Task-based syllabuses represent a particular realization of communicative

language teaching. Instead of beginning the design process with lists of

grammatical, functional-notional, and other items, the designer conducts a
needs analysis which yields a list of the target tasks that the targeted
learners will need to carry out in the ‘real-world’ outside the classroom.
Examples of target tasks include:

Taking part in a job interview.

Completing a credit card application.
Finding one’s way from a hotel to a subway station.
Checking into an hotel.

Any approach to language pedagogy will need to concern itself with three
essential elements: language data, information, and opportunities for
practice. In the rest of this piece I will look at these three elements from the
perspective of task-based language teaching.

Language Data
By language data, I mean samples of spoken and written language. I take it
as axiomatic that, without access to data, it is impossible to learn a
language. Minimally, all that is needed to acquire a language is access to
appropriate samples of aural language in contexts that make transparent
the relationship between form, function and use.

In language teaching, a contrast is drawn between “authentic” and “non-

authentic” data.
Authentic data are samples of spoken or written language that have not
been specifically written for the purposes of language teaching. “Non-
authentic” data are dialogues and reading passages that HAVE been
specially written.

Here are two conversations that illustrate the similarities and differences
between authentic and non-authentic data. Both are concerned with the
functions of asking for and giving directions. I needn’t spell out which is
which, because it is obvious.

Conversation 1
A: Excuse me please. Do you know where the nearest bank is?
B: Well, the city bank isn’t far from here. Do you know where the main
post office is?
A: No, not really. I’m just passing through.
B: Well, first go down this street to the traffic light.
A: OK.
B: Then turn left and go west on Sunset Boulevard for about two blocks.
The bank is on your right, just past the post office.
A: All right. Thank you.
B: You’re welcome.

Conversation 2
A: How do I get to Kensington Road?
B: Well, you go down Fullarton Road …
A: … what, down Old Belair Road and around …?
B: Yeah. And then you go straight …
A: past the hospital?
B: Yeah, keep going straight, past the racecourse to the roundabout. You
know the big roundabout?
A: Yeah.
B: And Kensington Road’s off to the right.
A: What, off the roundabout?
B: Yeah.
A: Right.

Proponents of task-based language teaching have argued for the

importance of incorporating authentic data into the classroom, although
much has been made of the fact that authenticity is a relative matter, and
that as soon as one extracts a piece of language from the communicative
context in which it occurred and takes it into the classroom, one is “de-
authenticating” it to a degree. However, if learners only ever encounter
contrived dialogues and listening texts, the task of learning the language
will be made more difficult. (Nunan, 1999).
The reality is, that in EFL contexts, learners need both authentic AND non-
authentic data. Both provide learners with different aspects of the
language.

Information
In addition to data, learners need information. They need experiential
information about the target culture, they need linguistic information about
target language systems, and they need process information about how to
go about learning the language. They can get this information either
deductively, when someone (usually a teacher) or a textbook provides an
explicit explanation, or they can get it inductively. In an inductive
approach, learners study examples of language and then formulate the
rule.

Here is an example of an inductive exercise I use to review contrasting

points of grammar. It is followed by the inductive reasoning of five of my
students who carried out the tasks.

In small groups, study the follow dialogues. What’s the difference between
what Person A says and what Person B says? When do we use one form
and when do we use the other? A: I’ve seen Romeo and Juliet twice. B:
Me too. I saw it last Tuesday and again on the weekend. A: Want to go to
the movies? B: No, I’m going to study tonight. We have an exam
tomorrow, you know. A: Oh, in that case, I’ll study as well.

Student A: “A use present perfect because something happened in the past,

but affecting things happening now.”
Student B: “Present perfect tense is used only to describe a certain
incidence in the past without describing the exact time of happening.
However, it is necessary to describe the time of happening when using the
simple past tense.”
Student C: “Simple past is more past than have seen.”
Student D: “We use present perfect tense when the action happen many
times. B. focus on actual date and use past.”
Student E: “A use present perfect to show how many times A have seen the
film. B use simple past to show how much he love the film.”

Student A: “A is talking about a future action which has no planning. For

B, the action has already planned.”
Student B: A is expressing something he want to do immediately. B is
expressing something he want to do in the future.”
Student C: “For A, the action will do in a longer future. For B, the action
should be done within a short time.”
Student D: “A doesn’t tell the exact time. B confirms the studying time will
be tonight. We use the verb to be plus going means must do something.
Student E: “A is more sure to study than B tonight.”

From these comments, you can see that learners, even those at roughly the
same proficiency level, will be at very different stages in their
understanding of grammatical principles and rules.

Some proponents of task-based pedagogy argue that an explicit, deductive

approach is unnecessary, that it does not work, and that all . Although I am
biased in favour of an inductive approach

Practice
The third and final essential element is practice. Unless you are
extraordinarily gifted as a language learner, it is highly unlikely that you
will get very far without extensive practice.

In designing practice opportunities for my learners, I distinguish between

tasks, exercises and activities. A task is a communicative act that does not
usually have a restrictive focus on a single grammatical structure. It also
had a non-linguistic outcome. An exercise usually has a restrictive focus on
a single language element, and has a linguistic outcome. An activity also
has a restrictive focus on one or two language items, but also has a
communicative outcome. In that sense, activities have something in
common with tasks and something in common with exercises.

I distinguish between real-world or target tasks, which are communicative

acts that we achieve through language in the world outside the classroom,
and pedagogical tasks, which are carried out in the classroom. I subdivide
pedagogical tasks into those with a rehearsal rationale and those with a
pedagogical rationale.

These different elements are further defined and exemplified below.

Real-world or target task: A communicative act we achieve through

language in the world outside the classroom.
Pedagogical tasks: A piece of classroom work which involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the language
while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than forms.
They have a non-linguistic outcome, and can be divided into rehearsal
tasks or activation tasks.
Rehearsal task: A piece of classroom work in which learners rehearse, in
class, a communicative act they will carry out outside of the class.
Activation task: A piece of classroom work involving communicative
interaction, but NOT one in which learners will be rehearsing for some out-
of-class communication. Rather they are designed to activate the
acquisition process.
Enabling skills: Mastery of language systems grammar, pronunciation,
vocabulary etc. which ENABLE learners to take part in communicative
tasks.
Language exercise: A piece of classroom work focusing learners on, and
involving learners in manipulating some aspect of the linguistic system
Communication activity: A piece of classroom work involving a focus on a
particular linguistic feature but ALSO involving the genuine exchange of
meaning.

Examples of pedagogical tasks, communicative activities and language

exercises from “Expressions”

References
• Nunan, D( 2001): The English Centre
Retrieved from: http//www.3.telus.net/linguistic issues/syllabusdesign.html
• Ellis, R(2003). Method- based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford:
Oxford university Press.
Eclectic Approach
• Method of Language Education
• Combines various APPROACHES and METHODOLOGIES
• TEACH LANGUAGE depending on the AIMS of the LESSON and ABILITIES of
the LEARNERS.
COURSE DESIGNING IN ESP FOLLOWS STAGES
1. Needs Assessment and Analysis
Focuses on identifying students needs and looking for ways to address them
effectively.
• MUNBY'S COMMUNICATIVE NEEDS PROCESSORS
VARIABLES:
A. PARTICIPANT- identity and language of the student
B. PURPOSIVE DOMAIN- looks into the reason for taking up the
language program
C. SETTING- deals with physical setting and psychosocial setting
D. INTERACTION- identifies the people to whom the student will be
communicating
• 2. Determining Goals and Objectives
What are the purposes and ended outcomes of the course? What will my students
need to do or achieve these goal?
• GOALS the general statements of the overall, long terms purposes of the
course.
• OBJECTIVES the specific ways in which the goals will be achieved. It will
become the basis for planning the topics, activities and materials will be
used in class.
3. Content Conceptualization and Organization
• Lessons should be carefully plotted within the program to identitfy
What to teach? Why to teach?
• The content should have a clear relationship with the needs of the
students.
[Language Components, Language Functions, Language Skills, Genre/Texts etc.]
4. Selection and Development of Materials
How and with what will I teach the course? What is my role? What are my
students roles?
• ESP courses develop specified materials
 Selecting materials (Adopt, Develop, Adapt)
Teaching Learning Techniques
Material Evaluation
5. Assessment and Evaluation
How will I assess what students have learned? How will I assess the effectiveness
of the course?
• Extent of learning or improvement on the part of the learner.
• Provide the course designer with necessary input on the areas that
should be retained, improved or even removed.

Reference:
• Graves K.(1996).A Framework of course development process.In K. Graves
(Ed.). Teachers as course developers (pp. 1-11). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.