a

manner that user information canbe transferred, betweenthe intended source and

destination (sink) withn the specified maximum access time. Also see acce$ failure.

access success ratio. The ratio of the number ofaccess successes tothe total num- bet of access

attempts counted during a measurement time period. The ratio can be converted to a

percentage by multiplying by 100.

access time. l. In a communication system, the elapsed time between the start of an access
 attempt and access success. Access time values are measured only on access attempts that
result in access success. 2, In a computer, the time interval between the instant at which

delivery of dato is completed, or the time interval between the instant at which data arc

requested to be stored, and the instant at whicla storage is started. See maximum access time.

accommodation. A function of the human eye, whereby the eye,s total refrac- tion power

(accomplished by a neuromuscular feedback system from the fovea of the retina to

muscles that cause the lens to thin or thicken) is varied in order for the eye to clearly see

obiects at different distances.

accommodation limits. The distances from an observer to the nearest and farthest points at which

an image of an object can be clearly focused on the retina of the eye of the observer.

Accommodation limits are usually 4 to 5 in. and infinity.

accountability. rn communiciation system security, the quality or state that enables

violations or attempted violations of system security to be traced to spe- cific persons who

may then be held responsible.

accou number assigned toitems listed the producing organiza_ tion a ols required for the
item.

accounting symbol. ln a communication system, a combination of letters used in message

headings to identify ttre organization that is financially responsible for the message.

accumulator. l A device containing a register that stores a quantity and, when a second

quantity is delivered to the device, forms the sum of the quantity standing in the register and

the second quantity, and stores the result. 2. Astorage register. 3. A storage battery.

accuracy. l. Aqualityof thatwhichisfree of error.2.Aqualitativeassessmentof freedom

from error, a high assessment corresponding to a small error. 3. A quanti- tative measure of

themagnitudeof enor,preferably expressedasafunctionof therel- ative error, a high value of

this measure corresponding to a small error. Also see pre- cision. see frequency accuracy;

frequency standard accuracy; timing tracking accuracy.

10 achromat
 achromat. A compound lens corrected to have tt'e same focal length for at least two different
wavelengths of. light passing through the lens. Also see achromatic; achromatic lens.

achromatic. Free from color or hue. For example, at optical system free from chromatic
aberration. Also see achromat.

achromatic lens. A lens, consisting of two or more elements or parts, usually made of crown
that has been corrected so that r of at least two
and flint glass, /rgft
selected wavelengths is
at a single point on the optical axis. Also see
focused achromat.

ACK. The acknowledge transmission control character.

acknowledge (ACK) character. l. A transrnission control character transmitted by a station as an affirmative

response to the station with which a connection has been set vp. 2. A transmission conftol
character transmitted by a receiver as an affirmative response to a transmitter. An acknowledge
character may also be used as an accuracy control character. Lboseenegative acknowledge (NAK)
character.

acknowledgement sigral. A signal generated at the receiving end of a communi- cation circuit to confirm
the receipt of signaling digits from the sending equip- ment and sent back to the sending
equipment. See circuit-released acknowledge' ment signal.

acoustical conduction. The conduction of sound as longitudiaal compressional waves in an elastic

material medium. Energy exchanges wTth phonons can occur, which affects electrical conductive,
magnetic, and quantum electronic properties of the material medium.

acoustic coupler. 1. Equipment that generates and usessound-wave codestoper- mit data transmission
via telephone /izles. Sound modulation of light sources call. be used as transducers between sound wave,
and wires
lightwave, and electrical current trans- mission devices, such as between optical fibers
encounteredinthe trans'
mission of signals. 2. A device that enables digital data to be transmitted
over cir- cadfs designed to accept sound waves ot pulses that have been converted to mod' ulated
electrical currents, radio waves, microwaves, or lightwaves for transmission. For example, an
acoustic coupler could produce from sound waves electric cur- rents, which could be used to
modulate the output of alaser or LED for driving an optical fiber.

acoustic noise. An undesired disturbance power ot noise intlae audio frequency range.
actinometry ll

aco'stics. The branch of science and technology that is concerned with the pro_ duction,

transmission, control, processing, transformation, raaaption, "no errects of sound,

particularly as vibration, p..t*i", or elastic *.u., u.rd snoJ prrenom- ena in material

media. Also see phonons,

 acoustic sensor. See optical fiber acoustic sensor.

acoustic wave. See sound wave.

acoustooptic (a-o). Pertaining to the interaction of optical andacoustic waves. Also see

acoustooptic effect.

acoustooptic (a-o) modulator. A modulator that uses the acoustooptic effect to modulate

alightwave caruier,

acoustooptic effect. The changes in diffraction grati.!,gs or phase patterns pro- duced in a

transmission medium conducting a lightwave when the medium is sub- jected to a sound

(acoustic) wave, due tothephotoelasticchangesthatoccur. The acoustic waves might be

created by a force developed by an impinging sound wave, the piezoelectric effect, or

magnetostriction. The effect .un b" ,r-r.Jt omodulate alight beam in a material since many

properties, such as light-conducting velocities, reflection and transmission coefficients at

interfaces, acceptanc, ong-rrr, criticar angles, and transmission modes, are dependent upon

the diffractive changes that occur. Also see acoustooptic: photoelastic.

acoustooptics. The study and application of the interrelation of acoustics and optics.

Synonymous wittr optoacoustics.

acquisition. l- rnsatellite communicotion systems, the process of lockingtrack_ ing

equipment on a signal from a communication sateilite. 2.rnradar,the process of locking a

tracking radar on a moving object (target). '

acquisition tadar. Radar used to detect and locate targets to be tracked by the tracking radar,

scanning is required of acquisition radar. Acquisitionradarmain- tains continuous

surveillance of a sector or area. It obtains position data, such as height, azimuth, and

direction of moving objects (targets, aiicraft) anJpasses this data to the tracking radar.

synonymous with surveillrance radar,

acquisition time. 1. In a communication system, the amount of time required to attain

synchronism. 2. rn sateilite communications, the time required for locking tracking

equipment on a signar from a communication satellite- see Jyri- ch r oniz ati o n a c quisitio n
 tim e.

actinometry. The science of measurement of radiant energy, particularly that of the sun.
12 action

action. In quantum mechanics, the product of the total energy in a stream of photons and

the time during which the flow occurs. Or, mathematically,

m A=h t finli i= |

where /. is the ith frequency; n. is the number of photons of the ith frequency; and /, is the
time duration of the ith frequency, summed over all the frequencies, t photons, and time

durations of each in a given light beam or beam pulse; andh is Planck's constant. Also
seeP/anck's constant. See ffacer action.

action addressee. The organization, activity, or person required by tll^e message originator to take the action
specified in a message. Alsoseeexempted addressee; informa fion addres s ee.

action office. The office or action addressee required to take the action speci- fied in a message.

activated chemical vapor deposition process (PACVO). See plasma-activated chemical vapor deposition process
(PACVD). \

active. See mark-active ; space-active.

active atom. See radioactive atom,

active communication satellite. A communication satellite that fiansmits a sig- nal, in contrast to a passive
satellite that only reflects a signal. It contains at least one receiver-amplifier-transmitter unit
that automatically relays messages from an earth station. It usually receives, regenerates, processes,
and retransmits signals between earth stations. Also see passive communication satellite.

active connector. See optical fiber active connector.

active detection system. A system that emits electromagnetic radiation to deter- mine the
existence, location of source, nature, and type of received radiation. The system usually consists
of. early warning radar, height-finders, andacquisition (surveillance) and tracking radar.

active device. A device containing a source of energy, tl:'e output of which is a function of
present and past input signals that modulate the output ofthe energy source. For example, an

operational amplifier, anoscillator, affansistor, aphoto- multiplier, a laser, a maser, or a

photodetector opetating on photovoltaic pin- ciples (in which case tll.e light source is
the outside energy source). Contrast with passive device.
 active sonar l3

active electronic countermeasure. rn erectronic warfare, an erectronic counter_ measure that

produces detectable electromagnetic radiation, This can include electronic iamming and

electronic deception.

active filter. A filter that requires power to perform its function. Also see passive
filter.

active homing. pertaining to a missile-to-target guidance system in which the missile

tracks radiation that is originated by the missile itself and that is reflected by the target.

The missile contains the radar transmitter and,receiver. Also see passive h oming ; semiactive

h oming.

active infrared device. An infrared (IR) device that contains a source of IR ra- diation.

Active IR devices include sniper scopes, night visionsurveillance devices, and IR

searchlights. These devices are subject to iamming by other IR sources, such as fires,

furnaces, and the sun. Thev are relatively i*-.r.r. to deception-type electronic

countermeasure,s. Also see passive infrared d.evice.

active laser medium. A materiar that actuaty rases. For example, crystar, gas, glass, liquid, or

semiconductors. synonymous withactive materiar;raser medium; lasing medium.

active material, See active laser medium.

active network' A network that includes a power source. Also see passive net- work.

active optical countermeasure. An optical countermeasure that makes use of an emission of a

signal or substance, for example smoke screens, unidirectional aerosol (micron-sized) clouds,

high-intensity flares, flashing lights on board aircraft, or techniques that produce

illusions or psychological effecis by optical means.

active optics. The development and .'se of opticar components, the characteris_ tics of which

are controiled during their operational use in order to modify the characteristics of an

electromagnetic wave in tjhe visible or near-visible region of the frequency spectrum.

 Such characteristicsinclude thewavefrontdirection, the polarization modulation, or the

transmission mode, intensity, or path. This is in contrast to inactive, rigid, or fixed optics

in which the components are not varied, with primary attention being given to

measurement and control of wave fronts or rays in real time in order to concentrate

radiated energy on a detector, target, waveguide, or other de.iice. Contrast with Jixed

optics.

active particle, See radioactive particle.

active sonar. sonar that relies upon reception of a sound wave reflected by an object (target)

against which a sound wave was launched. Also see passive sonar,
14 active time
active time all the interval time. time spent of Time an in information spent tlle access in the phas info ffan exit state, and all
A user's active time excludes
time outside tlne service r phase within the user service ment phase, the idle state, tlre time interval'
playback recorder, o r
active wiretapping. transmitter-rlceiver, circuit for the falsifying control The unauthorized attaching of
computer terminal, to a communication
a device, such as a telephone, purpose signals, of or obtaining altering the access messages to
data of by users'
generating false messages,
activity. Servtce, activity.
function, In communications, or operation. an See organization mean circuit that activity; performs {adioactivity; a
communicdtion sun-spot
activity tl;e busy factor. hour that For a signal a communication is present in ttle channel, channel'
the percentage of time during
actual transfefted transfer per rate. unit time The between average number two points of binary whether digits, accepted
characters, or not ot accepted blocks
as valid at the receiving Point.
A-D. Analog-digital.
ADA. A computer Pr tions with caPabilities bilities found onlY in with grams. can "o*-on be the It packaged. usual
language
serves control
for programming large-scale real-time
the The need language of modularity is the whereby result and of the a collective data
defense
types effort and subprograms
systems.

to design a
adaptation. See dark addptdtion; light adaptdtion'
adapter.Seehomingadapter;panoramicadapter;right-angleadapter'
adapter circuit. See line adapter circuit,
adaptive handling channel channel allocation. capacities are A not method predetermined of multiplexing but are in assigned which
theinformation
on demand.
LPC. Also see linear predictive coding'
addressable point l5
 adaptive technique. See coherent optical adaptive technique.

added bit. rn a communication system, a bit d,elivered to the intended destina_ tion user in

addition to intended user information bits and deliverea overhead bits' Synonymous

with extra bit. Also see bit-count integrity; character-count integrity ; deleted bit.

added block. Any block or other group of Dirs delivered to the intend ed, desti_ nation user in

addition to intended user information bits and delivered overhead Difs. Synonymous with

extra block. Also see deleted block.

added-block probability. The ratio of added blocks to total blocks received by a specified

destination user duing a measurement period. Synonymous with extra block

probability.

adder. output represents the sum of its inputs, for example a logical he logical surn

(sum without carryj and an arithmetic adder metic sum of its inputs. See binary

add,er; modulo_two adder;

additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). See white noise.

add-on security. Additional protective measures, hardware or software, adopted after

acommunication system, computer, or other systen has become operational.

mea of a display mbe Display sur_ ude n of aCRT, anL

addressable horizontal positions. See display line.

addressable point. Any coordinate position that can be addressed in the dl..r- play space

onthe display surface of a display device. The number of addressable points within a

specified display space is a measure of the addressability of the display space, Usually,
 the addressable positions are finite in number and form a discrete rectangular or polar

coordinate grid over the display space.

l6 addressable vertical positions

addressable vertical positions. See display column.

address calling. See group abbreviated-address calling'

address calling facility. See multiaddress calling facility'

address code. See cable address code.

address designator. A combination of characterr or pronounceable words desig- nated for use in
or other
zessa ge headings to identify an organization, authority, unit, communication facility,

entity; or to assist in the transmission and deliv-

ery of messages. The four classes of address
designators ate call signs, address groups, plain language address designators, and routing indicators.
Synonymous with statiotl designator.

addressee. The organization, activity, oI person to whom a messLge is directed by tlle message
originator. Addressees are often indicated asaction, information, or exempted addressees. Also
see action addressee; exempted addressee; infor- tion addressee.

address field. ln data transmission and particularly in high-Ievel data link proto- col, the
sequence of birs immediately following the opening flag sequence of a frame identifying the
station that is transmitting a response frame or that is des- ignated to receive a command frame.

to include more
address field extension. ln data transmission, an enlargement of the address field
addressinginformation.

address group. l. In radiotelephone communication systems, the word that means that the
group that follows isanaddress indicating group' 2. Astation or address designator usually
consisting of a group of four letters assigned to repre- sent organizations, authorities, activities,
units, or geographic locations and used primarily for the forward and backward addressing of
messages. See collective address group; coniunctive address group; geogrctphic address group'

address group allocation. The assignment of individual address groups to speci- fied elements of
an organization, activity, unit, or geographic location'

address indicating group (AIG). A station or address designator, often used by the military to
represent a set of specific and frequently recurring combination of action or information
addressees. The identity of lhe message originator may also be included in the AIG. An address
group is assigned to each AIG for use as an address designator. See international address indicating
group; national ad- dress indicating grouq.

address indicating group allocation. The assignment of dddress indicating groups to specified
groups of elements of an organization, activity, or unit, or to a group of geographic locations.
adjacent nodes 17
address multiple access. See pulse-address multiple access.

address tion or that part. identifies The portion the register of a computer in which the word operands that identifie are stored

s the or storage held. roca- address pattern. See frame synchronization pattern,
address separator. The selection signal.

address signal. A signal end-of-number indicator, or other entity.

character that separates the different addresses in a

containing of the addres,y one of element, an addressee, such as user, a decimal network digit facility, or an add-without-carry
gate. See EXCLUSIVE-OR gate.
both or channel. caused signals or adjacent both neighboring of received by of the channel 2. the inability neighboring

Interference neighboring channels at interference. the to frequency discriminate frequencies, of tn frequencies. a the

receiver l. frequency of Extraneouspower either (fine or operating by tune) or spectrum, high-powered both because at

of a from given the The of transmissions a immediately frequency signal drifting interference in of anadjacent caused
either at adjacent can either by be or criminating adjacent signals in channel an or adjacent differentiating selectivity.

channel. between The degree the to signals which in a the receiver desired is channel capable and of dis- the adjacent directly

connected domains. to ln each distributed other by data a data processing link with systems, no intervening two domains

domains. that are adjacent other by one nodes. or more rn a data network, links with two no nodes intervening that are nodes.
directly connected to each
18 administration

administration. It telecommunication system control, a governmental agency responsible for

practices, and
implementation of telecommunication standards, regulations, recommendations,
procedures'

administrative network. A communication network that is used for the exchange of messages of
a nonoperational nature, operational messages of a nonurgent nature, messages that contain
administrative information in contrast to opera- tional information, or messages containing
information needed to operate a com' munication network.

straints, opera-
administrative security. Security tional procedvres, accountability
to provide an ons or devices'
acceptable level of protection aga to the information in a

computer' communication, ot olll.er system'

ADP. Automatic data Processing.

ADPE. Automatic data processing equipment'

ADPS. Automati| data processing system.

 advantage. See range advantoge.

advisory station. See aeronautical advisory station'

aerial cable. A communication cable installed on or suspended from a pole or other overhead
structure.

aerial insert. In a buried cable run, a raising of the cable followed by an overhead run usually on
poles, followed by a return to the ground, in places where it is not possible oi practicat to bury a
cable, such as might be encountered in crossing a deep ditch, a canal, a river, or a subway line. See
Figure A-3'

aerial insert

po1 es

round I evel

A-3. An aerial insert in abwied cable.

aeronautical multicom service 19

aerial optical cable. An optical cable d,esigned for use in overhead suspension, such as from

towers or poles.

aerodrome control service. Communication octivities and services used for the control of

operations in an airport or aerodrome.

aeronautical advisory station. An aeronautical station used for advisory and civil defense

communications with private aircraft stations.

aeronautical broadcasting station. l. An aeronautical station that makes sched_ lrled broadcasts

of meteorological information and notices to airmen. In certain in$tances, an aeronautical

broadcast station may be placed on board a ship or air_ craft' 2. Anaeronautical station that

broadcasts meteorological information and notices to airmen.

aeronautical communication system abbreviation. An abbreviation of frequently ,.ed words

and expressions that may be used, when authorized, by operators in the aeronautical-

mobile service to facilitate copying of voice transmissions.

 aeronautical emergency frequency. see international aeronautical emergency frequency.

aeronautical fixed service. A radio communication service between specified fixed

locations, intended for the ftansmission of information relating to air nav_ igation and the

preparation for, and safety of, flight.

aeronautical fixed station. A station in tt'e aeronautical fixed service.

aeronautical marker beacon station. A radionavigation land station in the aero_ nautical

radionavigation service that provides a signal to designate a small area above the

station. In certain instances, an aeronautical marker beacon station may be placed on

board a ship or aircraft.

aeronautical mobile service (AMS). A radio communication mobile gervice among

aircraft stations and aeronautical stations, or among aircraft stations, in whicln

survivalcraft stations may also participate.

aeronautical multicom land station. At aeronautical station operating in the aeronautical

multic om service.

aeronautical multicom mobile station. A mobile station operating in tjhe aero- nautical

multicom service.

aeronautical multicom service. A mobile service not open to public communica_ tion and

used to provide communication essential to activities being performed by, or directed

from, private aircraft,

20 aeronautical radio beacon station

aeronautical radio beacon station. A radionavigation land station in the aero- nautical radio
navigation service. The emissions of the station are intended to enable aircraft or other mobile
service elements to determine their bearings or their direction in relation to the aeronautical radio
beacon station.

aeronautical radio navigation service. A radionavigation service intended for the benefit of
persons engaged in navigation of aircraft to assist them in the per- formance of their tasks.

aeronautical station. A land station in the aeronautical mobile service carrying orL a
communication sertice wit}:. aircraft stations, In certain instances an aero- nautical station may
be placed on board a ship. An aeronautical station may be a guard, secondary , or standby station
 during the flight of an aircraft. See prr mary aeronautical stdtion; secondary aeronautical station.

aeronautical station master log. A brief record of major or significant events that occur at an
aeronautical station during a radio day, including station identifica- tion, time of station
opening and closing, date, pertinent actions, interruptions, troubles, failures, and supervisors'
signatures. Also see position log.

aeronautical telecommunication log. A record of the activities of an aeronau- tical t ele com
muni ca tio n s tdtion,

aeronautical telemetering land station. A telemetering land station used in the flight testing
of manned or unmanned aircraft, missiles, or major components thereof.

aeronautical telemetering mobile station. A telemetering mobile station used in the flight testing
of manned or unmanned aircraft, missiles, or majorcomponents thereof.

aeronautical utility land station. A land station located at airdrome control towers and
used for control of ground vehicles and aircraft on the ground at air- dromes (airports).

aeronautical utility mobile station. A mobile stdtion used for communication, at airdromes
(airports), with the aeronautical utility landstation, groundvehicles, and aircraft on the
ground. All transmissions are usually subject to the control of the airdrome control station
and are usually discontinued immediately when so requested by the airdrome control operator.

gate.
A-except-B gate. See A-AND-NOT-B

AF. Audio frequency.

AFRS. Armed Forces Radio Service.

aiming circle 2l
AGC. Automatic gain control.
vate agency. operating see communication agency (TPOA). agency; operating agency; telecommunication pri- aggregate bit rate.
See multiplex aggregate bit rate.

agile radar. See frequency agile radar,

agility. See frequency agility.

Al. Absorption index.
aid. See radio landing aid; radionavigation aid; runway approach aid.
aided all mechanism three tracking. variables is maintained.

A together, system of in tracking which a a constant rat}et in rate azimuth, of motion elevation, of the range, ot tracking
aids service. See Meteorological Aids Service.

navigation aid-to-navigation. (SHORAN). see long-range aid to navigation (L1RAN); short-range aid to AlG. Address
indicating group.
A-IGNORE-B gate. A two-input binary, logic coincidence circuit or device whose trol signal that enables the gate to thignore

mpletely input signal gate. disregard and See completely the Figure B input A-4. inde_ sig_ IN0 1 B IN
A0
00
a
OUT

I1
A-4. A table showing ttre input and outptt;t digits of an A-IGNOR-E_B gate.
aiming circle. An aiming symbol that has a circular shape.
22 aiming field

aiming field. The area in tt.e display space on t}:.e display surface of a display device covered or bounded by
anaiming symbol.

aiming symbol. A pattern of light used to guide the positioning of a light-pen or to indicate the
area in the display space ol ttre display surface of a display device within which the presence of a

light-pen can be detected at a given time. For ex- ample, a circle, square, angle, or pair of brackets
of light on a CRT screen, fiber- scope faceplate, LED or gas panel, or ink on a plotter bed. Also
see aiming circle andaiming field.

A-implies-B gate. See .B-OR-NOT-A gate.

air-air communications. Communication methods, systems, or equipment used for the

transmission of. messages containing information about air-air (aircraft sta- tion to aircraft
station) operations or facilities; to or from air unitsin flight;or for the purpose ofusing,
directing, or coordinating air units in flight.

airborne command post. A suitably equipped aircraft used by a commander for the control of
units involved in an operation, such as military, Iescue, fire fighting, crop dusting, police,
evacuation, disaster, or emergency medical operations.

airborne direction-finding recorder. A direction-finding recording device that records all

intercepts so that detailed analysis can be made by processing units to ascertain signal parameters.
Typicalmanual systems include the operator's wlitten logs, audio andvideo ftlagnetic recordings,

^nd photography. airborne direction-finding unit. A direction-finding unit that uses a

portion of the receiver output to visually display rel7tive bearings from an aircraft station to
another transmitter. The emitter location is thus determined through compu- tation of a series
of relative bearings versus aircraft headings and through polari- zation of. the received signal. The
polarization of the received signal is determined using specialized antenna circuitry.

airborne early warning, Pertaining to systems, devices, personnel, and proce- dures used to
detect and signal the approach of airborne or space vehicles.

airborne early warning net. A network of airborne radar equipment that pro- vides long-range detection,
identification, and relaying of t}1.e radar signdls to land, aircraft, or ship stations,

airborne intercept radar. ln military communication systems, a radar carried aboard aircraft
on an airbolne interception mission. Airborne intercept radal equipment is in contrast to
ground radar. Ground radar acquires a strike attack force and tracks it so that interceptor

aircraft can be guided (vectored) toward it. In most cases an airborne intercept radar

performs two separate functions: search (scan) and track (lock-on). In some of the latest type
 airborne intercept radar, these functions are combined into one track-while-scan airborne
intercept radar set. See track-while-scan airborne intercept radar.
aircraftsignatureidentification 23

airborne interception. 1. Pertaining to the location, identification, and mainte- nance of

contact with airborne objects (targets) such as missiles, aircraft,and other airborne vehicles.

2. The interception of a mobile object (target) or vehicle by means of an airborne vehicle,

such as an atrcraft or missile.

airborne radar. See side-looking airborne radar.

airborne radar jammer, A jammer carried aboard an aircraft and used to iam ground,

ship, or aitborne radar.

airborne radar warning system. A wideband system capable of detecting radar signals in several

frequency bands and capable of performing an analysis of the threat. It usually is capable

of providing video information to the aircrew.

airborne radio direction finding. The conduct of airborne search, intercept, di- rection

finding, range estimation, and signal analysis of radar andcommunication emitters.

air-circuit-breaker switchgear. See low-voltage enclosed air-circuit-breaker switchgear.

air communications. See air-air communications; airwaysfair communications; rnaritime air

communications ; surface-to-air communications.

air control authority. See maritime air control authority.

aircraft call sign. Aircraft signal letters or identification numbers used as an in- ternational call
sign,

aircraft communication standard plan. A table listing standard communication equipment recommended
as minimum equipment for long-range maritime patrol aircraft.

aircraft control-warning system. A system consisting of observation facilities, including

radar, passive electronic, visual, or other observation means, control centers, and necessary
communications, established to control and report the movement of aircraft.

aircraft emergency frequency. Aninternational aeronautical emergency frequen- cy f.or aircraft

stations and stations concerned with safety and regulation offlight along national or
 international civil air routes and maritime mobile service sta- tions authoized to

communicate for safety purposes. An aircraft emergency fre- quency is 121.5 MHz.

aircraft signature identification. A technique for identifying aircraft by properly anaTyzing and
cataloging the way the compressor and turbine blades ofjet engines modulate radar signals. This
technique provides a capability of identifying and discriminating between different aircraft,
discriminating between decoys and war-
24 aircraft station

head missiles, and discriminating among other moving objects when sufficient signatures of
the modulation arc available. Also see radar signature.

aircraft space vehicle station. . l. A radio station or radar station located in an aircraft or air-
2. A, mobile radio or radar station in the aeronautica! mobile ser' vice, located on board an
aircraft or air-space vehicle. See Figure A-5.

t
systems, and the weapon systems of an air-defense system.
A-5. Cutting connector cables for an aircraft station. (Courtesy Corporate Communications of Wyle Laboratories
Department.)

air-defense integrate the command-control-cornmunication operationsthe facilities used to the

of the passive detection network. systems, All active detectiott

air-defense used defense for situations; transmission communications. to of or messages from Communication air-defense
containing units, methods, information facilities, systems, about oI communication or military equipment air-
 activities; or for the purpose of directing, coordinating, or conducting air-defense operations.
air-sea rescue frequency Zs

air-defense communication system. A communication systemestablished among ground, air, and sea units to permit recognition of

aircraft by visual, radar, or other means, and to transmit the information obtained to appropriate units.

air dielectric coaxial cable. A coaxial cable with air between the inner and outer conductors and with insulating spacers at intervals

to maintain separation of the conductors, The cable may be used for transmission lines from a transmitter to an antenna.

air'ground communication emergency frequency. A frequency to be used during emergencies primarily for contact purposes rather

than as a working frequency for handling the emergency situation itself . Aeronautical communication systems use 1 21.5 or

243.0 MHz as emergency frequencies.

air-ground communications. l. Two-way communications between aircraft sta- tions and land stations, 2. Communication methods,

systems, or equipment \sed. for transmission of messages from air-to-ground and from ground-to-air stations, containing

information about air and ground units, or for the purpose of using, directing, or coordinating air and ground units.

air'ground worldwide communication system. A worldwide military network of ground agencies and stations that provide a two-

way communication link between aircraft and ground stations for navigation and control, including air route traffic control.

The system may also provide support for civil aircraft providing support to military missions, for meeting communication

requirements for aircraft flying distinguished visitors, and for other special functions.

air net. See ship-air net; ship-to-air net.

air operations communication net. see maritime tactical air operations commu- nication net.

air portable. Pertaining to material that is suitable for transport by an aircraft loaded internally or externally, with no more

than minor dismantling and reas- sembling.

air surface detection equipment, l. A radiolocdtion device employed for air landing surface surveillance to determine the

distribution of equipment on air- port surfaces. 2. A device for locating the landing surfaces of an airport.

air radio organization. See mdritime air radio organization,

air reporting net (ARN). See maritime patol air reporting net (ARN),

air-sea rescue frequency. See scene-of-air-sea rescue frequency.

26 air sounding
air conditions sounding, usually Measuring by means atmospheric of apparatus phenomena carried by or balloons determining or rockets. atmosp

empty space doublet. between ln optics, them. a compound lens of two elements or parts with air air-supported core Figure core and in 4'-6. order t

to insrre An to total optical provide internal fiber a refractive that reflection relies index on of lightwaves that air-filled is less space in than
core. of See the the cladding nO
core nl
ladding n.,
i ndex
2
4-6. An air-supported fiber. Since the numeical coupling efliciency can approach 100%. aperture for this case is (n, - no 2 )r/2 , the radio), air mining surveillanc

movements or The other systematic means of aircraft primarily observation and missiles for the of in purpose airspace the airspace of by identifyin

observation. and (radar deter- or nization. air telecommunication organization. see maritime air telecommunication orga- air used an and orderly tr

provide flow control aircraft services of air communications. and traffic. for obstructions, the.purpose communicatfon as of well preventing as

collisions activities between and and maintaining equipment aircraft, airways/air communications. C o m munication used for transmission of messages c

facilities; for transmission of munication facilities; or for the transmission ducting air-related military operations. methods, systems, or equipment

air routes, termi- messages to or from air operation and com- of messages for the purpose of con- refracti ve
aligned bundle 27

alarm. See emergency signal alarm.

alarm center. ln a communication system, a location that receives local and re- mote alarms and control signals. It is usually loc

within a technical control facility.

alarmed cable. See inftusion-resistant communication cable.

alarm rate. See constant false alarm rate (CFAR).

alarm sensor. See variation monitor.

alarm signal. l. A signal that draws the attention of a user or operator, for exam- ple, a bell or a blinking light. 2. ln distress and

rescue communications, a signal that precedes the distress call to operate automatic alerting equipment. lnradio telegraphy, t

alarm signal is normally followed in order by the distress call, an interval of two minutes, the distress call again, and then the

distress message. In radio telephony, the alarm signal is usually followed in order by the distress call and the distress message.
international radio telegraphic Morse code (cIU), a series of 12 dashes is sent in one minute. Each dash is 4 seconds long with a I

second interval between them. In voice, two sinusoidal audio-frequency tones, one of 2200 Hz and the other 1 3 00 Hz are

transmitted alternately. Each tone is 250 milliseconds long. Also see distress traffic. See ship alarm signal.
albedo. A measure of the surface reflective capability of a body that is not self- radiating. For example, earth albedo is 0.39, moon 0.15, mars 0.15,

andvenus 0.59. It is similar to the reflection coefficient applied to the body as a whole. For earth satellites the term is usually

applied to the infrared and visibte frequencies. In connection with incident light and heat at the satellite, which comprise n

only the energy directly received from the sun but also that from the earth and the moon, the greater the albedo of the satellit

itself the less it is heated by solar ray s.

ALGOL 50. A standard block-structured computer programming language used primarily for arithmetic and logical operations

and computations. The name is derived from Algorithmic Language 1960.

ALGOL 58. A block-structured extensible computer programming language used primarily for numeric and logical operations,

s/ringhandling, and record handling. The name is derived from Algorithmic Language 1968.

algorithm. A set of rules or procedures for the solution of a problem, e.g., a com- puter program for evaluatinE T, or e* given x,

usually in a fiaite number of steps and to a stated precision. See encryption algorithm.

aligned bundle. See coherent bundle.

28 alignment
allotment plan.
allotment plan. See frequenqy

alignment. See frame alignment; level alignment; message alignment; octet alignment.
alphabet. 1. An ordered set of all the letters used in alanguage, inclu
signs where appropriate, but not including punctuation marks. 2
alignment connector. See grooved fiber-alignment connector.
used in alanguage. For example, the 26 letters of the Roman alpha
or the 128 ASCII (International Alphabet Number 5) characte
alignment indicator. See message alignment indicator.
phonetic alphabet ; telegraph alpha
alphabet; N-unit code alphabet ;
signal; distributed frame-align-
alignment signal. See bunched frame-alignment ment signal;
alphabetic character set. A character set ll;rat contains letters and
frame-alignment signal; multiframe alignment signal. characters, special characters, and the space character, buI not digits.

alignment time. See out-of'frame alignment time. alphabetic character subset. A character strbset that contains letters a
c te r s, sp e cial ch ara c t e rs, and tb:e s pa ce ch ara c t e r, but not d i gi t s.

Allen belt. See Van Allen belt.

alphabetic code. A code according to which data is represented u
allocation. See adaptive channel allocation; address group allocation; set.
address indicating group
allocation; indicator allocation. Also see
allocation; frequency alphabeticauthorized frequency
coded character set.; A coded character rel whose character set is an alph
assigned frequency.
alphabetic flag. l. Aflag used on an international basis invisual communication
allocation plan. See call-sign dllocation plan.
of the alphabet. 2. lnavisual comtnunication sys- tem, a sqvarc fla
colors is used to represent a letter of the alphabet.
allocation plan. See call-sign allocation plan.
Y
alternate mark inversion (AMI) coding 29
 alphabetic string. Astring consisting solely ofletters from the same alphabet.

alphabetic telegraphy. l. Telegraphy applicable to texts, where coded signals are used, each signal or group of signals corresponding to a characle

such as a letter, figure, or punctuation mark. 2. Telegraphy in which the received charac- ters (signals) are automatically recorded

printed characters. Synonymous with printing telegraphy.

alphabetic word. A word consisting solely of letters from the same alphabet.

alphabet number. See international telegraph alphabet number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

alphabet translation. See transliteration,

alphanumeric. Pertaining toacharactersetthatincludesthelettersof analphabet, numerals, and other symbols such as punctuation marks or mathematical
symbols.

alphanumeric character set. A character set tlrat contains both letters and digits and that may contain control characters, special charac
and the space char- acter.

alphanumeric character subset. A character subset that contains bothletters and digits and may contain control characters, special chardc
and the space char- acter-

alphanumeric code. A code according to which data is represented using both letters and digits, and, possibly, control chalacters, special characters,
the spdce character.

alphanumeric coded character set. A coded character,ref whose character set is an alphanumeric character se t.

alphanumeric data. Data represented by letters and digits, perhaps witl:. special characters and the space character.

alpha particle. The nucleus of a helium atom. It consists of two protons and two neutrons, and has a positive electric charge equivalent
two protons.

alternate communication. See two-way alternate communication.

alternate communication net. A cornmunication net used when other nets break- down or fail due to atmospheric conditions, overload
destruction, saturation, or other reasons.

alternate mark inversion (AMI) coding. See bipolar coding.

30 alternate mark inversion (AMI) sigrral

alternate mark inversion (AMI) signal. Apseudo-ternary signal, conveyingbinary digits, in which successive marks or spaces are of

alternative polarity (positive and negative) but equal in amplitude and in which spaces or marks are of zero ampli- tude. Synonymous

with bipolar signal. Llso see modifted alternate mark inver- sion (AMI) signal; paired-disparity code.

alternate mark inversion (AMI) violation. A mark or space signal that has the same polarity as the previous mark or space signal in the
transmission of alternate mark inversion signals.
 alternate routing. Tll.e routing of a call or message over a substitute route when a given route is unavailable for immediate use.

alternating binary coding. See bipolar coding.

alternating code. See paired-dispdrity code.

alternating current (AC). Electric cutent that is continuously changing in mag- nitude and that reverses its polarity, usually
sinusoidally.

alternation gate. See OR gate.

alternative-denial gate. See NAND gate.

alternative frequency, A frequency or a group of frequencies that may be as- signed for use on any channel, or on a particular channel,
at a certain time or for a certain purpose to replace or supplement the frequencies normally used on that channel.

alternative routing. A process in which substitute routes are used for transmitting rnessages when circuit failures occur on operating
ffansrnission paths ot message backlogs occur. Also see primary route.

alternative-routing indicator. Information sent intll^e forward direction indicat- ing that acall or message has been subjected to analternative routing.

altimeter. See radio altimeter.

altimeter station, A radionaviggtion mobile station in the aeronautical radio- navigation service. Its emissions are used to determine
the altitude above the earth's surface of the aircraft aboard which the altimeter station is located.

altimetry area. See radar altimetry area.

altitude. See azimuth-over-altitude.

altitude-over-azimuth. Pertaining to an a.ntenna mount inwhichtl:.eazimuth axis is tlne primary axis fixed to earth, and the altitude (elevation) drive is
secondary.
amplifying prefix 3l

It is used in moderate latitudes for tracking drifting equatorial satellites where considerable azimuth movement is required.
synonymous with elevation-over_ azimuth.

yAG/LED
aluminum garnet source. See source.

AM. Amplitude modulation.

amateur service. A communication activity of self-trainin g, communication, and technical investigation ca*ied on by amateur radio

operatirs. The operators are duly authorized to operate radio transmitters. The operators are primarily in- terested in radio
techniques and have a personar rather than pecuniary interest.

ambient noise level. The level of acoustic noise existingin a room or other loca- tion, as measured with a sound level meter. It is

usually measured in decibels above a reference level of 0.00002 newton per square meter in sI units, or 0.0002 dyne per square
 centimeter in centimeter-gram-second (cgs) units. Synonymous with room noise level. Also see nol',re,

ambient temperature. The temperature of. air or other media surrounding equip- ment.

AME. Amplitude modulation equivalent.

American (National) Standard code for Information Interchange. see ASCII.

AMl. Alternate mark inversion.

amphibious communication net, See maritime amphibious comrnunication net.

amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. see miqowave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

amplifier. A device that has an output signal that is a function of, and greater than, its input signal. The gain is expressed as a transfer

function and often in positive decibels. Ifthe gain is less than l, ornegative decibels, itisan attenu- ation. see linear-
op e ra ti o n al a m plifie param
logarithmic intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier; low-noise am p lifie r ; r; e tri c a m pli fie r ( p aramp ).

amplifying message. A message that contains information that is in addition to information contained in a previous message.

amplifying prefix. ln communication net operation and nomenclature, a prefix or word that may be used to modify the basic

functional word that describes or names a type of communication net. For example, the words navigation, search, safety, police,

broadcast, medical emergency, amateur, or rescue when used to describe acommunication net, land station, ship station, aircraft

station, orother communication entity that is part of a net.

32 amplifying suffix

amplifying suffix. ln communication net operation and nomenclature, a suffix or word that may be used to modify the basi
functional word that describes or names a type of communication net. It follows the basic functional word, for example, the word
relay or the letters UIIF following the call sign of a radio station.

amplifying switch message. A message that contains detailed information in addition to that contained in a previously sent switch
messdge.

amplitude. The magnitude or ordinate value of a periodic variation or excursion, for example one half of the peak-to-peak (crest-to
trough) value measured in a direction that is transverse to the direction of propagation of awave or measured perpendicular to the time axi

of a time-plot of the wave. Amplitude is a measure of intensity, density, or quantity in lhe space domain rather than of phase ot fre- quency

in the time domain, though one can speak of the amplitude of a phase shift or the amplitud e of a frequency shift. see pulse amplitude
signal amplitude.

amplitude-amplitude distortion. See amplitude distortion,

amplitude distortion. l.Distortion occurringin anamplifier orotherdevicewhen the output amplitude is not a linear function of th
input amplitude under speci- fied conditions. Amplitude distortion is measured with the system operating under steady-state condition
with a sinusoidal fundamental frequency input sig' nal. Wlnen other frequencies are present, the term amplitude refers to that of th
fundamental frequency only. It is usually an undesired variation with respect to the magnitude of the fundamental input. 2. The part o
nonlinear distortion that is an undesired variation. ln a system intended to be linear it is the departure from constancy of the ratio of th
fundamental frequencl component of the response to the magnitude of a sinusoidal excitation. Synonymous with amplitude-ampli
tude distortion. See phase-amplitude distortion.

amplitude equalizer. A device capable of changingormodifyingslgnalamplitude levels, regardless of the type of modulation, of a circu
or system to desired values over some specified range (e.g., frequency range).

amplitude-frequency distortion. See frequency distortion'

characteristic.
amplitude frequency response. See insertion loss versus frequency

amplitude hit. ln a data transmission channel, a momentary disturbance caused by a sudden change in the amplitude of a signal. Also see
hit.

amplitude limiting. See video amplitude limiting.

amplitude modulation (AM). The modulation of the amplitude of a wave sew- ing as a carrier, by another wave serving astl:'e modulatin
signal. The amplitude excursions of the carrier are made proportional to a parameter of the modulating
analog converter 33

signal that bears the intelligence tobe transmitted. seebalanced amplitude modu_ lation ; pulse-amplitude modulation (pAM ).

amplitude modulation equivalent (AME). see compatible sideband transmission.

amplitude quantized control. see amplitude quan tiz ed, sy nchroniza tio n.

amplitude quantized synchronization. rn a signal transmission control system, synchronization in which the functional

relationship between tjne actual phase error and the derived error signal includes discontinuities. In practice this implies that the

working range of phase errors is divided into a finite number of subranges and that a unique signal is derived for each subrange

whenever the error falls within a subrange. Synonymous wlthamplitude quantized control.

amplitude system. See fre quen cy -and-amplitude ( FRE NA ) sy s te rn.

amplitude-versus-frequency distortion. See fre que ncy dis tortion.

AMS. Aeronautical mobile service.

analog. Pertaining to the representation of data or physical quantities in the form of a continuots signal. Usually, the instantan eous

amplitude is a function of the value of the data or physical quantity being represented. Forexample, theinstan- taneous intensity

of. alight beam in an opticat fiber, used to represent the instan- teneous value of the electric wave of an electrocardiogram, is
 considered to be an analog signal. Contrast with digital. Also see discrete.

analog adder. See summer.

analog compression. See analog speech interpolation,

analog computer. A computer in which the variables used to represent data are continuous rather than discrete. For example, electric

currentE and voltages that vary continuously from value to value rather than abruptly, discretely, or as a step. The variables are

represente d. by analog data. components of an analog computer are connected together, tll^e output of one to rhe input of another.

Each compo- nent performs a single function, such as summation, multiplication,integration, or differentiation. Accuracy is

limited by tt'e precision with which the parts are made and the extent to which they will change in value as temperature. humid

ity, pressure, or other factors vary. Analog computers offer a continuous solu- tion to a problem for as long as the inputs are
present and the components are properly connected and functioning. Also see digital computer.

analog control. See analog synchronization.

analog converter. See digital-to-analog (D-A ) converter.

34 analog data

analog datx. Data represented by a physical quantity that is considered to be continuously variable and whose magnitude is made directly
proportional to the data or to a suitable function of the data. Analog data may be considered as the information content of ananalog signal,
ot the signal itself. The information con- tent of the analog signal is conveyed by the value of the magnitude of some char- acteristics of the
signal such as lhe amplitude, phase, ot frequency of avoltage; the amplitude or duration of apulse; the angular position of a shaft; or the
pres- sure of a fluid.

channel, an associated data modulator, and a

analog data channel. A one-way path for data signals that includes a voice- frequency
demodulator.

analog decoding. A process in which one of a set of reconstructed analog signal samples is generated from the digital sigtat representing a
sample. Alsoseeanalog encoding.

analog-digital converter. See analo g-t o-digital c onver ter.

analog-digital encoder. See analog-to-digital encoder.

analog divider. A device whose output analog variable is proportional to the quotient of two input analog variables.

analog encoding. A process in which digital signals are generated, representing the sample taken of an analog signal vabte at a given
instant. Also see analog computer ; uniform encoding.

analog-intensity modulation. ln an optical modulator, the variation of theinten' sity of alight source in accordance with an intelligence-
beaingsignal or continu- ous wave, with the resulting envelope normally being detectable at the other end of alightwave transmission
medium or system.

analog interpolation. See analog speech interpolation.

analog multiplier. A device wlrose output analog variable is proportional to the product of two input analog variables. An analog
multiplier may also be a device that can perform more than one multiplication at a time, for example, a servo- multiplier.

analog representation. A representation of the value of a variable by a physical quantity that is considered to be continuously variable.
The magnitude of the physical quantity is made directly ploportional to the variable or to a suitable function of the variable.
analog-todigital (A-D) converter 35

analog signal. A continuots signal that varies in some direct correlation with an impressed phenomenon, stimulus, or event that
bears intelligence. The signal may assume the form of an electric current variation,light intensity or wavelength variation,

electromagnetic wave amplitude, phase, ot frequency variation, mechan- ical displacement vaiation, or other physical

phenomenon that varies continu- ously. See quasi-analog signal.

analog speech interpolation. The utilization of the inactivity periodsthat always exist in both transmission direcrions of a telephone

conversation. The interpola- tion is used in order to increase the efficiency and lower the cost of longdistance links. Analog

signals with quiescent periods or long vowels are compressed, for example by time assignment speech interpolation, transmitted,

and expanded by inverse compression (expansion) at the receiving end. This principle has been used for many years with

analog signals and is now being developed for digital speech. when pulse code modulation (pcM) is used the process is known as

digi- tal speech interpolation Synonymous with analog interpolation and with analog compression. Also see digital speech

interpolation.

analog switch. switching equipment designed, designated, or used to connect circuits between users for real-time transmfusion of

analog signals.

analog switching. The interconnecting of input and output terminations in a switching matrix for the purpose of transferring
analog signals between them.

analogsynchronization. Asynchronization control system inwhichtherelation- ship between the actual phase error among clocks

and the error signal device is a continuous function over a given range. synonymous with analog control.

analog telephone. A telephone whose output is a nominally continuous electri- cal signal correlated with the sound pressure

variation onirsmicrophone (tans- mitter).

analog-to-digital coder. See analog-to-digital encoder.

analog-to-digital (A-D) converter. l. A device that convertE aninput analog sig- nal to an output digital signal with the same

information content. It accepts an analog signal at its input, operates on this signal, and produces a digital signal containing

the essential information that was in the analog signal. 2. A device that converts data from an analog representation to a

digital representation. Synonymous with onalog-digital converter. Also see digital-to-anatog (D-A) con- verter. See Figure A-7.
36 analog-todigital (A-D) encoder

ffiffiffi
Er -::
A-7. Analog-to-digital converterc anddigital-to-analog converters designed and packaged for microprocessor compatibility, for commercial and military
(Courtesy of Beckman Instluments, Inc., Electro-Products
applications, and for use with low power instrumentation. Group.)

analog-to-digital (A-D) encoder. A device for encoding analog slgnal samples. Synonymous with analog-to-digital coder and with
coder.

analog transmission. The transmission of. a continuously variable signal as op- posed to a discretely variable signal. Physical quantitie
such as temperature are described as analog quantities. Data characters, such as binary digits, are coded in discrete sepalate pulses or signa
levels and hence are referred to as digital.

analog variable. A continuously changing phenomenon representing either a mathematical variable in a mathematical function or
representtng
physical quantity. For example, tlne luminous intensity of a lightwave in an optical fiber the temperature of a body b
using the current in a thermocouple to modulate the light intensity produced by a laser ot LED fot transmission of ttle lightwave in th
fiber.

analysis. see elecTomagnetic compatibility (EMC) analysis; Fourier analysis; risk analysis; signal analysis; signature analysis; spectrum
analysis; trafficanalysis.

analyzer; light ana-

analyzer. See integrated optical spectrum analyzer; iammer lyzer; multichannel optical analyzer; pulse analyzer;
wave analyzer.

anamorphic. ln optical systems, pertaining to a configuration of optical compo- nents, such as lenses, mirrors, and prisms, that produc
 different effects on an image in different directions or different effects on different parts. Forexample, the production of differen
magnifications in different directions or the conver- sion of a point on an obiect to a line on its image.
angle modulation 37
AND circuit. See AND gate.

AND element. See AND gate.

AND namely, often true if gate. represented all that statements A if device P, by Q, P'8, that andR are true, is PLQ, are capable and stateme

false of gate; intersection gate; coniunction gate; coincidence gate; AND circuit; AND unit; performing if p@. any . coincidence ., statement

ANDofp, is false. AND p operation @, AND R Synonymous unit; logic with product positive . .. - is AND e is gate; AND element. See Fi
IN0 lBIN
A0
00
a
OUT

0I
A-8. A table showing the input and output digits of an AND gate,
AND NOT gate. See A-AND-NOT-B gate.
AND unit. See AND gate.

angle. see acceptance angle; Brewster angle; convergence angle; critical angle; departure limiting angle; angle; deviation look angle angle; ; reflect

refraction angle; elevation angle; exit angle; horizon angle maximum acceptance angle; pointing total acceptance angle. angle; ; launch angle; angle-b
points. See emission beam angle-between-half-power- points.
angle break lock. lnradar systems, a loss of the ability of tracking radar to con- tinue tracking an object inazimuth or elevation rather thanrange.

angle waves, beams diversity. from the difference the same ln reflector tropospheric created at by slightly two scattering or different more pro

launch that angles.

of produce electromagnetic multiple

varied. angle modulation. Phase and frequency Modulotion modulation in which are the particular phase angle forms of a of sine angle wave modulat
38 angle modulation noise improvement

angle modulation noise improvement. An improvement in the output signal-to' noise ratio obtained in a receiver through the use of
threshold extension demod- ulators.

angle of incidence. See incidence angle.

angle tracker, See infrared angle tracker.

angular frequency. See angular velocity.

angular magnification. The ratio of the apparent size of animage, seen through an optical system, element, or instrument, to that of
t}Jle obiect viexed by the unaided eye, when both the object and image are at infinity, which is the case for telescopes, or when both the
object and image are considered to be at the distance of distinct vision, which is the case for microscopes. Synonymous with magnify- tng
power.

fiansmission system, signal power

angular misalignment loss. ln an optical fiber loss at the junction of two fibers that are not butt-joined
 in a straight line, i.e., when there is an angular displacement between the optical axes of the two fibers. The angular misalignment loss is
usually expressed indecibels (dB). Synonymous with ax ial misalign m en t lo ss.

angular resolution. ln optics and display systems, a measule of the capability of a device to distinguish two points as separate at a given
distance, i.e., to distin- guish between two divergent directlons flom a given point. The smallest such angle that can distinguish the points
as separate is t}Jle limiting resolution angle.

angular velocity. The rate of rotation of a rotating body, normally measured in radians per second. The angular velocity, r,r, is given by
is the
<^l = 2nf , wt'erc f frequency. when applied Lo a wave the angular velocity is 2r times the number of waves or complete cycles per
unit time, each complete cycle of the wave cor- responding to one complete rotation. Synonymous withangular frequency.

anisochronous. Pertaining to trdnsmissiozr in which the time interval separating any two significant instants in sequential signals is not
; m es o
necessarily telated to the time interval separating any other two significant instants. Also see hetero- chron ou s ; h om ochr on ous
chr on ou I ; ple stochr on ous.

anisochronous transmission. L transmissior? plocess in which there is always an integral number of unit intervals between any two
significant instants in the same group. In data transmission, this group is a block or a charactet; in telegraphy this group is a character.
There is not always an integral number of unit inter- vals between two significant instants located in different gloups. Also see asyn- chr
on ous tran smission.

anisotropic. Pertaining to a material with characteristics or pardmeters that are different in different directions. Thus, for example,
two identical light beams
antenna 39

propagating through an anisotropic material in different directions will be af- fected in different manners. lnlightwave

ftansmission media, significant param- eters are magnetic permeability, electric permittivity, and electric conductivity.

anode. A collector of negatively charged particles such as negative ions or elec- trons. It is usually charged positively in order to

attract them. conventional cur- rent direction is from the anode to the cathode through the inside of the device, such as a vacuum

tube or photomultiplier.

anomalous propagation. The propagation of electromagnetic waues along paths other than expected or designed paths because of

unexpected variations in trans- mission media at*ibufes, thus giving rise to changes inrefractive index, coupling, ducting,

velocity of propagation, trapping, ffansmission mode changes, and the reflective, dispersive, diffusive, absorptive, and

scattering characteristics of the media.

answer. The transmission made by the called station in response to tt'e call rc- ceived. See abbreviated answer; call forwarding don't

dnswer.

answer-back code. A unique sequence of characters identifying a particurar tele- graph terminal or data station. see automatic answer-

back cod.e exchange.

 answer-back unit. The part of a telegraph or data terminal installation that auto- matically transmits its answer-back code on receipt

of the who-are-you signal.

answering. The process of respondingto a calling station to complete a connec- tion between stdtions.

answering facility. See manual answering facility.

answering frequency. The frequency used to respond to areceivedmessage. y'.Jiso see calling frequency; crossband frequency; working

frequency.

answering net. A communication net that is normally associated withship-shore communication systems and that is used for

answering cal/s from ships.

answering plug. In telephone switchboard operations, tt'e plug, of the two as- sociated with any cord circuit, that is near to the

face of the switchboard and that is normally used for answering calling signals.

answering sign. ln semaphore communications, the flag position used as an an- swer to a call. lf necessary, the answering sign may be
precerJed by a call sign to denote the station answering.

antenna. A transducer that converts electrical energy from a source (such as a transmitter or light source) to elecffomagnetic waves

infree space or in a transmis- sion medium, or from free space or transmission medium to a receiver or detector. A transmitting

antenna usually carries the currents that launch the transmitted

40 antenna aperture

waves. A receiving antenna usually carries the currents that are induced by the waves that impinge upon it. A light source and
aphotodetector may be considered as antennae. see aperiodic antennd; billboard Lntenna; buoyant antenna; casse- grain antenna; diel-guide
antenna; dipole antenna; directional antenna; elec-
feed trically-ilespun antenna; global beam satellite antenna; halfwave dipole antenna;
high-gain antenna; Hogg-horn antenna: horn antenna; image antenna; isotropic dntenna; jamming antenna; light antenna; Iog-periodic
antenna; Iossless halfwave dipole antenna; mechanically-despun Lntenna; multielement dipole antenna; narrow-beam antennd; notch
antenna; omnidirectional antenna: parabolic an- tenna; periodic antenna; periscope antenna; reference antenna; rhombic antenna; slot
antenna; telescopic antenna; test antenna; unidirectional antenna;wide-beam antenna; Yagi antenna. Also see Figure E-I.

antenna aperture. The physical area of the main reflector of anantenna. which acts as fJne radiating area of t};le source of the transmitted
electromagnetic beam (such as a light beam or a radio beam). The effective alea may be less than the physical area due to blockage by
intervening parts, such as a subreflectof, antenna supports, or waveguide feed supports. In front-fed systems, the area is measured in a plane
normal to the beam axis. synonymous with antenna capture areL.

antenna Ltray. Antenna or light source elements arlanged so that the resulting electromagnetic radiation pattern has its main lobe such that tlre
yansmitted
waves propagale with maximum power density in the desired direction. See broadside antennd array; colinedr antenna
array.
 antenna blind cone. The volume of space, usually apploximately conical with its vertex at t]1.e antenna, that cannot be scanned by the
antenna owing to limi- tations of the antenna mount.

antenna blockage. The portion of the antenna aperture that is blocked, or shaded, by equipment mounted in front of the
antenna, such as subreflectors and subreflector supports.

antenna capture area. See antenna aperture.

aptenna design. The physical, electrical, and magnetic characteristics of an 4n- tenna, including its geometrical shape and spatial
orientation.

antenna diversity. See spaced antenna diversity'

antenna dynamics. Tine electrica,l, magnetic, and stluctural characteristics of duing operating conditions. Such conditions
an antenna or light source
include car- rent, voltage, power, impedance, cross section, efficiency, average powet,power density, instantaneous power, peak power,
luminous intensity, directive gain, antenna pattern, shape, size, and orientation.
antennalobe 4l

antenna effective area. That certain area, expressed in square meters, from which an antennd. directed towards the source of the received

signal gathers or absorbs the energy of an incident electromagnetic wave. In the case of parabolic and horn-parabolic antennas,

the antenna effective area is about 0.35 to 0.55 ofthe geometric area of th.e antenna aperture.

antenna feed. Tlre conductor, cable, or waveguide that conducts the energy that is to be transmitted from the transmitter to the

antenna.

antenna feed system. See monopulse antenna feed system.

antenna gain. l. The ratio of the power required at the input of a reference an- tenna to the power supplied to the input of the
given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field at the same distance. 2. The maximumpower den- siry divided by

the power density of a reference isotropic source. 3. The ratio of the maximum radiation intensity ot power of an antenna to the

maximum radia- tion intensity or power from a reference antenna with the same power output. 4. The effectiveness of a

directional antenna in a particular direction as compared with a standard dipole antenna. The gain is usually expressed in

decibels. Most often it is the ratio of the standard antenna power to the directional antenna power that will produce the

same field strength in a given direction at the same distance. when not specified otherwise, the figure expressing the gain of an

an- tenna refers to the gain in the direction of the radiation main lobe. rn communi- cation systems using scattering modes of

propagation, the full gain of an antenna may not be realizable in practice and the apparent gain may vary with time. Syn-

onymous with power gain of an antenna. Also see directive gain.

 antenna gain-to-noise temperature (G/T). For satellite earth stdtion receiving systems, a figure of merit that equals Glr, where G

is the gainindecibels of t]ne edrth station antenna at the receiving frequency and Z is tt'e equivalettt noise temperature in kelvins
of the receiving system.

antenna height above average terrain. The average ofantenna heights above the terrain from two to ten miles from the antenna for

the eight directions spaced evenly for each 45o of azimuth starting with true north. usually a different an- tenna height will be

determined in each direction from the antenna. The average of these various heights is considered the antenna height above

average terrain. In some cases, fewer than eight directions may be used. Also see smooth earth.

antenna interference. The mutual interference caused by electomagnetic cou- pling that occurs when two or mote antennas are

located in close proximity.

antenna length. See effective antenna length.

antenna lobe. A three-dimensional section of the radiation pattern of a direc- tional antenna bounded by one or two cones of nulls or

regions of diminished field intensity.

42 antenna matching

antenna matching. The process of adjusting impedance so that t}re input impe- dance of an antenna equals the characteristic impedance of ils
transmission line.

antenna mount. See nonorthogonal antenna mount.

antenna multiplier. A device applied to an antenna that permits the use of sev- eral pieces of equipment to be connected to one antenna.
spacing will have to be greater
Though the number of antennas is reduced, the channel frequency than when a separate antenna is used
for each frequency in the channel.

antenna noise temperature. The temperature that a resistor would have to pro- duce a noise power per unit bandwidth equal to that of
The noise temperature of an antenna depends on its cou-
t}re antenna output at a specified frequency. pling to all noise sources in its
environment as well as noise generated within the antenna. Also see rolse.

antenna pattern. See radiation pattern.

antenna power gain. The ratio of the power required at tl:Ie input of a reference antenna to the power supplied to the input of the given antenna to
produce, in a given direction, the same power flow per unit cross-sectional atea (field strength) at the same distance from the antennas.
The antenna power gain lefels to the gain in the direction of the main lobe axis. It is a measure of the extent to which the power or energy
of an antenna is concentrated in a given direction, the nar- rower the beam the greater the concentration and hence the greatel the antenna
power galn.

antenna reflector. The portion of a directiondl antenna 1rray tt'at reduces the field strength behind the array and increases it in the forward
direction.
 antenna rotation. Antenna movement that may be accomplished in many dif- ferent ways such as by mechanical movement of the
antenna, by phasing from different elements of an array, or by reflection methods. For example, antenna rotation may be
accomplished by irregular motion, turning, beam switching, holding, lobe switching, searchlighting, or phase control.

antenna rotation period. The time required for one complete revolution or move- ment cycle of an antenna, The period is usually measured
in seconds while the sweep rate is usually given in revolutions per minute.

antenna sweep. The space angle in which a mutating or oscillatingantenna moves relative to its base or other fixed or moving reference.
For example, in addition to its mutating or oscillating motion, it may be sweeping in a vertical or horizon- tal direction. Antenna sweep
may be designated as fixed, continuous, or sector.

anticlockwise polarized electromagnetic wave. See left-hand polartzed electro- magnetic wave.
A-OR-NOT-Bgate 43

anticoincidence gate. See EXCLUSIVE-OR gate.

anticoincidence unit. See EXCL(ISIVE-OR gate.

anticyclone. A distribution of atmospheric pressure in which the pressure in_ creases towards a center of high atmospheric

pressure. Anticyclonic winds circu_ late in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in a counterclock_ wise

direc hemisphere. Anticyclones give rise to fine, calm weather c in winter fog is likely to develop. They usually advance

a hour, with a diameter of 2500 to 4000 km, and often brin

antielectronic jamming. organizational, tactical, strategic, and technical mea- sures taken to overcome the effects of electronic

iamming.

antijamming. l. Pertaining to the ability of a device or system to withstand jamming or interference without seriously

degrading its performance. 2. pertain- ing to measures that are taken to reduce the effects of attempts to deliberately cause

interference in a system.

antijamming margin. The maximum iamming-to-signar power, vortage, ot cur- rent ratio at which a device will still

continue to satisfactorily perform its in_ tended function.

antijamming measure. A measure taken to minimize the effect of jamming or reduce the effectiveness of jamming efforts.

antinode. A point in a standing (stationary) wave at which the amplirude is a maximum. The standing wave should be identified

as a voltage wave ot a current wave, if it is an electric wave. Also see node; standing wave ratio (swR).

A class of are applied s of a subst tine reflec_ d increasing ver a speci_

 antisinging device. A device that prevents singing (resonant oscillations), usually of an audio frequency, in a circuit.

a-o. Acoustooptic.

A'oR-Nor-B gate. A two-input, binary, logic coineidence circuit or device capable of performing the togic operations of A

oR Nor B. Thus, if A is a statement and B is a statement, the result is false only if A is false and B is true. For the other

three combinations of A and B the result is true. Synonymous with ,B implies A gate, with if-B-then-A gate,

withimptication gate, and with in- clusion gate. See Figure A-9.
44 APC
INA0

I0
Q OUT I I
A-9. A table showing the input and output digifs of an A{R'NOT-B gate.
LPC. adaptive predictive coding.
APD. Avalanche Photodiode.
APD coupler. Avalanche photodiode coupler.
antenna aperiodic impedance or antenna. over a wave a wide antenna. An dntenna range SynonymouS of designed frequencies;for to have with an no
a terminated rhombic
approximately antenna. constantinput AISO

aperture l. In an of tem. the The largest aperture entering is usually limited directional antenna, radiation intensity, dntenna dperture; merical ap
system, of tight an opening that can or travel hole completely that is equal through to the diameter the sys- by is perpendicular the usually obiective. symm
about direction portion the optical of of a propagation plane axis surface of the of system near
receiver aperture; facsimile transmitter
through which the major part of the radiation passes. See facsimile output aperture ; tone-control aperture'
aperture; nu-

transmission
aperture finite of images dimensions distortion. become of blurred. the ln facsimile scanning Details spot that at are transmission sm
the effect caused
and the reception scanning Con
suppressed.
aperture refractive ratio. index of The the value image of spice Ro in and.4 the equation'. is the maximum Ro= 2n angular sin,A, opening
axialbundleofrefractedrays. an opening mately objective true is small, is that proportional when n sin n A = =
Ttrespeed(i.e.,energyperu
when square or that the of obiect FID its aperture = distance F-ntmber ratio. is gleat, = When ll(2 it the sin is approxi- z4) angular = 11 aperture-ratio
aperture that an opticdl stop. system The physical will accept diameter from that an limits obiect the point size of on the the cone optical of radiation

Also see axial bundle; ex

applique 45

aperture tagging. ln image restoration, a method of wavefront control in which the distortion of the wavefront of an

electromagnetic wave, introdtced when passing through an aperture, is compensated by prior or after-the-fact methods; i.e.,

trial perturbations are made in the outgoing wavefront, and the resulting variations in power reflected from an obiect are
anaLyzed, to optimize t]ne power density in specific portions of the wavefront.
aperture-to-mediurn coupling loss. The difference between the theoretic ar gain of a very large antenna, as used in beyond-the-

horizon microwave links, and the gain that can be realized in operation. It is related to the ratio of the scatter angle to the

antenna beamwidth. A very large antenna is several wavelengths long or in diameter. This loss can apply to tine of sight (Los)

systems also.

APL. A computer programming language primarily used in a conversational (interactive) mode for mathematical applications

with multidimensional arrays. The name is derived from A Programming Language.

aplanatic lens. Alens that has been corrected for spherical aberration, departure from the sine condition, comd, and color.

apogee' l. The point in an earth orbit where the satellite radius vector from the earth to the satellite is a maximum. 2. The point at

which a missile trajectory or a satellite orbit is farthest from the center of the gravitational field of the con- trolling body or

bodies. Also see perigee.

application layer. ln open systems architecture, tt'e layer that is directly acces- sible to, visible to, and usually explicitly defined

by, users. It provides all the functions and services needed to execute their programs, processes, and d,ata exchanges. Also see

layer.

application network. A network of interconnected, data processing equipment, such as computers, processors, controllers, and

terminals, for the purposes of processing and exchanginguser data. The network may include public or private communication

facilities provided by private organizations, common carriers, or recognized private or public opera.ting administrations or

agencies (RpoAs). Synonymous with computer network and with user application network.

application-oriented language. A computer programming language that has capa- bilities or notation schemes specially suited for

solving problems in specific classes of applications, such as communication, scientific, business, engineering, design, or simulation

applications. Synonymous wiLh problem-oriented language.

application program. A computer program that directly meets the need, of a user, such as a payroll, inventory control, data base, or

traffic control program.

applique. circuit components added to an existing communication system to provide additional or alternate functions. For

example, some common carrier

46 appointmentdirectory
 telephone equipment designed for manual ringdown operation can be modified with applique to allow for use between points having dial
ot key equipment.

appointment directory. A telephone directory in which each user telephone number designates the title, appointment, assignment, or
function of that user. Personnel changes do not affect updating such as a directory as long as there is no reorganization of the user group.
Entries are alphabetical by title, appoint- ment, assignment, or function. Also see fixed directory.

approach. See carrier-contr olle d appr oach ( C C A ) -

approach aid. See radio-approach aid; runway-approach aid.

approach control service. A communication system used to communicate with aircraft stations that are approaching an airport.

approved circuit. A circuit that has been authorized by responsible authority for tine transmission of information. Approved circuits
systems to which electromagnetic and physical safeguards have
usually relate only to those wireline or fiber been applied to permit
transmission of unencrypted information. The circuit in- cludes all the individual conductors in the path. From a security or privacy stand-
distribution system; protected
point all radio circuits are usually considered as nonapploved circuits. Also see protected optical fiber
wireline distribution system.

APT. A computer programming language used primalily for the numerical control of machine tools. The name is derived from
Automatically Programmed Tools.

architecture. The organizational structure of an entity such as a computer, data processing, or communication system, see network Lrchitecture; open
systems architecture.

area.
See antenna effective area; blind area; broadcast area; controlled area; ele- mental ared; maximum call area; maximum calling area
(MCA); radar altimetry area; restricted area.

area broadcast shift. The changing from listeninE to transmis.rions intended for one broadcast area to tistening to transmissions intended
for another broadcast area. For example, as a ship or aircraft crosses the boundary between areas, the changing from listening to one area
broadcast station to listening to another. shift times, normally 0o0l Greenwich mean time (GMT) on the date a ship or aircraft is
expected to pass into another area, must be strictly observed or the ship or aircraft stdtion will miss messages intended for it.
Synonymous with radio watch shift.

area broadcast station. l. A land station responsible fot radio broadcasting to a specific geogaphical area of the earth. 2. Aradio station
responsible fot broad- casting to one of the 12 numbered areas into which the world has been divided for operating tlf'e merchant ship
broadcast system.
ASCII (American National Standard Code for Information Interchange) 47

area code. A telephone system number that is assigned to a grographical area.

area communication organization. The communication organization designed to provide communication between radio-equipped

organizations in a given area, including ship stations, shore stations, and aircraft stations, particularly maritime patrol aircraft on a

mission, ships at sea, and aircraft in flight.

area coverage. See iammer ared coverage.

 area radio station. See ship broadcast-area radio station.

arithmetic. See modulo-n arithmetic.

Armed Forces Radio Service. (AFRS). A radio broadcasting seruice that is op- erated by and for the personnel of the armed services in

the area covered by the broadcast. For example, the radio service operated by the U.S. Army for U.S. and allied military personnel
on duty in overseas areas.

ARN. ,4ir reporting net. See maritime patrol air reporting net (ARN).

atound. See ring around.

ARQ. Automatic recovery quottent. Automatic request-repeat.

aftLy. see antenna array; broadside antenna array; colinear antenna array; phased array; solar array.

arteriovenous oximeter. See fiber optic arteriovenous oximeter.

artificial language. A language in which the symbols, conventions, and rules for its use were explicitly established before its use. Also see natural
language.

artificial pupil. A diaphragm or other limitation that confines a beam of light to a smaller cone; e.g., a pupil that confines a beam of

light entering the human eye to a smaller cone than that admitted by the iris of the eye.

artificial transmission line. A four-terminal electric network (circuit) that has the characteristic impedance, the tansmission

time delay, phase shift, or other parameter of a real transmisison line and therefore can be used to simulate areal transmission line
in one or more of these respects.

ASCII (American National Standard Code for Information Interchange). The standard 7-bit code, using a coded characfer ref consisting of 7-bit
coded charac- /ers (8 bits including a parity check bit) used for information interchange among data processing systems, data
communication systems, and associated equipment. The ASCII set consists of control characters and graphic characters and is prop- erly an
alphabet rather than a code. It is the U.S. implementation of the Inter- national Telegraph Alphabet Number 5. Also see code.
48 aspect

aspect. See image aspect.

aspect ratio. The ratio of a break, that is, an aperture, gap, or opening, to the height or width of a picture, object, or scanning field.

assembler. l. A computer program used to translate another computer program expressed in an assembly language into machine language

for execution by a specific computer. 2. A computer program used to prepare a machine language progrdm, usually a symbolic or

higher-level language, for execution by a specific computer.

assembly. See cable assembly; multiple-bundle cable assembly; multiple-fiber cable assembly; optical harness assembly.

assembly-disassembly facility. See packet assembly-disassembly (PAD) facility.

 assembly language. l. A computer-oriented language whose instrucfions are usu- ally in a one-to-one correspondence with machine

(computer) language instruc- tions and that may provide facilities such as the use of macroinstructions. 2. A computer

programming language whose statements may be instructions or decla- rations. The instructions usually have a one-to-one

correspondence withmachine language instructions. Synonymous with computer-dependent language. Also see computer- orien te d lan
gua ge.

assigned frequency. Tll.e frequency at the center of the bandwidrft assigned to a station. The frequency of the radio frequency (RF)
carrier, whether suppressed or radiated, is usually given in parentheses following the assigned frequency, and is the frequency appearing in the

dial settings of RF equipment intended f.or sin- gle sideband or independent sideband transmission. This frequency does not
que n cy a s s i gn m e n t.
necessarily correspond to any frequency in an emission. Also see authorized fre- quen cy ; fr e que n cy all o ca ti o n ; fre

assigned frequency band. A frequency band tl;e center of which coincides with the frequency assigned to a station and the width of
which equals tllre necessary bandwidth plus twice the absolute value of the frequency tolerance.

assignment. See demand assignment; frequency assignment; routing indicator dssignment.

assignment access plan. See demand-atsignment access plan; preassignment ac- cess plan.

assignment plan. See frequency assignment plan.

assistance switchboard. See dial service assistance (DSA) switchboard.

assisted call. See operator-assisted call.

asynchronousoperation 49

assumed value. A value within the range of valu es, parameters, or levels assumed for a mathematical model, hypothetical circuit, or

network, from which analyses, additional estimates, or calculations will be made. The range of values, while not measured, represents

the best engineering judgment and is generally derived from values found or measured in real circuits or networks of the same

generic type, and includes projected improvements. Also see design objective.

assurance. See quality assurance.

astigmatism. An abenation of alens or lens system that causes an off-axis point on an obiect to be imaged as two separated lines
perpendicular to each other.

astronomy. See radio astronomy.

astronomy service. see radio asffonomy service.

astronomy station. See radio astronomy station.

asymmetrical modulator. See unbalanced modulator.

 asynchronous communication system. A data communication system in which extra signal elements are appended to the data for the

purpose of synchronizing individual data characters or blocks. The time spacing between successive data characters or blocks may

be of arbitrary duration. In such data transmission sys- tems, each group of code elements corresponding to an alphabetical signal is pre-

ceded by a stdrt signal that serves to prepare the receiving mechanism for the re- ception and registration of a character, and is followedby

astop signalthatsenes to bring the receiving mechanism to rest in preparation for the reception of the next character. Primary

application is in alphabetic telegraphy and tape relay systems using sfarf-rtop ftansmission. Also see start-stop system; stepped start-
stop system.

asynchronous digital computer. A digital computer in which each event or the execution of each instruction starts as a result of a

signal generated by the com- pletion of the previous event or operation. The next operation or event may proceed on the

availability of the parts or components required for the opera- tion. Also see synchronous digital computer.

asynchronous network. See no nsy nchron ous ne tw ork.

asynchronous operation. 1. A sequence of operations in which each operation is executed out of time coincidence with any event.

2. An operation that occurs without a regular or predictable time relationship to a specified event, for exam- ple the calling of an

error diagnostic routine that may receive control at any time during the execution of a computer program. A signal indicating the

completion of an event is gated to start the next event. Clocks are usually not involved in
50 asynchronoussignals

asynchronous operation. Synonymous with asynchronous working. See bit-by- bit asynchronous operation.

asynchronous signals. A set of signals, such as in bit stream transmission, ar- ranged in such a manner that between any two
significant instants in the same group there is always an integral number of unit intervals. Also, between two significant instants in
different groups there is not always an integral number of unit intervals. ln data transmission, a group is a block or
character;intelegraphy, a group is a character. Asynchronous signals often begin each group withastart signal, sttc}r as the start of each
character in start'stop telegraphy. In an asyn- chronous counter for example, the change of output state of each flip-flop is
dependent on the previous stages having changed state, that is the flip-flops do not all change state synchronously since it takes a
finite time for changes to propagate through the circuits. Also see synchronous signals.

asynchronous time-division multiplexing (ATDM). An asynchronous ffansmis' sion mode that makes :use of time'division multiplexing. Also see
synchronous ti m e- div i si o n mul tip Ie x in g.

asynchronous transmission. Data transmission in which the time of occurrence of a specified significant instdnt in each byte, character
word, block, or other unit of data, ttsually the leading edge of a start sigrtal, is arbitrary and occurs without necessarily being dependen
on preceding signals onthe channel. Light- wave communication systems may be operated in both synchronous or asyn- chronou
transmission modes. lt is a fiansmission process such that between any two significant instants in the same gQup there is always an integra
number of unit intervals. ln data transmission this group is a block or a character; in teleg- raphy, ttris group is a character. Betwee
two significant instants located in different groups there is not always an integral number of unit intervals. Also see anisochronou
 transmission ; synchronous transmission.

asynchronous working. See asynchronous operation.

ATDM. Asynchronous time-division multiplexing.

atmosphere. 1. The envelope of air surrounding the earth and bound to it by the earth's gravitational attraction, extending from th
solid or liquid surface of the earth to an indefinite height, its density asymtotically approaching that of interplanetary space. 2. A
unit ofpressure equal to 101,325 newtons per m2 or 14.70 lbs per in2, representing the atmospheric pressure of mean sea level under standar
conditions. Also see ionosphere; sffatosphere; tropopause; troposphere.

atmosphere laser. See longitudinally-excited atmosphere laser;transverse-excited atmosphere laser. See Figure A-10.
attack 5l
4ttrzt flz rzr f:t -*
A-10. For tation emit right) when level. an photons the atmosphere energies at energy are laser, summed levels electrons (shown over their retuming at averag

left)producingthespectrol to number lower energy per unit levels time response(zt after for exci- each great atmospheric curvature that radio horizontal o

earth extent, are A guided with layer, in much which or usually focused less the than in vertical within the normal lower refroctive the attenu

duct index and tend gradienfs occasionally to follow are such the of atmospheric marily by lightning noise. discharges Radio noise in thunderstor
natural atmospheric processes, pri- atom. See radioactive dtom.

atomic and integrated defect absorption. opticol circuits rnlightwave made of transmission glass, silica, plastic, media, (sttch and other as optical mat

to the For when the gamma absorption media, example, optic the radiation optical glasses during titanium of light can or fibers of after deve

doped are their rads. drawn silica caused losses fabrication, can under of by develop 20,000 atomic high by exposure db/km losses changes temperatu

several to high are and and thousand introduced radiation after conventional exposrlre db/km levels. into atomic atomic form. laser. Contrast A t

t
molecular in which laser. the active medium is an element in attack. SeeN,4K attack. U!oE0oJooIcaou ooogE o

52 attack time

attack time. ln an echo suppressor, the time interval between the instant that tlne signal level at tll'e receiver exceeds the suppression
activate point and the in- stant when the suppression loss is introduced.

attack-time delay. See receiver attack-time delay; transmitter attack-time delay.

attempt. See access attempt; block transfer attempt; disengagement attempt.

positions used as a pre-

attention sign. In semaphore communications, the flag liminary call and to establish communication.

attenuation. The decrease in power of. a signal, light beam, or lightwave, either absolutely or as a fraction of a reference value. The
of absorption, reflection, diffusion, scattering, deflection, or dispersion inverse from able for an
decrease usually occurs as a result
 square transmission original of level the purposes distance and usually effect. but not desirable as In a an result for optical prevention of
geomeftic fiber, attentation of leakage spreading, or is undesir- clandes- i.e., the
medium tine detection. loss (20 Optical to 100 fibers db/km), have and been low-loss classified (less as than high-loss 20 db/km).
(over 100 See db/km), cloud attenuation: precipitation echo attenuation. attenuation; Also optical see attenudtion dispersion
attenuation; term. See Figure path attenuation; A-11. Also see Figure H-l.

560 70 ;s0 E640 t!30 ooi-20 Eo€10 p=o\ leigh \ scatteri nq I imit
P!oo

0 1.2
0.6
Wavel ength
lo-6 meters microns micrometers
0.8
microns micrometers
0 1.2
A-11. Attenuation (insertion /oss,l versus wavelength for a typicallowJoss liber.
audio-frequencywave 53

attenuation factor. See dispersion attenudtion factor,

attenuation-frequency distortion. See fre que n cy dis tor tio n.

attenuation term. rn the propagation of an electromagnetic wave in awaveguide, the term a in the expression for the exponential

variation characteristic of guided wavesi e-P" = ,ihz - a" , that represents t:ne attenuation or pulse amplitude d,imi- nution

experienced per unit of propagation distance, z, of the wave. In a given guide, the phase term h is initially assumed to be

independent of the attenuation temJ a, which is then found separately, assuming ft does not change with losses, for an optical

fiber. The attenuation term a is supplied by the manufacturer since it can be measured experimentally. Also see phase term;
propdgation constant.

attenuation test. ln an optical fiber, bundle, or cable, a test to measure the dtten- uation factor, usually in decibels per kilometer, at a

specified wavelength (e.e., 0.907 microns or 907 nanometers). Usually the attenuation test is performed by measuring the attenuation

in an entire reel or spool of fiber.

attenuator. A device that has an output signal that is a function of, and less than, its input signal. The attenuation is expressed as a

ftansfer function and often in negative decibels. If the output is greater than the input, that is if there is a gain in signal strength,

the "attenuator" is an amplifier. see continuous variable opti- cal attenuator; fixed optical attenuator: optical attenuator;

stepwise variable op- tical attenuator.

at-the-dip. ln flaghoist communications, the signaling condition that exists when the flaghoist is hoisted (raised) three-fourths of the
way up towards the point of hoist. Also see close-up; flaghoist; hauled-down.

attitude. See satellite attitude.

attribute. In display systems, a property or characteristic of any of its compo- nents or aspects. For example, the intensity, color
shape, or size of a display element, group, image, segment, file, surface, or device.

audio frequency (AF). A frequency in the range from about 2O Hz to 20,000 Hz. Electromagnetic waves cannot be detected

by the human ear, but sound waves in this range can. Also seevoice frequency.

audio-frequency wave. A wave witl:' a frequency lyrngin the region of frequen- cies detectable by the human ear. It is assumed tha
the waves are sound waves of sufficient intensity to be heard. An audio-frequency wave has a frequency in the range of 20 to 20,000

Hz. Lightwaves ascarriers canbemodulated ataudio frequencies and transmitted in optical fibers, bundles, and cables.
54 audio-visual

audio-visual. Pertaining to the application and utilization of electrical, chemical, mechanical, and opttcal media to record or r
audible signals and visual images. Also see Figure D-5.

audit. To conduct an independent review and examinationof system records and activities in order to test for adequacy o
performance, compliance with policy, and areas of operations improvement. See external security audit; inter' nal security audit;
audit.

audit trail. A record of system activities that enables reconstruction, review, and examination of the sequence of activities that has
during operation of a system.

aural radio range. See visual-aural radio range'

aurora. The sporadic radiant emission from the npper atmosphere over middle and high latitudes. It is believed to be due prim
emission from the nitro- gen molecule, N2; its molecular ion N2+; and atomic oxygen, O. Auroras are re- lated to magnetic sto
the influx of charged particles from the sun. The exact details of the nature of the mechanisms involved are still being
gated. The aurora is most intense at times of magnetic storms, when it is also observed farthest toward the equator, and
periodicity related to the sun's twenty-seven-day rotation period and the eleven-yeat sunspot cycle. The distribution with hei
a pronounced maximum near 100 km. The lower limit is probably near 80 km. In northern latitudes, auroral displays are calle
borealis, aurora polaris, or northern lights. In southern latitudes they are called aurora australis.

auroral display. A particular visible occurrence of an aurora in one or more of its many shapes and colors, including arcs (ban
light extending across the sky, the highest point of the arc beiag in the direction of the magneticmeridian); rays (sinfl,e lines, lik
searchlight beam or bundle of lines); draperies or curtains (a curtainlike appearance, sharp at the bottom and tenuous at the top); cro
corona (rays appear to spread out from a single point in the sky);bands (similar to arcs, but less structured); streamers
extendingtogreatheights;andothershape- less, dynamic, and sun-lit forms. The auroral display can last from several seconds to sever
with various levels of brightness and colors, and often pulsating at low frequencies of the order of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz Displays appear
billowing or blowing curtains or areas of brightness running across the northern or southern night sky.
 auroral zone. l. The latitudes of the arctic, extending around the earth from Central Alaska, through James Bay, Southern G
Iceland, Northern Nor- way, and along the Siberian coast, in which the aurora borealis (northern lights) occurs about 250 t
year; and the latitudes of the antarctic where the
authorizedfrequency 55

aurora australis (southern lights) occurs with a somewhat lower frequency. 2. A region in which a particular characteristic of an

aurora occurs, such as extreme height, specific shapes, increased brightness, longerJasting effects (in zones far- ther south), or
particularly more or less frequent auroral displays.

authenticate. l. An imperative request for a validation of a communication by use of an appropriate authenticator. 2.To issue an
authenticator.

authentication. l. A communication security measure designed to protect a communication system agailst acceptance of a fraudulent transmission ot
simuln- tion by establishing the validity of a transmission, message, or originator. 2. A means of identifying stations, ulers, or
equipment and verifying their eligibility to receive specific categories of information. 3. Evidence by proper signature or seal
that a document is genuine or official. 4. The identification, verification, or validation of a station, originator, ot user of a system or
trans m is sio
component thereof. See challenge-and-reply authentication ; message authentication ; net authentication; s e lf-au t h e n tica tio n ;
au t h e n t ica tio n.

authentication equipment. Equipment designed to provide protection against fraudulent transmission and, communication deception

or to establish the authen- ticity of a fiansmission, message, station, originator, user, ot equipment.

authentication system. l. A system designed for purposes of authentication and to serve as a secure means of establishing the

authenticity of a transmission or message, or of challengilg the identity of a station. 2. A cryptosystem ot cryp- tographic process
used for authentication. 3. A technique designed to provide effective aut h e nt icatio n.

authenticator. 1 The means used to identify or verify the elegibility of a station, originator, or person to access specific categories of

information. 2. A sequence of characters arranged in a predetermined manner that is inserted in a message for the purpose of.

authentication. The authenticator may be a letter, numeral, group of letters or numerals, or both letters and numerals, selected or

derived in a prearranged manner and usually inserted at a predetermined point within a transmission for the purpose of
authenticating the message or transmission.

authority. See maritime air control authority; PTT authority.

authorization. The grantiag of a user (person, program, process, or equipment) the right of access to a system.

authorized frequency. l. A frequency that is allocated and assigned by a com- petent authority to a specific user for a specific
 purpose. 2. A portion of the
56 autocontrol

radio spectrum, normalTy with a width equal to lhe necessary bandwidth of emission plus twice the prescribed frequency
tolerance, assigned to a user.

autocontrol. See radio autocontrol.

autocorrelation. The time integral of the product of a given signal and a time- delayed replica of itself. In mathematical notation:

-t A.C.= /s(t).s(t-r)dt Jo

where ^r(r) is a function of time and s(r - r) is a replica of s(r) delayed by the time r. In the process of correlating two or more

interrelated signals or other phe- nomena, autocorrelation is the special case of cross correlation in which the func- tions are identical in
shape but occur at different times. Also see cross correlation,

AUTODIN. A worldwide axtomaticcommunication network of the U.S. Defense Department for transmission of digital data. It is
an acronym for automatic digital network.

AUTODIN operation. Mode l: A duplex synchronous message transmission network operation with automatic error and channel controls allowing
indepen- dent and simultaneous two-way message transmission. Mode 2: A duplex asyn- chronous network operation, without automatic
error and channel controls, al- lowiag simultaneous two-way message transmission. Mode 3: A duplex syn- chronous network
operation with automatic error and channel controls utiliz- ing one-way message transmission. T}l.e backward direction is used
exclusively for error control and channel coordiaation purposes. The Mode 3 channel is reversible on a message basis. Mode 4: A
unidirectional asynchronous network operation with a send only or a receive only capability and without error control and without

channel coordination. The Mode 4 channel is nonreversible. Mode 5: A duplex asynchronous network operation allowing

independent and simul- taneous two-way message transmission. Control characters are used to acknowl- edge receipt of messages and
perform limited channel coordination.

AUTODIN user. A person, installation, or activity having access to tll.e AUTO- DIN network through an AUTODIN switching
center.

automatic answer-back code exchange. Automatic identification of stations in which each communication terrninal or data terminal
equipment transmits its ownanswer-back code.

automatic answering. Answering by which the called data terminal equipment (DTE) automatically responds to the calling signal.
Tl:'e call may be established whether or not the called DTE is attended by a human operator.
automatic error detection and correction system 57

automatic branch exchange. see private automatic branch exchange (LABX).

automatic calling. A facility by which selection signals must be entered contig- uously at the full character rate. The address
 characters will be generated by tlne data terminal equipment (DrE). A limit may be imposed on the system to prevent more

than a permitted number of unsuccessful call attempts to the same address within a specified period.

automatic charge indication. The automatic indication of the charge of a call given by a communication system to the paying

terminal either prior to the release of the paying terminal, or by recall at a convenient time.

automatic continuous-tape relay switching. see semiautomatic continuous-tape relay switching.

automatic data processing (ADP). An interacting group of procedures, processes, methods, personnel, and equipment that is used to
automatically perform a series of data processing operations that change tlre input data.

automatic data processing equipment (ADPE). Data processors, associated input-output devices, and auxiliary equipment using

electronic circuitry to per- form arithmetic and logic operations automatically by means of internally stored programs.

automatic data processing system (ADPS). ln communications arLd teleprocess- ing, automatic data processing equipment

(ADPE)linked together by communi- cation and data transmission eqtipment to form an integrated system for the

processing and transfer of data.

automatic date-and-time indication. ln a communication system, the automatic indication of date and time of the commencement

of a call or message to the calling terminal or to both the calling and called terminals.

automatic digital switching. See tactical automatic digital switching (TADS).

automatic duration indication. The automatic indication of the chargeable time of a call given by a communication system to the

paying terminal either prior to the release of the payiag terminal, or by recall at a convenient time.

automatic error detection. 1. The automatic detection and indication of an error in a transmitted signal. 2,Pertaining to tt'e detection of

eftors in t]ne mes- sages of a communication system by automatic means.

automatic error detection and correction system. L A system thatusesanerror- detecting code so conceived that any false or

incorrect signal inrtiates a repeti-

58 automatic exchange

tion of tJne transmitted character incorrectly received. 2' A' system in which errors that occur in fiansmission are detected a
corrected automatically, through the use of error-detection equipment and error-detection codes without initiating a request
repetition. Error-correcting codes are usually redundant codes.
automatic exchange. A telephone system in which communication between users is effected without the aid of an operator by means of switches se
oper- ation by the originating user's equipment. Also see data switching exchange; switching center,

automatic gain control (AGC). A feature of a^ active device that enables its output signal strength ot intensity to be (a) a desired function of its in
srg- nal strength or (b) independent of its input signal strength or intensity, thus maintaining a more constant level of ouptut stren
or intensity when the input signal strength fluctuates, without losing the intelligence tn t};le rnodulating sig' nal. Automatic gain con
is usually applied to amplifiers, antennas, and light sources. See instantaneous automatic gain control.

automatic identification. The automatic transmission of the identification of the calling termiral or station to lhe called term
or station, or vice versa, or the identification of terminals and stations to one another. Automatic identi- fication may be establis
when a connection is made. See terminal automatic identification.

automatic message switching. A method of automatically handling messages through a switching center, either from local users or from other switch
cen- ters, whereby a distant electrical connection is established between tlre calling and called stations, or a store-and-forward d
transmission system is used.

automatic multilevel precedence. The automatic sensing and application of precedence procedures in accordance with established criteria to incl
several levels of preemption and override capability in an automalic data transmission or t elep ho ne swit ching ne tw ork.

automatic numbering equipment. Equipment that automatically generates and transmits llne transmission identtfication number for
each messdge.

automatic numbering transmitter. An automatic transmitter that automati- cally transmifs a serial number before each message.

automatic preemption. A telephone network ot data transmistion system facility that permits a user to enter the precedence assigned to a call at the time
call is placed, dialed, ot keyed. The system processes the call with the assigned pre-
automatic secure voice communication system 59

cedence and automatically preempts circuits with lower precedence calls when required or as necessary in accordance with the

preemption criteria.

automatic programming. The process of using a computer to assist in generating (preparing) a computer program.

automatic radio relay plane. An aircraft that contains the necessary equipment to perform the function of automatically relaying

radio messages intended for other aircraft.

automatic receiver. A radio receiver that performs automatic tuning, slowly sweeps the frequency spectrum, alerts the operator

when a signal is picked up, and records the pickup. Also see panoramic receiver.

automatic recovery quotient (ARQ). An automatic error detection and correc- tion system, used in telegraph systems, in which tl.e

backward channel is used to obtain repetition of corrupted signals until they are received uncorrupted.
 automatic relay equipment. See telegraph automatic relay equipment (TARE).

automatic relay system. A system that contains the means of switching tt'at causes automatic equipment to record and retransmit
mesnges. Also see serni- auto matic r elay s y s tem.

automatic request-repeat (ARQ). A system of error conffol for datL transmission in which thereceiver terminal is arranged to detect a transmission

error andauto- matically transmit a request-repeat signal to the transmitter terminal. The trans- mitter terminal then retransmits

ttle character, block, or messdge until it is either correctly received or the error persists beyond a predetermined number of re-

peated transmissions. Synonymous with decision-feedback system; eruor-detect- ing-and-feedback system ; request-repeat sy stem.

automatic retransmission. A recording of. received stgnals followed immediately by their automatic transmission.

automatic retransmitter. Equipment that automatically records andretransmits signals that it receives.

automatic search jammer. An intercept (search) receiver and, a iamming trans- mitter that can search for signals that have specific characteristics and

then auto- matically jam them. The search may be performed in ttre frequency, time, space, polarization, and other domains.

automatic secure voice communication system. See AUTOSEVOCOM System.

60 automatic send-receiYe teletypewriter

automatic send-receive teletypewriter. A teletypewriter arranged for automatic transmission a:nd reception of messages. Also see keyboard send-
( RO
) teletypewriter.
receive (KSR) teletypewriter ; receive-only

provided by a public data network

automatic sequential connection. A facility service to connect automatically, in a prearranged sequence, Ihe
data terminal equipment (DTE) at each of a set of specified addresses to a single DTE at a specified address.

with a noise generator, having a fre'

automatic spot jammer. A spot iammer quency bandwidth that is small in comparison to the operatiag
band, that auto- matically tracks frequency and sets the jammer center frequency to the frequen- cy being tracked. Single and multiple

spot jammers use a look-through period with rapidly sweeping teceivers to detect and analyze signals' In these jammers, the jamming
transmitter operates between the look-through intervals. These jammers are limited by fixed transmission time, time sharing, and signal
delay tn r e c ep tio n and tra nsm issio n.

automatic switching. A method of communication system operationthat effects the automatic interconnection of channels, circuits, and
trunks and the handling of traffic through a switching facility.

automatic switching equipment. Switching equipment that has the capability of automatically processing traffic without operator
intervention. For example, it can recognize dial and pushbutton (touch-tone) sEnaling; switch from /r'ne-to-line, trunk-to-trunk, trunk-
to-1ine, and line-to-trunk; and automaticalTy route calls, handle precedences, and dispose of incomplete calls.

automatic system. See Ilheatstone automatic system.

 automatic tape relay. A system of tape relay lll'atembodiesautomatic switching'

automatic telegraph transmitter. A telegraph ffansmitter in which the forming of signals is not controlled by an operator but is
actuated step-by-step from a signalstorage device, usually aperforated tape arLd atape reader.

automatic telegraphy. Telegraphy in which manual operations are effectively reduced or eliminated by the use of automatic
equipment.

automatic telephone system. A switching system through wtricll^ telephone calls are routed automatically under control of the
calling party's instrument.

automatic traffic overload protection. A communication system operating pro- cedure in which automatic equipment is used to reduce
the volume of line, trunk,
auxiliary power 6l

or switch traffic in accordance with specified, line load control categories when demands for service exceed tt'e capacity to mee

the demand. For example, automatically delaying dial tone or denying originating user call privileges on certain lines. Th
protection is based on line load control designations.

automatic voice network. An automatically-switched telephone network. see AUTOVON.

AUTosEvocoM system. A worldwide secure voice transmission system of t]ne u.s. Defense Department. lt has cryptosecure

telephones conrLected to wide- band switchboards interconnected by nnrrowband trunks. AUTosEVocoM is an acronym
for automatic secure voice communication.

AUTovoN, A worldwide automatic voicegrade communication network for end-to-end circuit-switched voice connections o

the u.S. Defense Department. Message-switched digital traffic of tt,e AUT2DIN is carried between switching centers of th
AUTovoN. AUTovoN is an acronym for automatic voice net- work.

AUTovoN user. A person, installation, or activity having access to t]ne AUT}- VON network through an AUTOVON switching
center.

autumnal equinox. The line of iatersection of the celestial equatorial and, eclip- /ic planes at which the sun passes from the northern into the southern

hemisphere. It occurs about the 22nd of September, bringing autumn to the northern hemi- sphere and spring to the southern
hemisphere.

auxiliary channel. rn data transmission, a secondary channel whose direction of transmission is independent of the primary
 channel and is controlled by an appropriate set of secondary control interchange circuits.

auxiliary operation. An offline operation performed by equipment not under tre direct control of some other reference or

given equipment, for example an operation performed by a front-end or communication computer.

auxiliary polver. An alternate source of electric power, serving as backup for the primary power at the station main bus or

prescribed subbus. An offline unit provides electrical isolation between the primary power and the critical technical load; an

online ur.it does not provide electrical isolation betu,een the primary power and the critical technical load. A class A power
source is a primary power source, that is, a source that assures an essentially continuous supply of power. Types of auxiliary power

service include: Class B, a standby power plant to cover extended outages (days); class c, a quick start (10 to 60 seconds) unit to

cover short-term outages (hours); class D, an unintemrptible (no-break) unit using

62 availability

stored energy to provide continuous power within specified,voltage andfrequency tolerances. Also see primary power.

availability. A measure of the degree to which a systern, subsystem, or device is operable and in a committable state at the start of a mission when the
mis- sion is called for at an unknown or random instant of time. The conditions determining operability and committability must
be specified. Also see unavail- ability.

available-at-action-office time. See message available-at-action-office time.

available-for-delivery time. See message available-for-deliv ery time.

available line length. ln facsimile transmission, the portion of tt'e scanning line that can be used specifically for picture signals. Synonymous
withuseful line.

available point. An addressable point, in tll.e display space ot tll'e display surface of. a display device, at which one or more characteristics
of a display element, dis- play group, or display image color, intensity, on/off condition, shape, or orienta- tion may be changed. The
characteristics that may be changed are usually changed by the operator or controlling computer program.

avalanche multiplication. ln semiconductors, tlre sudden or rapid increase in the number or density of hole-electron patrs (carriers

for conduction) that is caused when the semiconductor is subjected to high (near breakdown) electric fields. The increase in carriers

causes a further increase. Incident photons of sufficient energy can still further iacrease multiplication of the carriers. These effects
are used inavalanche photodetectors.

avalanche photodetector. A photodetector that uses the avalanche multiplica- tion effect to increase the photocurrent. Also see
avalanche photodiode.
avalanche photodiode (APD). A photo-detecting diode that is sensitive to inci- dent light energy by increasing its electrical
conductivity by exponentially in- creasing the number of electrons in its conduction band energy levels throttgh the absorption of
the photons of energy, electron interaction, and an applied bias voltage. Tlae photodiode is designed to take advantage ofavalanche

multiplica- tion of. photocunent As the reverse-bias voltage approaches the breakdown voltage, hole electron pairs created by
absorbed photonsacquiresufficientenergy to create additional hole-electron pairs when they collide witt. substrate atoms. Thus, a
multiplication effect is achieved. Also see avalanche photodetector. See Figure A-12.
average information content 63

A-12. A silicon avalanche photodiode with integral light pipes. operating parameters include an avercge photocurrent density of 5 mA/mm2
'1.5 A/w at 900 nanometers wavelength. (courtesi of RCA Electro-
a quantum efftciency of g5%, and a responsivity of Optics and Devices.)

avalanche photodiode coupler. A coupling device that enables the coupling of light energy from an optical fiber onto the

photosensitive surface of anavalanche photodiode (APD) of a photodetecfor (photon detector) at the receiving end of an optical

fiber data link. The coupler may be only a fiber pigtail epoxied to the APD. Synonymous with APD coupler.

average block length. The average value of the total number of bits tn blocks transferred across a user-communication functional

interface. The average block length is specified by the communication system operator and is used in deter- mining values for

the block-oriented performance parameters. lnsystems where the information transferred across the functional iaterface is not

delimited into blocks, the data signaling rate is used instead of the average block length.

average efrof rate. ln a transmission system, the ratio of the number of incorrect bits, characters, words, blocks, or other data units
 received to the total number of bits, characters, words, blocks, or other data units sent correctly.
64 average information content

average information content. See character mean enffopy.

average information rate. The medn entropy pet character per unit of time. The avetage information rate may be expressed in a unit such as
a,rhannon per second.

average power. In a pulsed laser, the energy per pulse (joules) times the palse repetition rate (Heftz), usually expressed in watts.

average ratio. See peak-to-average ratio.

average terrain. See antenna height above average terrain,

average transinformation content. See m ean transinforma tio n c ont ent.

average transinformation rate. Ttre mean transinforftlation content per charac- ter pq unit of time. The average transinformation rate
may be expressed in a unit such as a shannon per second.

average transmission rate. See effective transmission speed.

averaging. See frequency averaging.

aviation instructional station. A land station or mobile station rn the aerorwu- tical mobile service used for radiocommunication for
ilstructions to students or pilots while actually operating aicraft or engaged ia training flights.

avoidance routing. A survivability feature of a communication system in which messages are routed so as to avoid critical areas, such as
congested areas, disaster areas, or obstacles.

avoidance system. See terrain avoidance systern.

AVPO. Axial vapor-phase oxidation process.

axial bundle. A cone of electromagnetic rays that emanate from an obiect poirLt that is located on the optical axis of. a lens system. Also
see tperture stop.

axial misalignment loss. See ongular misalignment loss.

axial-ratio polarization. See elliptical polarization.

axial vapor-phase oxidation process (AVPO). A vapor-phase oxidation (VPO) plocess for making graded-index (GI) optical fibers it which the
glass preform is

azimuth-over-elevation d5

grown radially rather than longittrdinally as in other processes. The refractive index is controlled in a spatial domain rather th
 time domaia. The chemical gases are burned in an oxyhydrogen flame, as in the outside vapor-phase oxida- tion (ovPo) pro

to produce a stream of soot particles to produce the graded refractive index.

axis. see optical axis; primary axis; secondary axis; signal communication axis.

axis of signal communication. See signal communication axis.

axis paraboloidal mirror. See off-axis paraboloidal mirror.

azimuth. l. A given horizontal angular direction from a specified reference direc- tion, measured in a clockwise direction (look

vertically downward) from the reference direction. 2. A direction expressed as a horizontal angle usually in de- grees or mil

and measured clockwise from north. Thus, azimuth will be true azimuth, grid azimuth, or magnetic azimuth depending

upon which north is used. 3. The angle at the zenith between the observer's celestial meridian and tlre vertical circle

through a heavenly body. Also see altitude-over-azimuth; back azimuth; reciprocal bearing; reciprocal heading.

azimuth-over-altitude. Pertaining to an antenna mount in which the altitude (elevation) axis is primary and is fixed to earth

The azimuth drive is secondary and is variable. The mount is used in equatorial regions for drifting equatorial satellites.

Synonymous witll. azimuth-ov er-elevation.

azimuth-over-elevation. See azimuth-ov er-altitude.

back. See call back; ring back.

back azimuth. A direction opposite to anazimuth, t:nat is, 180o from a given azimuth. Also see azimuth; reciprocal bearing,
reciprocal heading-

back-bias gain-control circuit. See detector back-bias gain-control circuit.

backbone. L The high traffic derusty portion of a communication network. 2. In a communication network, a primary forward
direction path ttaced sequen- tially through two or more major relay or switching stations. A backbone con- sists of switches and
interswitch trunks. 3. Ttre route between two principal terminal microwove stations.

back focal length (BFL). The distance measured from the vertex of the back surface of a lens to its reat focal point.

background. See display background.

background-limited infrared detector. An infrared detector that is background radiation noise \imited in its sensitivity when
viewiag an ambient temperature background. The limitation is primarily due to its inherent iaability to shield itself from all.
ambient infrared noise. Ttre background radiation tends to sat- urate the detector, that is, create such a large signal that infrared signals
 that do occur cannot be detected. For example, the infrared from an aircraft approach- ing a detector from the direction of a
brightly visible sun cannot be detected because the iqfrared from the sun obtterates the infrared from the aircraft; or an infrared
personnel detector may not function when exposed to the radiation of the noonday sun.

background noise. The total system noise in the absence of. data transmission. It is usually independent of the presence or absence of. a
signal.

back lobe. ln ltre radiation p7ttern of an antenna or light source, a lobe - or the radiant energy density corresponding to the lobe - that
is directed opposite to the main lobe. The back lobe is usually extremely small compared to the main lobe. The energy density is far
lower at a given distance from the source'

backlog. See significant backlog.

backscatter. L. To scatter of randomly reflect elecyomagnetic waves in such a manner that a component is directed back toward theantenna
ot light source that emitted the waves. Backscatter normally occurs to lightwaves and ladio waves.

56
backward ionospheric scatter 67

2. The components of electromagnetic waves that are directed back toward their source when resolved along a line from the source to the p oint of

deflectioh. Back- scattering occurs in optical fibers dte to reflecting surfaces of particles or occlu- sions in the transmission

medium, resulting in si3z al dttenuation The term scatter can be applied to reflection or refraction by relatively uniform media b

it is usually taken to mean propagation in which the wavefront and direction are modi- fied in a relatively disorderly fashion
Backscatter also occurs in atmospheric scattering and ionospheric scattering. Also see /orward sca.tter.

back scattering. ln radio wave and lightwave propdgation, that form of wave scattering in which at least one component of the

scattered wave is directed op- posite to the incident wave. A back-scattered wave is often referred to as back- scatter. Also see

/orward scatter; scatter.

back-surface mirror. An optical mirror on which the highly reflective coating ot reflecting surface is applied to the back surface of the mirror, i.e.,

not to the sur- face of first incidence of light. The reflected ray of light must pass through the substrate twice, once as part of t

incident light and once as the reflected light. Also see front-surface mirror.

back-tell. Information transfer from facilities at a higher to a lower operational level or echelon of command or administration.

back-to-back connection. A direct connection between ttle output of a trans- mitter and t}:'e input of an associated receiver. Th

eliminates the effects of the transmission channel or transmission medium.

backward channel. l. Tl'e channel of a data circuit tt'at transmits data in a direc- tion opposite to that ofits associatedforward channel. The backwa
channel is usually used for transmission of supervisory, acknowledgement, or error-control signals. The direction of flow of the
 signals is in the direction opposite to that in which user information is being transferred. The bandwidrft of this channel is usual

less than that of the/orward channel (information channel). The direction of transmission in the backward channel is restricted b

the interchange circuit that controls the direction of transmission in the primary channel. If information is simultaneously transferr

in both directions, the momentary datu sink todata source direction determines which shall be called the backward channel. 2,

data transmission systems, a secondary channel in which the direction of trans- mission is constrained to be opposite to that of th

primary or forward channel. The same optical fiber can be used for the forward and backward channel at the same time. Th
backward channel can be used for control signals. Also see/or- ward channel.

backward direction. l. In a communication system, the direction from a data sink to a data source. 2. The direction from an

addressee to amessage originator. 3. The direction from a called party to a calling party. Also see/orward direction.

backward ionospheric scatter. See backward propagation ionospheric scdtter.

58 backward propagation ionospheric scatter

backward propagation ionospheric scatter. Ionospheric scatter inthe backward direction. Synonymous with backward ionospheric
scatter.

backward signal. A signal sent in the direction from the called to t}re calling sta' tion, from a data sink to a data source, or from acalled
party's end-instrument to a calling party's end-instrument.

backward supervision. The use of supervisory signals from a secondary station to aprimdry station, Also see secondary station.

on gi tu dinal b alanc e.
balance. See earth radiation balance: hybrid balance; Iine balance; line filter balan ce ; I

balanced. Pertaining to electrical symmetry.

balanced amplitude modulation. Suppressed caruier modulation in which the modulator suppresses the carrier by means of abalance
circuit, such as a modu- lator in which the modulating voltage enters a tansformer primary withanampli' fier connected to each secondar
end and the carrier signal is fed through the cen- ter tap of the transformer in a push-pull connection. The resulting signal can be either
single-sideband or a double-sideband amplitude-modulated signal. Since either sideband can be suppressed as well as the carrier, all th
intelligence is con- tained in one of the sidebands and none is contained in the carrier. There will be no direct-current (DC) component in
signal. Also see phase
the antenna feed exchange keying.

code. ln pulse code modulation (PCM), a code whose digital sum vart- ation is
balanced finite. Balance codes have no direct-curuen
(DC) component in their frequency spectum. Also see pulse-code modulation.

balanced line. A transmission line consisting of two conductors in the presence of a ground, capable of being operated in such a way tha
when the voltages of the two conductors at all transverse planes are equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity with respect to ground
the currents in the two conductors are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

balanced linkJevel operation. The operation of data links at the link level that make use of balanced lines.

balanced modulation. A method of suppressingthe carrier in anamplitude mod- uloted wave so that only sideband signals appear in the wav
and there is approx- imately equal power in each sideband, that is in the upper and lower sidebands.
 balanced signal pair. See balanced line.

balanced station. A station that can perform balanced link-level operations. A balanced station generates commands, interpret
responses, interprets received commands, and generates responses.
B-AND-NOT-A gate 69

balancing. See power balancing,

balancing network. l. A circuit used to simulate tt.e impedance of a uniform twowire cable or open-wire circuit over a selected

range of. frequencies. 2. A de- vice used between a balanced line or device and anunbalanced line or device for the purpose of

transforming from balanced to unbalanced or from unbalanced to balanced operation.

ball. See control ball.

balsam. See Canada balsam.

balun. Aradio frequency (RF) balancingnetworkf.orcouplingbetweenbalanced and unbalanced lines or devices. It is normally
used between equipment and transmission lines or between transmission lines and antennds.

band. l.lncommunications, the frequency spectrum between two defined limits. 2. A group of tracks on a magnetic recording
medium, such as a magnetic drum, magnetic disk, or magnetic card. See assigned frequency band; baseband; con- duction band; energy

band; F-band; frequency band; frequency gnard band; G- band; I-band; infrared band; J-band; K-band; M-band; multiphonon band;
single-band; subband; stop-band; time
narrow band; pass-band; phonon band; Q-band, guard band; valence band; V-band; vestigial
sideband; X-band.

band compaction. See variable-tolerance-band compaction,

ylsi
band edge absorption. ln optical fiber E)ass, absorption that occurs in the ble regson that extends from the ultraviolet region of tli.e

spectrum. It is usually caused by oxides of silicon, sodium, boron, calcium, germanium, and other ele- ments, and by the hydroxyl ion.

band-elimination filter. See band-stop filter.

band-gap energy. The difference between allowable energy levels ofthe electrons of an atom. An electron that absorbs a photon

absorbs the band-gap energy. When an electron loses band-gap energy a photon with energy equal to the band- gap energy is emitted.

banding. See rubber-banding.

B-AND-NOT-A gate. A two-input, binary, logic coincidence circuit or device capable of performing tlre logic operations of B
AND NOT A. Thus, if A is a statement and B is a statement, the result is true only if B is true and A is false. For the other three

combinations of A and B, the result is false. Synonymous witln B-except-A gote and with negative (B-implies-A) gate. See Figure B-
 1.
70 band-pass filter
IN OlBIN
An
01

Q OUT
00
B-1. A table showing theinput andoutput drgrrs of aB-AND-NOT-Agate.
absorbs band-pass upper and there tremely a nonzero is limit, all narrow a filter. finite other the lower band-pass filter lower frequencies A limit. d
alow-pass filters If that not the it is in transmits lower in a filter. that high-pass the limit they band. If a the is band transmit filter. zero The upper o
are
Most frequencies a limit very has optical is narow a infinitely and finite there and filters band upper blocks is high a of finite limit
and

quencies, i.e., are monochromafic. Also see high-pass filter;low-pass filter.

band-rejection filter. See band-stop filter.
bandspreading sion of a signal technique. over a signal. Modulation is normally In elecftomagnetic transmission, the artificial disper- substantial

performed according to than that a prearranged of the original , coded, hi$l Synchronizatior? ture speed, and digital can only process. must be receive
resulting and decoded sigrral with will the by have prearranged the use a noise-llke, of a code. correlation wideband A
code division multiple access; spread spectrum multiple dccess.
having contin
band-stop the mous upper with filter. nor band-elimination lower A filter cut-off filter; frequencies a band-reiection single being
filter; attenuation band-suppression band, neithet
zero or infinite. Synony-
filter.

band-suppression filter. See band-stop filter.

bandwidth. usually limiting of quencies greater respect tlne band to than frequencies the that some range 3 l. or a dB A characteristic the devic
upper frequencies a is the of continuous capable and frequencies, maximum falls lower within of in frequency limiting generating, which respon
specifying the number
t}re frequencies. band It handling, responsibility limits. is in the which difference See passing, 2. Carson performance The is
of
or bandwidth; allowing, reduce
the
facsimile width; radio bandwidth; frequency necessary bandwidth; bandwidth: spectral bandwidth.
nominal bandwidth; occupied band'
bandwidth signals with limited. frequency l. components ln tansmission that lie circuits, only within pertaining certain to limits. an ability Anopt
barred facility 7l
 bandwidth product. See gain-bandwidth product.

bandwidth rule. See Carson bandwidth rule.

bank. See channel bank; data bank.

bar. See writing bar.

barrage jammer. A iammer that can spread its radiated erectromagnetic enetgy over a wide frequency band and is therefore

capable of jamming several trdnsmit-

operator assistance or complex control equipment. These advantages are gained at the expense of reduced jamming power at any given

frequency.

barrage jamming radar display. See spot-barroge iamming radar display.

barred. See call bated.

barred facility. See cal/s barued facility.

72 barred signal

barred signal. See access-barred signal'

barrel distortion. ln disptay systems, a distortion of. t}Jle image of an obiect in such a manner that the disptay element, display group,
ot display image of an otherwise straight-sided square or rectangular object has its sides bowed out (i.e., convex) relative to the object.
Contrast withpincushion distortion.

barrier-layer cell. See photovoltaic cell.

base. See data base.

baseband. The band of. frequencies associated with or comprising an originalslg- nal from a modulated sottrce. In the process of modulation
the baseband is oc- cupied by the aggregate of the transmitted signals used to modulate a carrier. In demodulation, it is the recovered aggtegate
of the transmitted signals' The term is commonly applied to cases where the ratio of the upper to the lower limit of the frequency band
 is large compared to unity. See multiplex baseband; radio baseband.

baseband receive terminal. See multiplex baseband receive terminal; radio base- band receive terminal.

baseband send terminal . See multiplex baseband send terminal; radio baseband send terminal.

baseband signal. A, digital data streom t]nat transmits information in the form of a voltage level or signal amplirude.

basecom. Base communications.

base communications(basecom), communication services provided for the op- eration of a military post, camp, installation, station
or activity. Basecom in- cludes the installation, operation, maintenance, augmentation, modification, and rehabilitation o
communication networks, systems, facilities, and equipment that provide local and intrabase communications, including off-post extensions
Syn- onymous witb communication base section,

baseline. ln a display device, a line representing a reference level, usually zero, onwhichascale,suchasatime, frequency,
ordistancescaleisplaced,forthedis-
play of signal, waves, or other events. Display devices that exhibit a baseline in- clude the cathode
g b as elin e.
ray tube, vidicon, reflectometer, spectroscope, and fiberscope. See dire ction- findin

base station.A land station it a land mobile service carrying on a communica' tion service with land mobile stations. A base station ma
also communicate with other base stations incident to communication with land mobile stations.
bathtub cun'e 73

BAsIc. A computer programming language with simple syntdx (grammar) and semantics (mnemonic instructions) designed for

ease of learning. It is used for conversational mode, numeric computations, and string handling. The name is derived from

Beginner's All-purpose symbolic Instruction code. Many varia- tions (dialects) are in use.

basic group. l. rn frequency division multiplexing of wideband systems, a num- ber of voice channels, either within a supergroup or

separately, that is normally composed of up to l2 voice channels occupying the frequency band from 6o to 1 08 kHz. Each basic

group of 12 may be subdivided into four 3-ch annel pregroups. This is ccITT Basic Group B. Basic Group A in carrier telephone

systems, is an assembly of 12 channels, occupying upper sideband.r in the 12to 60 kHz band. 2. ln signaling, a grortp of

chdracters to which suffixes or prefixes may be added to form signal groups for specific signaling purposes. see channel basic

group.

basic rnode. See laser basic mode.

basic mode link control. The control of a data link atthe datalink level rather than at higher layers (levels) such as in high-tevel

data link control (HDLC).

basic status. rn data transmission, the state of readiness or capabi_lity of a sec- ondary station to send or receive a frame containing an
 information field.

basket grip. A device for gripping a cable so that the pulling force is transferred to the sheath.

batch processing. L Tll.e processing of. data or the accomplishment of jobs accu- mulated in advance in such a manner that each accumulation thus

formed is pro- cessed or accomplished in the same run. 2. The processing of data accumulated over a period of time. 3. Loosely, the

execution of computer programs serially. 4. Pertaining to the technique of executing a set of computer programs such that each is

completed before the next program of the set is started. 5. pertaining to the sequential input of computer programs or data.

bathtub curve. A curve, shaped like the cross-sectional profile of a bathtub, that characterizes failure rates of large populations or

large numbers of components, such as are used in communication systems, as a function of time. The curve shows an early
failure period with a high failure rate that weeds out defective items; followed by a nearly constant failure period with a low

failure rate based on statistical failures; followed by a wear-out failure peiod with arapidly rising failure rate as the life of each

component expires. Also see component tife. see Figure B-2.

74 battery
d, =oE6Fz=o=oUcOUF&=JU&r
period, fem B-2. consisting A bathtub and W is of curve the many wearcut showing components. failure the failure peiod.

E is rale the of early components failure peiod, as a function C isthe of constant time in failure a sys-

battery. See common battery; local battery; station battery.

battery exchange. See comm on-b a t tery ex change.
battery signaling. See common-battery signaling.
battery signaling exchange. See common-battery signaling exchange.
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