Concept of Integrated Agriculture:

Land:
Land, sometimes referred to as dry land, is the solid surface of the Earth that is not
permanently covered by water. The vast majority of human activity occurs in land areas that
support agriculture, habitat, and various natural resources.

Some life forms (including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals) have developed from
predecessor species that lived in bodies of water.

Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones. The division between
land and water is a fundamental concept to humans. The demarcation between land and
water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors. A maritime boundary is one example of
a political demarcation. A variety of natural boundaries exist to help clearly define where
water meets land. Solid rock landforms are easier to demarcate than marshy or swampy
boundaries, where there is no clear point at which the land ends and a body of water has
begun. Demarcation can further vary due to tides and weather.

Etymology and terminology:

A continuous area of land surrounded by ocean is called a "landmass". Although it may be

most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage "land mass"—the measure of
land area—it is also used as two words. Landmasses include supercontinents, continents,
and islands. There are four major continuous landmasses of the Earth: Afro-Eurasia,
Americas, Australia and Antarctica. Land, capable of being ploughed and used to grow
crops, is called arable land.

A country or region may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its

people. Many countries and other places have names incorporating -land (e.g. Iceland).

History of Land on Earth:

The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672±0.0006 bya (billion years
ago); therefore, the Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. By
4.54±0.04 bya, the primordial Earth had formed. The formation and evolution of the Solar
System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume
out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a
circumstellar disk, which the planets then grow out of in tandem with the star. A nebula
contains gas, ice grains and dust (including primordial nuclides). In nebular theory,
planetesimals commence forming as particulate matter accrues by cohesive clumping and
then by gravity. The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 10–20 myr.

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that
included water vapor. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by

1
water and ice delivered by asteroids, proto-planets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric
"greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at
70% luminosity. By 3.5 bya, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent
the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. The atmosphere and oceans of
the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface.

The crust, which currently forms the Earth's land, was created when the molten outer layer of
the planet Earth cooled to form a solid mass as the accumulated water vapor began to act in
the atmosphere. Once land became capable of supporting life, biodiversity evolved over
hundreds of million years, expanding continually except when punctuated by mass
extinctions.

The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day
forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady
continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the
continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions
of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly 750 mya
(million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.
The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which
also broke apart 180 mya.

Land mass:

"Land mass" refers to the total surface area of the land of a geographical region or country
(which may include discontinuous pieces of land such as islands). It is written as two words
to distinguish it from the usage "landmass", the contiguous area of land surrounded by
ocean.

The Earth's total land mass is 148,939,063.133 km2 (57,505,693.767 sq mi) which is about
29.2% of its total surface. Water covers approximately 70.8% of the Earth's surface, mostly in
the form of oceans and ice formations.

Land and Climate:

The land of the Earth interacts with and influences climate heavily since the surface of the
land heats up and cools down faster than air or water. Latitude, elevation, topography,
reflectivity, and land use all have varying impacts. The latitude of the land will influence how
much solar radiation reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low
latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and
precipitation on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and
make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect
causes condensation and precipitation. Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary albedo
and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun has an impact on the amount of
energy that is reflected or transferred to Earth.[35] Vegetation has a relatively low albedo
meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun’s energy. Forests have an
albedo of 10-15% while grasslands have an albedo of 15-20%. In comparison, sandy deserts
have an albedo of 25-40%. Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global

2
climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects
on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.

Water:
Food and agriculture are the largest consumers of water, requiring one hundred times more
than we use for personal needs. Up to 70 % of the water we take from rivers and
groundwater goes into irrigation, about 10% is used in domestic applications and 20% in
industry. Currently, about 3600 km3 of freshwater are withdrawn for human use. Of these,
roughly half is really consumed as a result of evaporation, incorporation into crops and
transpiration from crops. The other half recharges groundwater or surface flows or is lost in
unproductive evaporation. Up to 90% of the water withdrawn for domestic use is returned to
rivers and aquifers as wastewater and industries typically consume only about 5% of the
water they withdraw. This wastewater from domestic sewage systems and industries should
be treated before being dismissed.

Since the 1960s the global nutrition has considerably improved, providing more food per
capita at progressively lower prices. This performance was possible through high-yielding
seeds, irrigation and plant nutrition. As population keeps increasing more food and livestock
feed need to be produced in the future and more water applied to this purpose. Irrigate
agriculture will have to claim large quantities of water to produce the food required to feed
the world. The main source of food for the population of the world is agriculture: this term
also includes livestock husbandry, manages fisheries and forestry.

The composition of meals changes gradually as lifestyles change. What agriculture produces
is driven by consumer demand, and changes in consumer preferences have an influence on
the water needed for food production.

Cereals are by far the most important source of total food consumption: in developing
countries the consumption of cereals 30 years ago represented 61% of total calories. It
decreased to 56% nowadays and this reflects diet diversification, proving that more countries
achieve higher levels of nutrition. It is expected that cereals will continue to supply more than
50% of the food consumed in the foreseeable future. A large proportion of cereals is
produced for animal feed.

Food production from the livestock sector includes meat (beef, pork, poultry, etc.), dairy
production and eggs.

For vegetative growth and development plants require water in adequate quantity and at the
right time. Crops have very specific water requirements, and these vary depending on local
climate conditions. The production of meat requires between six and twenty time more water
than for cereals.

The following tables give an overview of the water consumption in food and agriculture.

3
Specific values for the water equivalent of a selection of food products are given in the first
table. The second table shows the amount of water needed necessary for a few products per
unit of consumption. A glass of wine acquires for example 120 liters of water, a hamburger
2.400 liters, a cotton shirt 4.000 liters and a couple of shoes made out of cows leather 8.000
liters.

The third table gives an overview of the amount of virtual water used in the different kind of
agricultural products. The big difference between the countries is due to the climate, applied
technology and the amount of production rela

The amount of water involved in agriculture is significant and most of it is provided directly
by rainfall. A rough calculation of global water needs for food production can be based on
the specific water requirements to produce food for one person. The present average food
ingest 2800 kcal/person/day may require 1000 m3 per year to be produced. The world
population is about 6 billion, so water needed to produce the necessary food, excluding
water losses due to the irrigation system, is 6000 km3. Most of it is provided by rainfall stored
in the soil profile and only 15% is provided through irrigation. Irrigation therefore needs 900
km3 of water per year for food crops. On average just about 40% of water withdrawn from
rivers, lakes and aquifers for agriculture effectively contribute to crop production (the rest is
lost through evaporation and deep infiltration). Consequently the current global water
withdrawals for irrigation are estimated to be about 2000 to 2500 km3 per year.

The irrigation level varies from area to area, mostly depending on climate conditions and on
the development of irrigation infrastrure. The following figure shows the area equipped for
irrigation as percentage of cultivated land by country.

Irrigation-water management has a log way to adapt to the increasing production

requirements, however water-saving technologies are already available and can significantly
reduce the waste of water. If incentives are in place, as increasing the price of irrigation
water, farmers will adopt water-saving irrigation technologies. The main technologies likely to
be used in developing countries, where labour is normally abundant but capital scarce, are
underground and drip irrigation. Both technologies depend on the frequent application of
small amounts of water as directly as possible to the roots of crops. Reducing the pollution
loads of water used by farms, industries and urban areas would enable much more of it to be
re-used in irrigation. There are enormous potential benefits to be had from the use of
wastewater for irrigation.

Agriculture will remain the dominant user of water at the global level. In many countries, in
particular those situated in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world, this dependency can
be expected to intensify. The contribution of irrigated agriculture to food production is
substantial but in future the rate of growth will be lower than in the past. Both irrigated and
non-irrigated agriculture still have scope for increasing productivity, including water
productivity. Arguably, the expansion of irrigated agriculture protected people on the
nutritional fringe from premature death, and preserved tracts of land under forest and
wetlands from encroachment by hard-pressed farmers.

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Farm water, also known as agricultural water, is water committed for use in the production of
food and fiber. On average, 80 percent of the fresh water withdrawn from rivers and
groundwater is used to produce food and other agricultural products.[1] Farm water may
include water used in the irrigation of crops or the watering of livestock.

It becomes difficult to relate water use to economics, however, water is one of the most
fundamental parts of the global economy. It has been shown, that in areas without healthy
water resources or sanitation services that economic growth cannot be sustained. Without
access to clean water, nearly every industry would suffer, most notably, would be agriculture.
As water scarcity grows as a global concern, food security is also brought into consideration.
A recent example of this could be the drought in California—it is projected that for every
$100 spent on foods from this state, a consumer should expect to pay up to $15 additionally.

Livestock Water Use:

Livestock and meat production have one of the largest water footprints of the agricultural
industry. Taking nearly 1,800 gallons of water to produce one pound of beef and 576 gallons
for pork. For reference, it only takes about 108 gallons of water to harvest one pound of corn.
Livestock production is also one of the most resource intensive agricultural outputs. This is
largely due to their large feed conversion ratio. Livestock's large water consumption may
also be attributed to the amount of time it takes to raise an animal to slaughter. Again, in
contrast to corn, which grows to maturity in about 100 days. This adds an extra 995 days of
water to grow cattle. The global "food animal" population is just over 20 billion creatures, with
7+ billion humans, this equates to about 2.85 animals per human.

Cattle

The beef and dairy industries are the most lucrative branches of the U.S. agricultural
industry, however, they are also the most resource intensive. To date, beef is the most
popular of the meats; the U.S. alone produced 25.8 billion pounds in 2013. In this same year,
201.2 billion pounds of milk were produced. These cattle are mostly raised in centralized
animal feeding operations, or CAFOs. On average, a mature cow will consume anywhere
from seven to twenty-four gallons of water a day; cows that are lactating require about twice
as much water. The amount of water that cattle may drink in a day also depends upon the
temperature

Cattle have a feed conversion ratio of 6:1, for every six pounds of food consumed, the animal
should gain one pound. Thus, there is also a substantial "indirect" need for water in order to
grow the feed for the livestock. Growing the amount of feed grains necessary for raising
livestock accounts for 56 percent of the U.S water consumption.[9] Of a 1,000 pound cow,
only 430 pounds make it to the retail markets.[10] This 18 percent loss, creates an even

5
greater demand for cattle, being that CAFOs must make up for this lost profitable weight, by
increasing the amount of cows that they raise.

Water scarcity is not necessarily a new issue, however, cattle ranchers in America have been
cutting heard sizes since the 1950's in efforts to curb water and manufacturing costs. This
shift has led to more efficient feeding and health methods, allowing ranchers to harvest more
beef per animal. The rising popularity of these CAFOs are creating a larger demand for
water, however. Grass-fed or grazing cows consume about twelve percent more water
through the ingestion of live plants, than those cows who are fed dried grains.

Poultry and Fowl:

Water is one of the most crucial aspects of poultry raising, as they use this to carry food
through their system, and assist in digestion. Additionally, farmers monitor flock water
consumption to measure the overall health of their birds. As birds grow older they should be
consuming more feed and about three times as much water. In just three weeks a bird's
water consumption should increase by about 10 gallons a day. Water consumption is also
influenced by temperature. When it is hot outside bird will pant to keep cool, thus losing
much of their water.[14] A study based in Ohio showed that 67 percent of water sampled
near poultry farms contained antibiotics.

Horticulture Water Use

With modern advancements, crops are being cultivated year round in countries all around
the world. As water usage becomes a more pervasive global issue, irrigation practices for
crops are being refined and becoming more sustainable. While there are a variety of
irrigation systems, these may be grouped into two types: high flow and low flow. These
systems must be managed precisely to prevent runoff, over spray, or low-head drainage.

Scarcity of Water in Agriculture:

50 years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At this time,
there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. Affluence was not as
high, individuals consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to
produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from
rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because
there are now nearly eight billion people on the planet, their consumption of meat and
vegetables is rising. Competition for water from industry, urbanisation and biofuel crops is
rising congruently. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to make strides to
increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways
to use water more efficiently.

6
Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water.
However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world.
Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including
that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from
physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are
over-committed. This can happen where there is over development of hydraulic
infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include
environmental degradation and declining groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is
caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand
for water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people
often having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion
people currently live in water-scarce areas.

Sustainable Water Use:

While it is evident that water use has an impact on environmental degradation and economic
growth, it is also sparking innovation regarding new irrigation methods. In 2006, the USDA
predicted that if the agricultural sector improved water efficiency by just 10 percent farms
could annually save upwards of $200 million per year. Many of the practices which cut water
use are cost effective. Farmers who use straw, compost, or mulch around their crops will
reduce evaporation by about 75 percent. This would also reduce the number of weeds and
save a farmer from using herbicides. Mulches or ground covers also allow the soils to absorb
more water by reducing compaction. The use of white or pale gravel is also practiced, as it
reduces evaporation and keeps soil temperatures low by reflecting sunlight.

In addition to reducing water loss at the sink, there are also more sustainable ways to harvest
water. Many modern small (non industrial) farmers are using rain barrels to collect the water
needed for their crops and livestock. On average, rainwater harvesting reduces the cost of
water per cubic meter in half.[21] This would also greatly reduce the stress on local aquifers
and wells. Because farmers use the roofs of their buildings to gather this water, this also
reduced rainwater runoff and soil erosion on and around their farm.

Biological:
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on sustainable techniques to enhance the
natural fertility of a farm, including crop rotation, companion planting, biological pest control,
and naturally-sourced fertilizers such as compost, manure, green manure, and bone meal.
Pest-control measures such as mixed crops and fostering natural insect predators, as well as
naturally-sourced pesticides such as pyrethrin, are employed, while it excludes or strictly
limits the use of synthetic petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators
such as hormones, antibiotic use in livestock, genetically modified organisms; human
sewage sludge, and nanomaterials.) The agricultural approach emphasizes sustainability,
openness, independence, health, and safety.

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many
nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International Federation of Organic

7
Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming
organizations established in 1972. The USDA definition as of April 1995 is:

• Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes

and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on
minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain
and enhance ecological harmony.
• Since 1990 the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly,
reaching $63 billion worldwide in 2012. :25 This demand has driven a similar increase
in organically managed farmland that grew from 2001 to 2011 at a compounding rate
of 8.9% per annum. As of 2011, approximately 37,000,000 hectares (91,000,000
acres) worldwide were farmed organically, representing approximately 0.9 percent of
total world farmland.

Methods:

"Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and
people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions,
rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition,
innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and
a good quality of life for all involved..."

Organic farming methods combine scientific knowledge of ecology and modern technology
with traditional farming practices based on naturally occurring biological processes. Organic
farming methods are studied in the field of agroecology. While conventional agriculture uses
synthetic pesticides and water-soluble synthetically purified fertilizers, organic farmers are
restricted by regulations to using natural pesticides and fertilizers. An example of a natural
pesticide is pyrethrin, which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower. The principal
methods of organic farming include crop rotation, green manures and compost, biological
pest control, and mechanical cultivation. These measures use the natural environment to
enhance agricultural productivity: legumes are planted to fix nitrogen into the soil, natural
insect predators are encouraged, crops are rotated to confuse pests and renew soil, and
natural materials such as potassium bicarbonate and mulches are used to control disease
and weeds. Hardier plants are generated through plant breeding rather than genetic
engineering.

While organic is fundamentally different from conventional because of the use of carbon
based fertilizers compared with highly soluble synthetic based fertilizers and biological pest
control instead of synthetic pesticides, organic farming and large-scale conventional farming
are not entirely mutually exclusive. Many of the methods developed for organic agriculture
have been borrowed by more conventional agriculture. For example, Integrated Pest
Management is a multifaceted strategy that uses various organic methods of pest control
whenever possible, but in conventional farming could include synthetic pesticides only as a
last resort.

8
Crop diversity:

Crop diversity is a distinctive characteristic of organic farming. Conventional farming focuses

on mass production of one crop in one location, a practice called monoculture. The science
of agroecology has revealed the benefits of polyculture (multiple crops in the same space),
which is often employed in organic farming.[31] Planting a variety of vegetable crops
supports a wider range of beneficial insects, soil microorganisms, and other factors that add
up to overall farm health. Crop diversity helps environments thrive and protects species from
going extinct.[32]

Soil management:

Organic farming relies heavily on the natural breakdown of organic matter, using techniques
like green manure and composting, to replace nutrients taken from the soil by previous
crops. This biological process, driven by microorganisms such as mycorrhiza, allows the
natural production of nutrients in the soil throughout the growing season, and has been
referred to as feeding the soil to feed the plant. Organic farming uses a variety of methods to
improve soil fertility, including crop rotation, cover cropping, reduced tillage, and application
of compost. By reducing tillage, soil is not inverted and exposed to air; less carbon is lost to
the atmosphere resulting in more soil organic carbon. This has an added benefit of carbon
sequestration, which can reduce green house gases and help reverse climate change.

Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as micronutrients and symbiotic
relationships with fungi and other organisms to flourish, but getting enough nitrogen, and
particularly synchronization so that plants get enough nitrogen at the right time (when plants
need it most), is a challenge for organic farmers.[33] Crop rotation and green manure ("cover
crops") help to provide nitrogen through legumes (more precisely, the Fabaceae family),
which fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria.
Intercropping, which is sometimes used for insect and disease control, can also increase soil
nutrients, but the competition between the legume and the crop can be problematic and
wider spacing between crop rows is required. Crop residues can be ploughed back into the
soil, and different plants leave different amounts of nitrogen, potentially aiding
synchronization.[33] Organic farmers also use animal manure, certain processed fertilizers
such as seed meal and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and green sand, a
naturally occurring form of potash that provides potassium. Together these methods help to
control erosion. In some cases pH may need to be amended. Natural pH amendments
include lime and sulfur, but in the U.S. some compounds such as iron sulfate, aluminum
sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and soluble boron products are allowed in organic farming.

Mixed farms with both livestock and crops can operate as ley farms, whereby the land
gathers fertility through growing nitrogen-fixing forage grasses such as white clover or alfalfa
and grows cash crops or cereals when fertility is established. Farms without livestock
("stockless") may find it more difficult to maintain soil fertility, and may rely more on external
inputs such as imported manure as well as grain legumes and green manures, although
grain legumes may fix limited nitrogen because they are harvested. Horticultural farms that
grow fruits and vegetables in protected conditions often relay even more on external inputs.

9
Biological research into soil and soil organisms has proven beneficial to organic farming.
Varieties of bacteria and fungi break down chemicals, plant matter and animal waste into
productive soil nutrients. In turn, they produce benefits of healthier yields and more
productive soil for future crops.[35] Fields with less or no manure display significantly lower
yields, due to decreased soil microbe community. Increased manure improves biological
activity, providing a healthier, more arable soil system and higher yields.

Weed management:

Organic weed management promotes weed suppression, rather than weed elimination, by
enhancing crop competition and phytotoxic effects on weeds. Organic farmers integrate
cultural, biological, mechanical, physical and chemical tactics to manage weeds without
synthetic herbicides.

Organic standards require rotation of annual crops, meaning that a single crop cannot be
grown in the same location without a different, intervening crop. Organic crop rotations
frequently include weed-suppressive cover crops and crops with dissimilar life cycles to
discourage weeds associated with a particular crop. Research is ongoing to develop organic
methods to promote the growth of natural microorganisms that suppress the growth or
germination of common weeds.

Other cultural practices used to enhance crop competitiveness and reduce weed pressure
include selection of competitive crop varieties, high-density planting, tight row spacing, and
late planting into warm soil to encourage rapid crop germination.

Mechanical and physical weed control practices used on organic farms can be broadly
grouped as:

• Tillage - Turning the soil between crops to incorporate crop residues and soil
amendments; remove existing weed growth and prepare a seedbed for planting;
turning soil after seeding to kill weeds, including cultivation of row crops;
• Mowing and cutting - Removing top growth of weeds;
Flame weeding and thermal weeding - Using heat to kill weeds; and
Mulching - Blocking weed emergence with organic materials, plastic films, or
landscape fabric.

Some critics, citing work published in 1997 by David Pimentel of Cornell University, which
described an epidemic of soil erosion worldwide, have raised concerned that tillage
contribute to the erosion epidemic. The FAO and other organizations have advocated a 'no-

10
till' approach to both conventional and organic farming, and point out in particular that crop
rotation techniques used in organic farming are excellent no-till approaches. A study
published in 2005 by Pimentel and colleagues confirmed that 'Crop rotations and cover
cropping (green manure) typical of organic agriculture reduce soil erosion, pest problems,
and pesticide use.' Some naturally sourced chemicals are allowed for herbicidal use. These
include certain formulations of acetic acid (concentrated vinegar), corn gluten meal, and
essential oils. A few selective bioherbicides based on fungal pathogens have also been
developed. At this time, however, organic herbicides and bioherbicides play a minor role in
the organic weed control toolbox.

Weeds can be controlled by grazing. For example, geese have been used successfully to
weed a range of organic crops including cotton, strawberries, tobacco, and corn, reviving the
practice of keeping cotton patch geese, common in the southern U.S. before the 1950s.
Similarly, some rice farmers introduce ducks and fish to wet paddy fields to eat both weeds
and insects.

Controlling other organisms

Organisms aside from weeds that cause problems on organic farms include arthropods (e.g.,
insects, mites), nematodes, fungi and bacteria. Organic practices include, but are not limited
to:

• encouraging predatory beneficial insects to control pests by serving them nursery

plants and/or an alternative habitat, usually in a form of a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or
beetle bank;
• encouraging beneficial microorganisms;
• rotating crops to different locations from year to year to interrupt pest reproduction
cycles
• planting companion crops and pest-repelling plants that discourage or divert pests;
• using row covers to protect crops during pest migration periods;
• using biologic pesticides and herbicides
• using stale seed beds to germinate and destroy weeds before planting
• using sanitation to remove pest habitat;
• Using insect traps to monitor and control insect populations.
• Using physical barriers, such as row covers

Examples of predatory beneficial insects include minute pirate bugs, big-eyed bugs, and to a
lesser extent ladybugs (which tend to fly away), all of which eat a wide range of pests.
Lacewings are also effective, but tend to fly away. Praying mantis tend to move more slowly
and eat less heavily. Parasitoid wasps tend to be effective for their selected prey, but like all
small insects can be less effective outdoors because the wind controls their movement.
Predatory mites are effective for controlling other mites.

11
 Naturally derived insecticides allowed for use on organic farms use include Bacillus
thuringiensis (a bacterial toxin), pyrethrum (a chrysanthemum extract), spinosad (a bacterial
metabolite), neem (a tree extract) and rotenone (a legume root extract). Fewer than 10% of
organic farmers use these pesticides regularly; one survey found that only 5.3% of vegetable
growers in California use rotenone while 1.7% use pyrethrum.[49]:26 These pesticides are
not always more safe or environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause
harm.[34]:92 The main criterion for organic pesticides is that they are naturally derived, and
some naturally derived substances have been controversial. Controversial natural pesticides
include rotenone, copper, nicotine sulfate, and pyrethrums[50][51] Rotenone and pyrethrum
are particularly controversial because they work by attacking the nervous system, like most
conventional insecticides. Rotenone is extremely toxic to fish[52] and can induce symptoms
resembling Parkinson's disease in mammals.[53][54] Although pyrethrum (natural pyrethrins)
is more effective against insects when used with piperonyl butoxide (which retards
degradation of the pyrethrins), organic standards generally do not permit use of the latter
substance.

Naturally derived fungicides allowed for use on organic farms include the bacteria Bacillus
subtilis and Bacillus pumilus; and the fungus Trichoderma harzianum. These are mainly
effective for diseases affecting roots. Compost tea contains a mix of beneficial microbes,
which may attack or out-compete certain plant pathogens,[59] but variability among
formulations and preparation methods may contribute to inconsistent results or even
dangerous growth of toxic microbes in compost teas.

Some naturally derived pesticides are not allowed for use on organic farms. These include
nicotine sulfate, arsenic, and strychnine.

Synthetic pesticides allowed for use on organic farms include insecticidal soaps and
horticultural oils for insect management; and Bordeaux mixture, copper hydroxide and
sodium bicarbonate for managing fungi. Copper sulfate and Bordeaux mixture (copper
sulfate plus lime), approved for organic use in various jurisdictions, can be more
environmentally problematic than some synthetic fungicides dissallowed in organic farming
Similar concerns apply to copper hydroxide. Repeated application of copper sulfate or
copper hydroxide as a fungicide may eventually result in copper accumulation to toxic levels
in soil, and admonitions to avoid excessive accumulations of copper in soil appear in various
organic standards and elsewhere. Environmental concerns for several kinds of biota arise at
average rates of use of such substances for some crops. In the European Union, where
replacement of copper-based fungicides in organic agriculture is a policy priority, research is
seeking alternatives for organic production.

12
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For Complete CSS Agriculture
and Forestry Notes:

Call At:
03084293988,
03314019933

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