2.

Structure and Function

Since Euglena is a eukaryotic unicellular organism, it contains the major organelles found in more
complex life. This protist is both an autotroph, meaning it can carry out photosynthesis and make
its own food like plants, as well as a heteroptoph, meaning it can also capture and ingest its
food. When acting as a autotroph, the Euglena utilizes its chloroplasts (which gives it the green
colour) to produce sugars by photosynthesis, when acting as a heterotroph, the Euglena
surrounds the particle of food and consumes it by phagocytosis, or in other words, engulfing the
food through its cell membrane. Due to this adaptation, many Euglena are considered mixotrophs:
autotrophs in the light and heterotophs in the dark. Locomotion comes in the form of either the
rotating flagellums, or the flexible pellicle membrane.

On the right is a diagram of a Euglena displaying its Organelles, which include:

Flagellum- A long, mobile filament that the Euglena uses to propel itself in its environment
Reservoir- The part used for storage of nutrients
Stigma- A light sensitive-spot that allows the Euglena to detect light, so that it may move towards
it in order to conduct photosynthesis
Chloroplast- Organelle that allows the organism to conduct photosynthesis
Contractile Vacuole- Expels excess water into the reservoir, or else the cell would burst
Pellicle- Stiff membrane made of proteins and somewhat flexible, can also be used for locomotion
when crunching up and down or wriggling
Nucleus- The central organelle which contains DNA and controls the cell's activity, contained
within the Nucleolus.

Morphology of Cyclops (With Diagram)

Cyclops are the most familiar copepod of class-Crustacea. These crustaceans are found in
fresh water ponds, lakes and in slight brakish water of the estuary. They are regarded as zoo-
planktons. Cyclops acts as intermediate host of guinea-worm, Dracunculus medinensis.

The coiled larvae of Dracunculus are released in water by rupturing the blister of human
beings. In case of guinea- worm man is the definitive host which harbours the adult parasite
in the subcutaneous tissues. Each Cyclops can ingest as many as 15-20 guinea- worm larvae.

The infected Cyclopses usually die at the end of 42 days but with a heavy infection they do not
live for more than 15 days. In Cyclops, the larvae moult twice and become infective in three
weeks-time. When infective Cyclops is taken in by the man with water, the larvae escape and
bore their way into subcutaneous tissue where they attain adulthood (Fig. 15.19).

Cyclops also acts as the intermediate host of Diphyllobothrium latum, an intestinal helminth
parasite of human beings. The fertilised eggs of D. latum are liberated through the faeces of
definitive host (man) in water. A spherical ciliated embryo or larva containing 3 pairs of
hooklets, called coracidium, develops within each egg-shell in the course of 1 to 2 weeks.
The mature coracidium escapes into the water and is ingested by a Cyclops. Inside the
intestine of Cyclops, the coracidium loses its cilia and the supporting cubical cells and
penetrates the intestinal wall to reach the body cavity of the Cyclops.

Within the body cavity it is metamorphosed into an elongated solid body with a caudal
spherical appendage containing six hooks. This larval stage is known as Precoracoid larva.
Two larvae develop within the body cavity of Cyclops. The Cyclops, containing the developing
larvae, is in its turn devoured by the second intermediate host, a fresh water fish.

Structure of Cyclops (With Diagram) | Zoology

In this article we will discuss about the structure of cyclops with the help of
diagram.

1. It is the slide of Cyclops.

2. These are mostly free living forms of greenish colour found in ponds and ditches of
stagnent water.

3. 3. Body broad in middle and tapers behind into a urosome.

 4. 4. The body is divisible into a head, thorax and abdomen. The head and first thoracic
segment are united to form a cephalothorax covered by a carapace or cephalic shield.
The thorax is made up of 7 segments but only 5 free segments are visible. The
abdomen is having 4 segments.

5. 5. The last abdominal segment is having a pair of caudal forks with 5 plumose
bristles at their tip.

6. The cephalothorax is having paired antennae and antennules and a single median
eye near its tip which is formed by the fusion of 3 ocelli.

7. 7. Antennules serves as the organs of locomotion.

8. 8. All appendages are biramous except the antennae which is uniramous.

9. 9. With last thoracic segment, on either side, a sac-like ootheca or egg sac having ova
in various stages of development, is attached.

10. 10. Excretion’s done by maxillary glands.

11. 11. Sexes are separate and ovary is single median and is located in the cephalothorax.

12. 12. A pair of convoluted uteri surround the ovary and open into respective ootheca.

Morphology
The genus Paramecium is possibly amid the most complex unicellular organisms. The genus
consists of microscopic, elongated species organisms usually ranging in length from 50 to 350
micrometres (Figure 2). The species, P. caudatum measures between 170 to 290
micrometers while P. aurelia ranges 120 to 250 micrometers in length. Paramecia are
typically ovoid, slipper shaped or cigar-shaped. On the basis of the general shape of the
cell, Paramecium representatives can be divided into two groups: “aurelia”, with a cigar-
shaped body and “bursaria”, with the body more like a slipper with obliquely truncated
anterior end. However, some species such as P. pseudotrichium (more ellipsoidal) and the
one, newly found Parameciumspecies from Norway (somehow combining cigar and slipper
shape) deviate from these general images –(Fokin et al., 2006).

Figure: 2 The main morphospecies of Paramecium: a) P. multimicronucleatum; b) P.

caudatum; c) P. jenningsi; d) P. schewiakoffi; e) Paramecium sp. (Norway);
f) P. woodruffi;g) P. aurelia; h) P. nephridiatum; i) P. bursaria, j) P. calkinsi;
k) P. duboscqui; l) P. putrinum; m) P. polycaryum. Abbreviations: Ma –
macronucleus, Mi – micronucleus, b – buccal cavity, c – cytoproct. Scale bar = 100
µm.

Source: Fokin, S.I., (2010). Paramecium genus: biodiversity, some morphological features
and the key to the main morphospecies discrimination. Protistology 6 (4), 227–235

Figure: 3 General structure of Paramecium

Source: Self modified

Unlike protozoans such as Amoeba, their body shape is generally constant and asymmetrical
due to the presence of oral groove situated at 2/3 rd part of the body on the ventral side of the
animal. The oral groove posteriorly leads into a deeper conical vestibule which in turn is
connected with buccal cavity having a mouth (or cytostome). The body is distinguished into
the dorsal and ventral surface.

The animal’s body is enclosed externally by a tough elastic membrane

called pellicle uniformly covered withcilia. Internally, the cells cytoplasm is divided into a thin
outer part, the ectoplasm containing trichocysts and base of cilia and an inner granular area,
endoplasm containing the organelles (nucleus, contractile vacuole, food vacuoles, etc.) and
cell inclusions (Figure 3).

Pellicular system

The pellicle along with associated structures forms the pellicular system as shown in the
diagram (Figure 4).

Figure: 4 Pellicular system in Paramecium (After Ehret and Powers from Corliss)

Source: http://www.sfu.ca/~fankbone/v/lab02.htmlwriiten for permission

It consists of an outer cell membrane (plasma membrane) in continuation with the membrane
surrounding the cilia. Below the cell membrane are inflated donut-shaped alveoli bounded by
outer and inner alveolar membrane enclosing alveolar cavity. Within the alveoli arise one or
two cilia creating a circumciliary space about them. Alternating with the alveoli are trichocysts
forming a second, deeper close-packed layer of the pellicular system. Below the alveoli is
located the infraciliary system constituted by the basal bodies and kinetodesma.

3. Euglena: Plant characteristics and Animal

characteristics of Euglena
Euglena is an organism sharing both characteristics of plants and animals.
Plants Characteristics of Euglena:

It has chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

It uses holophytic mode of nutrition if light is present.
Possession of pyrenoid.
Carbohydrate or food is stored in form of starch granules.

ANIMaL Characteristics of Euglena:

Possession of an eye part for light deflection.

Possession of pellicle.
Possession of a gullet and a food reservoire.
Possession of flagellum for movement.
Possession of myonemes for movement.
Possession of contractive vacuole for excretion and osmoregulation.
In the absence of light, nutrition is holozoic.

Euglena are single-celled organisms that live mostly in fresh water, although a few
species do live in salt water. They have long tails called flagella, which they use to move
through water. Most species of euglena contain chloroplasts and produce their own food
through photosynthesis.
All euglena belong to the genus Euglena and the class Eugelnoidea. They are protists,
which means they show characteristics seen in both plants and animals. Although most
species do carry out photosynthesis using chlorophyll pigments, they also feed on other
organisms by engulfing them in their cell membranes through a process known as
phagocytosis. Euglena do not have cell walls, but they do have a special protein layer
called a pellicle that surrounds the cell and offers protection.

Euglena reproduce asexually through a process known as binary fission. The process
begins when the euglena replicates its DNA and expands in size. Then, it divides in half,
creating two complete organisms, each with identical DNA.

Euglena are common in ponds and streams. They cannot be seen with the naked eye,
but are easily visualized under a light microscope. Euglena are often identified visually by
their red eyespots and the presence of flagella, which they use to detect light.
Cyclops
Crustacean, Copepod
Return to main pond animals page
Cyclops are crustaceans and related to lobsters, crabs
and shrimp. They are invertebrates with a hard outer
shell. They swim freely about.

The cyclops has 5 pair of legs and a divided tail-like

appendage called a furca. The Cyclops is very small
about 2-3mm long with one black or red eye in the middle
of its head. The cyclops is named after the one-eyed
monster of Greek legend. It is greenish, straw yellow, or
grayish in color. It goes jerking through the water
usually in very large numbers. The females carry the
eggs (shown in picture) in little side sacs and they
multiply rapidly. The cyclops is often seen near water
fleas or Daphnia. Many water animals feed upon the
cyclops. It has a very important role in the food chain.

General Description of Paramecium

Paramecium is a unicellular, microscopic, free-living organisms. It is the most common
ciliates, characterized by the presence of cilia, nuclear dimorphism and unique type of
sexual reproduction (conjugation).
History

13. Paramecium was named by John Hill in 1752.

14. Antony van Leeuwenhoek described about paramecium.

Different species of paramecium are grouped into two

categories

Aurelia group Bursaria group

Short and broad, posterior end

Are elongated, spindle shaped body.
is somewhat broad.
 Length more than width.

Cytoproct is lateral. Cytoproct is sub-terminal.

e.g. P.caudatum, P.aurelia e.g. P. bursaria, P.trichium

What is its common name? Why is it called so?

Its common name is slipper animalcule. It is called so because it looks like the sole of shoe
or slipper.

NOTE: Louis Joblot gave the name chausson or slipper and the phrase slipper animalcule
remained in used.

Paramecium caudatum

Systemic position

Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Protozoa
Subphylum: Ciliophora
Class: Ciliata
Genus: Paramecium
Species: caudatum

Why the species name given caudatum?

Due to the presence of caudal tuft in the posterior region it is called caudatum.

Paramecium caudatum is also called infusorian animalcule because it is found in place where
decaying or decomposed organic matter and bacteria are found.
 General characters

1. Occurrence: It is found in freshwater ponds, pools, ditches, streams, rivers, lakes, etc. It is
abundantly found in stagnant water, where decaying organic matter is in plenty.
2. Locomotion: It moves here and there with the help of cilia, which also functions as food
capture.
3. Nutrition: It ingests bacteria and other microscopic organisms or minute protozoans. So
nutrition is holozoic.
4. Digestion: intracellular.
5. Respiration and excretion: takes place by general body surface through diffusion process.
In paramecium, excretion is also done contractile vacuole and cytoproct.
6. Reproduction: Asexually by transverse binary fission and sexually by conjugation.

A paramecium is a single-celled creature that resembles a slipper and mainly lives in bodies of
water such as ponds, lakes and rivers. Paramecia belong to the group of organisms called
protists.
Like all protists, paramecia are composed of a single cell that does everything necessary for
life. The paramecium does not belong to a single species but instead describes a large number
of related species with similar characteristics.

Paramecia are motile and move in the water by beating hairy projections called cilia back and
forth. This allows the paramecium to move in water more rapidly than other protists.

Unlike single-celled organisms such as bacteria, paramecia and protists have organelles within
them, which makes them eukaryotic. Organelles are structures bound by membranes that
perform certain functions in a cell. The nucleus, or brain, of a cell is an organelle.

Paramecia reproduce asexually, meaning they do not need other paramecia to procreate.
Reproduction occurs when the paramecium doubles in size and then divides in two through the
process of binary fission. The two organisms that result from the binary fission are clones of one
another.

An oral groove marks one side of the paramecium. Through this oral groove, the paramecium
can ingest its prey. Predators of paramecia include other protists as well as organisms such as
mussels, worms and water fleas. Among the paramecium's prey are algae and other protists.
4. C2 metabolism in Euglena.

Euglenoids are able to assimilate fatty acids and alcohols with various carbon-chain
lengths, and ethanol is known to be one of the best carbon sources to support the growth
of Euglena gracilis. Ethanol is first oxidized to acetate by the sequential reactions of
alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in the mitochondria, and then
converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). Acetyl-CoA is metabolized through the
glyoxylate cycle which is a modified tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in which isocitrate lyase
(ICL) and malate synthase (MS) function to bypass the two decarboxylation steps of the
TCA cycle, enabling the net synthesis of carbohydrates from C2 compounds. ICL and MS
form a unique bifunctional enzyme localized in Euglena mitochondria, not in glyoxysome
as in other eukaryotes.

Description and Significance

A paramecium.
Numbered ticks are 122 µM apart.
Photograph by Bob Blaylock.

Paramecium are members of the phylum Ciliophora. They share many common characteristics
with the rest of their phylum, but are also unique. For example, their shape is quite different from
that of many other Ciliophora. They are also famous for their predator-prey relationship
withDidinium. Paramecium are known for their avoidance behavior. If an encounters a
negative stimiulus, it is capable of rotating up to 360 degrees to find an escape route.

Genome Structure
Macronuclear DNA in Paramecium has a very high gene density. The macronucleus can
contain up to 800 copies of each gene.
Research on the genome structure of Paramecium is still largely incomplete. However, the
genomes of some species are beginning to be sequenced. For example, the complete
 Paramecium aurelia has been established. The complete
mitochondrion genome for
macronuclear genome ofParamecium tetraurelia has also been sequenced.

Cell Structure and Metabolism

Diagram of the sexual life cycle. Ciliated Protozoans by John W. Kimball.

Paramecium are ciliated unicellular organisms. The cilia cover the entire body. Like other
ciliates, they are multinucleated.Paramecium may eject trichocyts when they detect food, in
order to better capture their prey. These trichocyts are filled with proteins. Trichocysts can also
be deployed for self-defense.
Paramecium are heterotrophs. Their common form of prey is bacteria. A single organism has
the ability to eat 5,000 bacteria a day. They are also known to feed on yeasts, algae, and small
protozoa. Paramecium capture their prey through phagocytosis.
Paramecium are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is the
most common, and this is accomplished by the organism dividing transversely. The
macronucleus elongates and splits. Under ideal conditions, Paramecium can reproduce
asexually two or three tiems a day. Normally, Parameciumonly reproduce sexually under
stressful conditions. This occurs via conjugation, a process of gamete agglutination and fusion.
Two Paramecium join together, forming a conjugation bridge. Each Paramecium has a diploid
(2n) micronucleus that undergoes meiosis creating four haploid (1n) micronuclei Three of the
resulting nuceli disintegrate, the fourth undergoes mitosis. Daughter nuclei fuse and the cells
separate. The old macronucleus disintegrates and a new one is formed. This process is usually
followed by asexual reproduction.