LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.0 Soil Stabilisation

Definition

Soil stabilization is a process of treating a soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter or

improve the performance of the soil as a construction material. The changes in the soil
properties are brought about either by the incorporation of additives or by mechanical
blending of soil types.

6.1 Purpose of Soil Stabilization

Soil-stabilization is practised in road construction with one or more of the following objectives
:
(i) To improve the strength of sub-bases, bases and, in the case of low-cost roads, surface
courses.
(ii) To bring about economy in the cost of a road.
(m) To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are otherwise inferior.
(iv) To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such as excessive
swelling or shrinkage, high plasticity, difficulty in compacting etc.
( v ) To control dust.
(vi) To stabilise the moisture in the soil, so as to facilitate compaction and increase load-
bearing property.
(vii) To reduce frost susceptibility.
(viii) To reduce compressibility and thereby settlements.
(ix) To alter permeability characteristics.

6.2 Types of Stabilisation Techniques

Broadly, soil-stabilization takes the following forms :

(i) Mechanical stabilization, where by the stability of the soil is increased by blending the
available soil with imported soil or aggregate so as to obtain a desired particle-size
distribution, and by compacting the mixture to a desired density. Compacting soil at an
appropriate moisture content is itself a form of mechanical stabilisation.
(ii) Stabilisation by additives such as lime, cement, sodium silicate, calcium chloride,
bituminous materials and resinous materials. Chemical stabilisation is the general term
implying the use of chemicals for bringing about stabilisation.
(iii) Thermal stabilization
(iv) Electrical Stabilization

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.3 Mechanical Stabilisation

6.3.1 Principles

Mechanical stabilisation is achieved by intelligently blending locally occurring materials so as

to obtain a desired grading. Compaction of soil is also a form of mechanical stabilisation. It is
well-known that a dense, well-graded mass offers the maximum resistance to lateral
displacement under a load. If the well-graded material is compacted, densification of the
mass takes place. The mechanical strength of the mass is due to the internal friction and the
cohesion. Internal friction is supplied by the coarser particles (gravels, sands and silts)
whereas cohesion is due to the clay fraction.

6.3.2 Applications

The application of the principle of mechanical stabilisation is evident in the following

specifications:
(i) Soil-aggregate mixtures
(ii) Sand-clay roads
(iii) Sand-gravel mixtures
(iv) Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates.

6.3.3 Soil-aggregate mixtures

As the name itself implies, a soil-aggregate mixture is a material in which soil and aggregate
particles are mixed in suitable proportions such that the resulting mixture conforms to a
dense and stable mix when properly compacted. Fig. 6.1 below shows the soil-aggregate
matrix.

Fig. 6-1. Soil-aggregate matrix-

This technique is used in countries abroad for the construction of base courses, and in the
case of low-traffic roads for the surface course as well.

The particle-size distribution of the mixture is a major factor determining the stability. The
aggregates should be so graded that a grain-to grain contact exists, producing internal
friction. For a high value of density to result, the grain-size distribution should follow the
Fuller's curve given by the equation:

…..(6.1)

where
p=percentage passing any sieve
d=aperture of the sieve in question

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

D=the maximum size of the aggregate

n=exponential, whose value can be taken as 0.5.

Typical Kenyan specifications for sub-base/base courses are given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Specifications for soil-aggregate sub-base courses

Per cent by weight passing the sieve for a nominal

Sieve Designation
maximum sieve size of:
80 mm 40 mm 60 mm
80 mm 100 - -
40 mm 80-100 100 -
60 mm 60-80 80-100 100
10 mm 45-65 55-80 80-100
4.75 mm 30-50 40-60 50-75
6.36 mm - 30-50 35-60
600 micron 10-30 15-30 15-35
75 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10
Notes :
1. Not less than 10 per cent should be retained between each pair of
successive sieves specified for use excepting the largest pair.
6. The material passing 465 micron sieve shall have liquid limit and
plasticity index of not more than 65 per cent and 6 per cent respectively.
3. Some authorities specify that the percentage passing 75 micron sieve
should be 5-15, so as to supply cohesion.

It may be noted from the above Table that the plasticity of the binder is also an important
factor contributing to the satisfactory performance of the specification. A maximum value of
65 for L.L. and 6 for P.I. is usually specified for sub-base mixtures. For surfacing mixtures, a
slight relaxation is allowed so as to provide greater cohesion and help offset the moisture lost
by evaporation. This L.L. should not exceed 35 and the P.I. should lie between 6 and 9.

The construction is accomplished in lift thickness of 100-600 mm and compaction to

100 per cent of the laboratory maximum density is sought after. The moisture at the
time of compaction generally is 1 per cent above to 1 per cent below the O.M.C.

When used as a surfacing course, which is to be maintained for some time without
bituminous surface treatment, it is necessary to specify that a minimum of 8 per cent pass
the 75 micron sieve.

6.3.4 Sand-clay roads

A sand-clay road is composed of a favourable mixture of clay, silt and sand. If some coarser
materials such as gravel are also present, the mixture will perform still better. In order to get
over the undesirable characteristics of clay, the blending of clay with a proportion of sand can
alter the properties significantly. If sand is available at economical leads, the specification
can be very cheap. Sand-clay mixtures are constructed to a thickness of about 600 mm and
used as a surfacing course for low-traffic roads.

The mixture can also serve as a good sub-base and base. When used as a subbase, the mix
should have a minimum soaked CBR of 60, whereas when used as a base for heavily
trafficked roads, the minimum soaked CBR should be normally 80. A somewhat smaller
value is permissible for low-traffic roads.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

The gradings given in Table 6.6 are recommended.

Table 6 . 6 Specifications for sand-clay mixtures

Sieve
Designation AASHO I.R.G. (. 4 )
65 mm 100 - -
10 mm - 100 -
4'75 mm 70-100 80-100 100
6'36 mm - 50-80 80-100
600 mm 55- 100 - -
1*18 mm - 40-65 50-80
600 micron - - 30-60
465 micron 30- "0 - -
300 micron - 60-40 60-45
75 micron 8-65 10-65 10-65

The requirements of liquid limit and plasticity index given under soil-aggregate mixtures apply
to sand clay roads also. The mixture is compacted to 100 per cent of the maximum dry
density at a moisture content of 1 per cent above to 6 per cent below the O.M.C.

6.3.5 Sand-gravel mixtures

Gravel is a general term which denotes a material 'having predominantly coarse particles
6.0-60 mm dia, and resulting from disintegration of rock. Gravel occurs as a natural deposit
in a river bed if the disintegrated rock particles are transported by river. In this case, the
particles are often rounded. The material also occurs in pits, when it is found mixed with soil
and sand.

In tropical countries, the material obtained from the disintegration of laterite is extensively
found in a natural admixture or clay and coarse fractions and is known as lateritic gravel. In
Kenya, this material is locally known as murram. Often, the natural murram contains too
much of plastic material which lowers its value as a road pavement material. A suitable
admixture of murram with sand will not only result in a better gradation and increased
strength, but also will reduce the plasticity. Sand-gravel mixtures find ready application in
sub-bases and bases in Kenya.

6.3.6 Stabilisation of soil with soft aggregates

In Kenya, there are many areas where an abundant supply of natural soft aggregates can be
had. These aggregates are gravel, murram and kankar (an impure form of limestone mixed
with clay and earth). A method of stabilisation of soil using these soft aggregates has been
introduced successfully in some countries (e.g India).

The principle behind this method is to embed in a soil mortar coarse aggregates roughly one-
third of the total volume. The aggregates are normally often aggregates such as over-burnt
brick ballast, kankar, murram or laterite. Because of the larger proportion of the soil mortar,
the resulting material has no grain-to-grain contact in the coarse aggregates, which merely
float in the soil. Each aggregate is thus enveloped all round in the compacted soil and is thus
protected from the crushing effect of traffic. This enables the soft aggregate to retain its

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

strength and angular character for an indefinite period. About 10 percent of the coarse
aggregates which are collected are not mixed with the soil, but are saved and spread on the
layer of the soil-aggregate mixture before rolling.

The soil is required to have a P.I. value 8-11 and a minimum sand content of 33 per cent (
10). The soft aggregates should have a maximum Wet Aggregate Impact value of 50 per
cent when used as a sub-base, 40 per cent when used as a base-course with bituminous
surfacing and 30 per cent when used as a surfacing course.

The stabilized layer is suitable as a surfacing course without any bituminous treatment for
very light traffic (about 50 tonnes per day). For light traffic (about 600 tonnes per day), a light
bituminous surfacing is needed. For medium traffic (about 500 tonnes per day), a thin stone
grafting (about 65 mm thick) is given on the soil-soft aggregate mixture while compacting,
and a thin bituminous surfacing provided. For areas with a high rainfall, it is necessary to
provide two coats of surface dressing.

The soil aggregate mixture is compacted at optimum moisture content.

6.3.7 Combining materials to obtain required gradation

In dealing with mechanical stabilization it is often found necessary to combine different

materials to obtain the finally desired gradation. Rothfuch's graphical method is a
reasonably quick, accurate and simple method, and is used for design of cement concrete
mixes, bituminous mixes and granular mixes. The method consists of the following stages:

Using the desired aggregate gradation, a distribution curve is plotted with the percentage
passing as linear ordinates and the sieve sizes on the horizontal scale. In order to mark the
sieve sizes on the horizontal scale, an inclined line (OA in Fig. 6.3) is first of all drawn. By
marking the known percentages passing each size sieve on this line and dropping vertically
the intersection point to the horizontal axis, the location of the sieve size on the horizontal
axis is determined.

Fig. 6*3. Rothfuch's graphical method of combining aggregates.

(it) The particle size distribution of the given materials to be blended are plotted on this scale.
The distribution curves will not generally be straight lines (Lines OB, ODE and OF OA in Fig.
6.3).

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

(iii) With the aid of a transparent straight edge, straight lines are drawn representing the
particle size distribution in the best possible manner (Lines HJ and KA). This means that the
areas enclosed between the distribution curve and the straight line should be minimum and
are balanced about the line.
(iv) The opposite ends of these lines are joined together (lineS BR and JK).
(v) The proportions for blending can be read off from the points where the joining lines cross
the straight line representing the mixture. These points are L and M.

The method is illustrated by the following example.

Cols. 1 and 6 in the Table 6.3 give the gradation limits for various sieve sizes of a stabilised
mixture. Three materials are available, whose gradations are given in Cols. 4, 5 and 6. Work
out the blending proportion.

Solution. Col. 3 in Table 6.3 gives the average percentage passing.

Table 6.3 Blending of materials

Sieve
Designation Percentage passing
U)
Required 47%A
Sand
Gradation 49%B
9 Materials available
limits 4%G
(3)
(6) (7)
Coarse
Sand Local
Aggregates
(By Soil (G)
(A)
(5) (6)
(4)
40 mm 100 100 100 _ 100
60 mm 80-100 90 75 . - 88
10 mm 55-80 67-5 60 _ 66
4*75 mm 40-60 50 8 100 - 53
6"36 mm 30-50 40 6 80 - 46
600 mm 15-30 66'6 6 40 - 61
75 micron 0-10 5 Nil 6 100 5

Fig. 6.3 will illustrate the stages involved In the graphical method. The percentages of
various materials as scaled out are :
Material (4) : 49% Material (B): 49% Material (G): 4%.

The gradation of the final mixture on the basis of the above blending is indicated in Col. 7 of
the Table.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Rothfuch's graphical method

Triangular Chart

Another graphical method in which 3 materials can be blended is by means of a triangular chart

This is convenient when three materials of different gradations, consisting of fractions—gravel, sand
and silt-clay-are available. They are represented on a triangular chart on each side of an equilateral
triangle representing the percentages of the three fractions (0 to 100%, Fig. 6.6: Let the three
materials available be represented on the triangular chart by points A, B and C, based on their
constituent fractions-sand, gravel and silt-clay.

Let D represent the gradation desired of the material to be obtained by blending the materials A, B
and C.
Join C and D and extrapolate the line to meet the line AB at E.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Now the required proportions of A, B and C can be calculated as follows –

Example 6.6
The use of this method is illustrated by an example in which three materials. A, B and G are to be
blended to obtain a gradation shown in Cols. 6 and 3 of Table 6.4. Cols. 4, 5 and 6 give the
gradation of the three individual materials.

Table 6.4 Blending of Materials

Sieve
Percentage passing
Designation
Gradation Material Material Material
Average
Limits A (B) G
1 6 3 4 5 6
60 mm 100 100 100 -
10 mm 80-100 90 80 -
4"75 mm 50-75 63 65 100 -
6'36 mm 35-60 48 10 80 -
600 mm 15-35 65 5 40 -
75 micron 0-10 5 Nil Nil 100

From the Table 6.4, the gravel, sand and silt-clay fractions of the three materials are as
below.
Percentage of
Material Gravel Sand Silt-clay
A 90 10 0
B 60 80 0
C 0 0 100

In the triangular chart, Fig. 6.4, each side of the equilateral triangle represents percentages
(0-100) of the three materials, viz., gravel, sand and silt-clay.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Fig. 6*4. Triangular blending chart.

The gradation limits of the desired mix is composed of the three fractions as follows:

Gravel : 40-65
Sand : 35-50
Silt-clay : 0-10

Plotting these on the triangular chart, one obtains a hatched parallelogram which will contain
all combinations of the three materials which will fulfil the gradation requirements.

A point "D" is selected inside this parallelogram about its centre.

Point "A" represents the material "A", point "B" represents material "B" and point "G"
represents material "G", The triangle ABG represents all possible combinations of the three
materials.

Join O to D and produce CD to meet AB at E.

The following ratio of lengths is then determined by scaling-off:

Proportion of A and 5=1-0*06 =0*94

Proportion of A=05 X0*94=0*47, i.e. 47 per cent. Proportion of 5=0*5 X0*94=0'47, i.e. 47 per
cent.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

The gradation obtained as a result is tabulated in Table 5. 5.

Table 5*5 Blending of Materials

Sieve
Grada-
desig- Percentage passing
tion limits
nation
Col. Col. Total
Materi Col. Material Material
5X 7x Cols.
al A 3 x 0 . 4 7 (5) (G)
0.47 0.06 4+6+8
(1) (6) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
60 mm 100 100 47 100 47 100 6 100
10 mm 80-100 80 38 100 47 100 6 91
4*75
50-75 65 16 100 47 100 6 65
mm
6*36
35-60 10 5 80 38 100 6 49
mm
600 mm 15-35 5 3 40 19 100 6 68
75 mic-
100 6 6
ron

It is seen that the final grading as given in Col. 9, satisfies the limits given in Col. 6

In some cases, it is possible to arrive at the blending proportion by simple calculations. As an

example, consider the gradation desired in Table 66. Col. 6 gives the desired gradation limits
and Col. 3 the mean. The gradation of Materials

A , B and G are given in Cols, 4, 5 and 6. By examination it Is seen that material retained on
4 75 mm size sieve is to be fully supplied by Material A. The quantity of such material in
Material A is 100-63=77 per cent, whereas the desired quantity in the final mix is 50 per cent.

These are obtained as percentages by multiplying by 100.

Combining for plasticity

The specifications for mixtures usually give an upper limit for the L.L. and P.I values. While
the individual materials may have unacceptable L.L. and P.I. values, the correct blend of
materials can be arrived at to result in acceptable L.L. and P.I. values. For this purpose,
some formulae will be useful.

Consider materials A and B being combined to form a mixture O.

Then, if (L a , L b , P a , P b t ) or (J„, I b , P a , P b t ) are known, the value of X a to give a desired

value of L e or I e can be determined from the following formulae:

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Altenatively, if the L.L. and P.I. of the constituent materials are known, and the percentage of
material A in the mixture has been selected previously to meet the particle size distribution
criteria, the values of L„ and /„ can be determined from the following formulae:

The following examples illustrate the use of these formulae:

Example 6.3 It is proposed to construct a sand clay road conforming to the following
gradation specifications:

Table 6.8
Percentage Sand Silt-clay
Sieve Passing
Gradation Material Material
designation Mean
Limits (A) (B)
(1) (6) (3) (4) (5)
4.75 mm 100 100 100
6.36 mm 80-10 90 91
1.18 mm 50-30 65 34 100
465 micron 30-60 45 10 84
300 micron 60-45 33 3 59
75 micron 10-65 18 6 36

Sand ( A ) and silty clay ( B ) are available, whose gradation is indicated in Cols. 4 and 5
respectively in Table 6 8. Gradation requirements indicate that a 1:1 ratio of the two materials
would be adequate. L.L. and P.I. of Materials A and B are as under:

A B
L.L. 65 38
P.I. 6 10

What will be the L L. and P.I. of the mixture? If the maximum L.L. and P.I. are to be
respectively 35 and 9, what should be the proportion of A and B in the mix?

Substituting in formulae 6.4 and 6.5,

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

These values do not satisfy the desired L.L. and P.I. values. The proportion can be worked
out by the formula 6.6.

Using formula 6.3,

Obviously, the values worked out by the earlier formula, i.e.. 66% of A would be suitable for
the P.I., criterion also.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Hence a practical mix of A: B=6 : 1 would be suitable. This mix, it may be noted from
parameter also satisfies the gradation requirements.

6.4 Soil-Lime Stabilisation

During the last twenty-five years, the use of soil-lime stabilisation has gained in popularity in
the U.S.A., Africa, Australia and Kenya. Soil-lime mixtures are used as sub-base or base
courses. Because of the favourable climatic conditions in Kenya and the occurrence of
clayey soils in large areas, this technique offers considerable scope.

6.4.1 Mechanism of lime-soil interaction

When lime (CaO) is added to a fine-grained soil, a number of reactions take place. Some of
them occur immediately while others are slow to occur. One of the early reactions is base-
exchange (ion-exchange). Clay particles are usually negatively charged, with exchangeable
ions of sodium, magnesium, potassium or hydrogen adsorbed on the surface. The strong
positively charged ions of calcium present in lime replace the weaker ions of sodium,
magnesium, potassium or hydrogen, resulting in a preponderance of positively charged
calcium ions on the surface of the clay particles.

This in turns reduces the plasticity of the soil. The clay particles tend to agglomerate into
large sized particles (flocculation), imparting friability to the mixture.

After the above first stage reactions are complete, any additional quantity of lime will
react chemically with the clay minerals. The aluminous and siliceous materials in the
clayey soil will react with lime in the presence of water to form cementitious gels, which
increase the strength and durability of the mixture. These pozzolanic reactions are slow and
extend over a long period of time, several years in some instances.

Another possible source of strength is the formation of calcium carbonate due to the
absorption of carbon dioxide from air.

6.4.2 Soils amenable to treatment

Clayey soils are most amenable to lime treatment. The fraction passing 465 p should be
at least 15 and the clay content should be at least 10. The P.I. of the soil should be at least
10. These conditions are satisfied by many soils in Kenya. The aluvial silty soils of the
northern plains, the clayey soils of the deltas, the black-cotton soils and the murram found in
many parts are eminently suitable for soil-lime stabilisation.

6.4.3 Quantity of lime

The strength of a soil lime mixture is greatly influenced by the lime content. A concentration
of lime less than 6 per cent is not generally amenable to proper mixing and is not
recommended for use. A quantity of 3 to 10 per cent by weight of dry soil is normally
required to stabilise most soils. Ca(OHs) (i .e. hydrated lime) in a powder form is
preferred to CaO (quick lime) because of the danger from burns that can be caused to
unprotected workmen when handling quicklime.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.4.4 Properties of soil-lime

 Due to the aggregation of smaller particles into bigger ones, one of the early effects
of adding lime is to make the grains coarser.

 Lime brings about a substantial reduction in plasticity. The liquid limit generally
decreases and the plastic limit increases, thus causing a reduction in the Plasticity
Index of the soil, vide Fig. 6-6.

Fig. 6.'6. Effect of lime on plasticity index.

 The soil swell and shrinkage potential is significantly reduced by the addition
of lime. This is highly important in dealing with expansive soils, which swell in
volume when water is added and shrink in volume when then moisture content is
reduced.

 The strength of soil increases substantially when treated with lime. The
unconfined compressive strength of typical fine-grained soils range from 0" 18 to 0 7
MN/m6. Increases in strength of 68 days cured lime-soil specimens may be of the
order of 0 7 to 1'7 MN/m6.

 The benefits of addition of lime depend to a large extent on factors such as

purity of lime, the fineness of lime, the degree of pulverization of the soil, the
compaction imparted, the time between final mixing and compaction and the
curing conditions. For pulverisation, it is generally specified that at least 80 per cent
should pass through 475 mm sieve and all the particles should pass through 65 mm
sieve.

 Provided the soil-lime mixtures are designed properly, the durability characteristics of
the mixture are not in doubt. Although some reduction in strength due to cyclic
freeze-thaw or prolonged moisture effects is possible, the residual strength itself is
sufficient to meet the design requirements adequately.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.4.5 Design of pavement layers

The CBR method of design is often used to determine the thickness of the various layers in a
flexible system. For use as a sub-base layer, a minimum CBR value of 60-30 is normally
desired. For use in base courses, CBR of 80-100 is normally stipulated. To account for the
uncertainties in mixing in the field, current Kenyan practice is to assume 45-60 per cent of
the laboratory CBR value as the CBR under field conditions.

The main advantage of soil-lime is that lime is a cheap material which is locally
available in this country. The manufacture of lime and the soil lime stabilisation
techniques are amenable to labour-intensive technology and are ideally suited to our
country. However, the experience in lime-soil work has not been so far very successful. This
is mainly because lime of a high degree of purity is needed and a great deal of control
over quality is necessary in execution.

6.4.6 Lime-cement-soil stabilisation

Both lime and cement produce cementitious products in the presence of clay minerals and
water. A mixture of lime and cement is sometimes used for stabilisation. The combined lime
and cement content can normally be around 10-15 per cent, and the ratio of lime to cement
can be between 1: 3 and 3 : 6 depending upon the soil type and strength desired. Working
with highly expansive clays, lime is added initially upto about 3 per cent to render the soil
more friable. Additional quantity of lime and cement are added subsequently.

6.4.7 Lime-pozzolana stabilisation

Pozzolana is a siliceous material, which, while in itself possessing no cementitious

properties, will in a finely divided form and in the presence of water, react with calcium
hydroxide and form cementitious compounds. Pozzolana can be a naturally occurring
volcanic ash or industrial waste such as fly-ash, or can be produced by calcining clay.
When fly ash is used, the mixture is known as lime-flyash stabilised mixture, or in an
abreviated form LFA stabilised mixture.

Not all soils possess enough quantity of clay minerals with which lime can react to form
cementitious products. If, therefore, a pozzolanic material is added to such soils, the
stabilisation can easily take place. Silts, sandy soils, gravels, crushed stone and slags are
some of the material types where lime-pozzolana stabilisation can be successful. The aluvial
silts of northern Kenya fall into this category of soils which can be stabilised with lime-
pozzolana.

The ratio of lime to pozzolana depends upon a number of factors and can vary so widely as
from 1:1 to 1:9. The combined quantity of lime pozzolana in a mixture can vary from 10 to 65
per cent.

Lime-pozzolana-aggregate mixtures can be used for the superior strength road bases. A
layer of this material has great structural strength and behaves more like a semi-rigid
pavement.
The use of lime-pozzolana in our country is still in an early stage, but in view of the problem
of disposal of huge quantity of fly-ash from thermal plants, the future may see more and
more use of this material.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Construction of Soil-Lime Base Course:

Materials:
There is no recommended limit of test values for the soil to be stabilized with lime. Even
highly plastic soils can be suitably modified by lime. Fresh stock of hydrated lime or quick
lime are stored near the site.

Lime — fine powder

Plants and equipment needed are scarifying, pulverizing, mixing (in situ) and compaction.

Construction Steps:
(i) Preparation of sub-grade.
(ii) Pulverization of the soil to be stabilized.
(iii) Addition of part of lime as dry powder or as slurry with water and mixing.
(iv) Allowing the mixture to age for about a day or preconditioning the soil, and remixing
when pulverization becomes easy.
(v) Adding rest of the lime, water if necessary and remixing.
(vi) Spreading to desired grade and compacting.
(vii) The soil-lime is protected from drying out and is allowed moist-curing.
(viii) Field control tests include checking moisture content at the time of compaction and
checking dry density soon after compaction.

Pulverizer

6.5 Soil-cement stabilisation

The addition of cement to soil to improve its strength is now in vogue for the past forty years
or so. The material is very popular in the U S.A., U.K. and in African countries. The principal
advantages with soil-cement are that almost all soils are amenable to this technique. It is a
scientifically designed engineering material and cement itself is a standard material whose
quality is tested and assured. Because of its very high flexural strength, it has a very high
load spreading property. Thus soil cement is able to spread the load over a wider area and
bridge over locally weak spots of the underlying sub-grade or sub-base. In view of its high
flexural rigidity, it is often classed as a semi-rigid pavement, something which is intermediate
between a flexible pavement and a rigid pavement. The durability of soil cement is of a high

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

order and its strength is known to increase with age. The main disadvantages are the higher
cost than lime-soil and the need for a high degree of quality control. Because of volumetric
changes that take place when cement hydrates, early shrinkage cracks are formed in soil-
cement layers, affecting their overall performance.

6.5.1 Action involved in cement-soil stabilisation

When water is added to cement, major cementitious products like calcium silicate
hydrates and calcium aluminium hydrates are produced. In stabilisation of granular
materials with cement, these cementitious materials provide the bond between the mineral
particles. In the case of fine-grained soils, the cementitious bond provided by the calcium
silicate hydrates and the calcium aluminate hydrates is further helped by the secondary
hydrous calium silicates and aluminates formed by the reaction of free lime to the cement
paste and the clay mineral particles. The reaction phenomenon between the free lime
and the clay mineral particles is just the same as in the case of lime-soil stabilisation.
Base-exchange and flocculation also take place, rendering the soil more friable and reducing
the plasticity.

6.5.2 Factors affecting strength of soil-cement mixes

6.5.2.1 Cement Content :

The cement content necessary for effective stabilisation varies with the soil type. The
strength of a soil-cement mix for a particular soil type varies with the cement content. As a
rough guide, the cement content, expressed as a percentage by weight of the dry soil,
varies between 4 and 14. For preliminary estimation purposes, a value of 10 per cent
seems reasonable. The cement content is generally selected to obtain the desired
compressive strength. The criterion most commonly followed is a 7 day unconfined com-
pressive strength of 1.7 MN/ma with moist-cured cylindrical specimens having a height to
diameter ratio of 6.1. Table 6.9 gives the range of cement requirements as per American
practice.

Table 6 . 9 Cement requirements for various soil types

Usual range in cement

Soil Type (PR A classification) requirement by weight (per
cent)
4-1-0 3-5
4-1-6 5-8
4-6 5-9
4-3 7-11
4-4 7-16
4-5 8-13
4-6 9-15
4-7 10-16

From the above Table, it is seen that the quantity of cement needed to stabilise gravelly soil
is much less than that required to stabilise silty and clayey soils.

It is observed that for the range of cement contents normally employed in stabilisation work,
the strength of the mixture increases with increase in cement content.

17
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Ordinary Portland Cement is used for the majority of soil-stabilisation work. A rapid-
hardening cement can be used if high strengths are desired initially.

6.5.2.2 Moisture Content

Since hydration of cement takes place only in the presence of water, the importance of water
is obvious. Water also improves the workability of the soil and facilitates compaction.

The exact amount of water to be added is governed by many considerations. One important
factor is that the soil-cement mixtures exhibit the same type of moisture-density
relationship as an ordinary soil. Thus, for a given compactive effort, there is an
"optimum moisture content" at which the maximum density is obtained.

The best moisture content for maximum density may not necessarily be the optimum
moisture content for maximum strength. It is generally seen that highest compressive
strength can be obtained with specimens compacted slightly below the optimum for
maximum density.

Some of the water is taken up by the cement for hydration. The moisture necessary for
maximum compaction is sufficient to provide for this.

6.5.2.3 Soil
Soil type has a profound influence on the success of stabilisation with cement. It is often
claimed that almost any type of soil can be stabilised with cement. Though this is true in a
large measure, certain soil types cannot be stabilised with cement at economical costs.

Soil with a low organic matter are generally preferred. A safe-upper limit is 6 per cent,
though soils with 3 to 4 per cent organic matter have also been successfully stabilised
with cement.

It is well-known that the presence of sulphates has a harmful effect on the life of cement
concrete. For the same reasons, the presence of sulphates in the soil has to be viewed
with suspicion. For cohesive soils, a maximum sulphate content of 0.65 per cent is usually
specified, though for non-cohesive materials an upper limit of 10 per cent may be all right.

The presence of a small amount of clay in the soil is beneficial to cement stabilisation,
but large clay content brings in problems of mixing and pulverising. It is desirable if the
clay content is restricted to 5 per cent. A thumb rule often employed is that the practical
upper limit for stabilisation with machinery is when the P.t. multiplied by the percentage finer
than 465 is greater than 3500.

As the plasticity of the soil, increases, the amount of cement needed to effectively react
increases. Highly plastic soils cannot, theore, be economically stabilised with cement. An
upper limit of 45 for L.L. (Liquid Limit) and 60 for P.I. (Plasticity Index) is generally observed
(. 60). More plastic soils can be treated with cement after being pre-treated with lime. As
regards the grading of the soils, it is recognised that a well-graded mixture requires less of
cement and is perred. British practice (. 60) indicates the following grading as suitable, Table
6.10.

Table 6.10 Grading of materials for soil-cement

18
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Sieve size (nearest) Percentage by weight passing

equivalent IS sieve
50 mm 100
40 mm 95
60 mm 45
10 mm 35
4.75 mm 65
600 micron 8
300 micron 5
75 micron 0

It is also specified that the uniformity coefficient (i.e. ratio of the particle size for which 60 per
cent is finer to the particle size for which 10 per cent is finer) should not be less than 5.

Though British practice limits soil-cement work to well-graded materials below 50 mm size,
experience elsewhere has shown that sandy and gravelly soils containing 10-35 per cent
combined silt and clay, sandy soils deficient in fines, silty soils and clayey soils can also be
effectively stabilised. Single sized sands with a low uniformly coefficient (less than about 3)
present problems for cement stabilisation.

6.5.2.4 Degree of pulverisation in mixing

The presence of lumps of soil inhibits effective stabilisation-Pulverization of soils, especially

clays, must be carried out before mixing The following requirements are often laid down.
Table 6.11.

Table 6.11 Requirements for pulverisation for stabilisation with cement

Sieve designation Percentage by weight of soil passing

the sieve after pulverisation
65 mm 100
4.74 mm 80

6.5.2.5 Mixing

For best results, cement should be uniformly distributed and mixed throughout the material.
The addition of water helps the cement to adhere to the particles of the soil and prevents
segregation.

6.5.2.6 Compacting
The hydration of cement starts as soon as water is added, and it therefore is desirable to
compact the material as soon as mixing is completed. Any delay is likely to result in the
loss of the cementing action of the additive and in the need for extra compactive effort
to break down the cement bonds that have already formed. A serious loss in strength
can follow. For this purpose, it is often stipulated that compaction should be completed within
two hours of mixing.

6.5.2.7 Curing

As in the case of cement concrete, soil cement requires the presence of sufficient moisture to
meet the needs of chemical reactions. A seven days' moist curing is necessary.

19
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.5.3 Design criteria

The most popular design criterion for soil-cement is in terms of the unconfined compressive
strength after 7 days' moist curing. A value of 1*7 MN/ma with cylindrical specimens (ratio of
height to diameter of 6:1) is specified for Kenyan conditions (. 18). Practice abroad requires
higher strengths. For example, in U.K. a minimum strength of 6*76 MN/m* is specified (. 60)
for cylindrical specimens. But it should be noted that in U.K. soil-cement mixtures are with
well-graded granular materials 50 mm and below in size. A minimum strength of 6*76 MN/m!
is generally desirable for heavily trafficked roads and for higher layers of the pavement
structure (i.e. base course), whereas for lightly trafficked roads and for bottom layers of the
pavement structure (i.e. sub-base course) a minimum strength of 11MN/ms is probably ade-
quate.

The CBR method of design is also applied to soil-cement layers. For this purpose, the
specimens are initially cured for 7 days and soaked in water for 4 days prior to testing. For
use as sub-bases, a CBR value of 60-30 is desirable, whereas a value of 80-100 is desirable
for use as a base course. Since imperfections in mixing in the field can yield to lower strength
values, it is desirable to design the laboratory mix to yield a higher CBR value. Normally, it
can be assumed that the field mix can yield a strength which is 60 per cent of the laboratory
strength. When determining the thickness of the layer, an equivalency factor of 1*5 can be
assumed -vis-a-vis unbound granular layers.

If a small quantity of cement, say in the range of 6-3 per cent, is added to a soil, the soil
properties can be improved appreciably, though not to the same extent as a soil-cement
mixture. Such a mixture can be used as a sub-base, and is known by the name of cement-
modified soil . The soil should possess characteristics similar to those required for soil-
cement. The design is generally based on CBR method. A CBR value to 60-30 in the field is
generally suitable for sub-base.

6.6 Chloride Stabilisation

Granular soils lack stability when they are too dry. If their moisture content can be stabilised
by the addition of some chemicals, then these soils can be used successfully. Chlorides of
calcium and sodium are two of the most popular salts used for this purpose.

6.6.1 Calcium Chloride

Calcium chloride has been used extensively for as a dust-palliative and moisture stabiliser for
more than half a century. Its wide use is reported in the US. A. and Canada. The material
has also been used as a dust palliative in Kenya, and on an experimental basis in the body
of the subgrade and sub-bases.

Calcium chloride has deliquesent and hygroscopic properties. By the former is meant the
ability of a material to absorb moisture from the air and thus to dissolve and become liquid.
By the latter is meant the ability of a material to absorb and retain moisture without
necessarily becoming liquid. These properties render the material ideally suitable as a dust-
palliative on untreated low cost roads. In dry climate regions, the moisture evaporates from
the road during the day, but if calcium chloride is present the moisture can be regained in the
night. Another property of calcium chloride is that it lowers the vapour pressure of water in

20
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

which it is dissolved. This reduces the rate of evaporation. An increase in the surface tension
of water is noticed when calcium chloride is present in a soil-water mixture, As the surface
tension of the pore water rises, the rate of evaporation falls. When some evaportion takes
place, the pore water content is itself reduced, and this in turn causes surface tension to rise
further. The water films then close on the soil particles and grip them together. If calcium
chloride is added to a soil, it is observed that its unit weight increases for a given compactive
effort. In other words, to obtain a desired density, less compactive effort is needed. This is
mainly because of the lubricating effect of the chemical. It is well known that chlorides
dissolved in water lo ver the freezing temperature of water. This property makes the chemical
extremely useful in frost-susceptible locations.

Calcium chloride is obtained as a waste product in the manufacture of ammonia, ammonium

carbonate, potassium chlorate and sodium carbonate. Its disposal was considered a
problem, and its use as a soil stabiliser in such situations is to be welcomed.

The rate of application of the material as a dust palliative for untreated roads is about 4"8-1*5
kg/sq. m. per year. The material is applied in a dry form and the road surface is bladed.

As an admixture to the soil to obtain greater density and strength, it is used at a small rate of
about 05 per cent by dry weight of soil.

Work carried out in Kenya has shown that calcium chloride can retain the moisture in the
surface only when the relative humidity of the atmospheie is above 31 per cent. This
precludes its use in extremely dry areas.

6.6.2 Sodium chloride

Sodium chloride, common salt, is available in a natural state as rock salt and sea water. Its
use as a stabiliser derives from the many properties listed under Calcium Chloride. It is,
however, less hygroscopic and inferior to Calcium Chloride as a lubricant for aiding
compaction. An important beneficial effect is the crystallisation of the salt forming a compact
and hard surface which improves the stability of the layer and prevents evaporation. The
quantity of sodium chloride is roughly the same as calcium chloride, viz., about 0'5 per cent
by weight.

6.7 Other Chemicals/Materials

A number of other chemicals/materials have been used for chemical stabilisation of soils.
Some of them are:

1. Sodium silicate
6. Lignin
3. Resins
4. Molasses.

Sodium silicate reacts in acqueous solutions with soluble-calcium salts, forming insoluble
and gelatinous calcium silicates. Calcium needed for the reaction can either be present in the
soil itself (as in lime-stone aggregates or chalky soils) or be added in acqueous solutions.
The amount of chemical needed may vary from one to ten per cent. Experimental work
carried out in Kenya on stabilisation of sand with sodium silicate has yielded satisfactory
results.

21
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

The natural binding material that holds together the fibres in wood is lignin. The material is a
major by product in paper manufacturing industry. Lignin is available from the paper
manufacturing process in a water solution known as calcium lignosulphonic acid. Calcium
lignosulphate (or lignin sulphate or simply ligtrin) is the constituent which is used as a road
binder. About 0"5 to 1 per cent by weight of dry soil is used for stabilisation. Stabilisation is
by the cementing bond that develops between the soil particles due to the presence of the
binder. The material also closes the voids and thus reduces penetration of water through the
layer. It retards the rate of evaporation of water and arrests loss of moisture.

Natural or processed resins can also be used for soil stabilisation. Vinsol resin and resin or
derivatives of resin are commonly used. Resins are wood products. Resin-treated soils
reduce water absorption, facilitate compaction and increase the stability of the treated
mixtures. Their drawback is their susceptibility for micro-biological attack by bacteria and
fungi, but this handicap can be identified and surmounted. A quantity of 1 to 3 per cent by
weight of soils is normally sufficient.

Molasses is a waste-product from the process of manufacturing sugar from sugarcane. A

thick syrupy liquid, it is hygroscopic and can be used as a dust-palliative and as a binder for
incorporation during compaction. It is easily leached out by rain water. But some additives
have been tried to make it insoluble. If water is prevented from entering the mixture, as by
means of an impermeable bituminous surfacing, it can be excepted to last long.

6.8 Soil Bitumen Stabilisation

6.8.1 Basic principles

The addition of a bituminous binder to a soil improves its properties considerably. Firstly, if
the soil lacks cohesion, the bitumen coats the soil particles, binds them together and supplies
cohesion. Example of such a stabilisation is a sand bitumen in which sand and bitumen are
mixed and laid. Secondly, bitumen being a waterproofing material, the mixture becomes less
prone to the adverse effects caused by ingress of water. Soil-aggregate mixtures or cohesive
soils can be made to benefit from this action. A third procedure is to spray a bituminous
binder on a dry surface of a low-cost road (earth/gravel), with a view to prevent dust and to
stop the entry of moisture into the road.

The success of the above principles really lies in selecting the right quantity and type of the
binder. An excess of the binder will result in too thick a binder film around the soil particles
and destroy part of the internal friction. When aiming at waterproofing it is seldom necessary
to fill up the entire void space. The gradation of the soil particles also has an important
bearing on the satisfactory performance of the stabilisation technique. These factors will be
discussed in detail under the different types of soil-bitumen stabilisation processes.

6.8.2 Types of soil-bitumen stabilisation processes

The following are the variations in the bituminous stabilisation techniques :

(i) Sand-bitumen
(ii) Soil-bitumen
( i i i ) Soil-aggregate-bitumen
(iv) Spraying bitumen on earth/gravel roads foiling

22
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.8.2.1 Sand-bitumen

There are regions where sand is the only predominant road building material available within
economical leads and stone aggregate or gravel has to be conveyed over a long distance.
There are also areas where there is acute scarcity of water, and specifications such as
water-bound macadam or compacted gravel will have to be discarded. Under such
conditions, a successful specification is sand-bitumen. This has been tried in the Middle
East, Africa, U.S.S.R. and India.

6.8.2.1.1 Gradation of sand

A wide range of sands can be successfully stabilised with bitumen. Though a well-graded
sand-bitumen mixture will have a higher stability, poorly graded sands and single size sands
have been satisfactorily stabilised with bitumen. The latter include the windblown dune-
sands. A typical gradation of the Rajasthan desert sand is given in Table 6.16.

Table 6 16 Typical gradation of Rajastban sand for sand-bitumen stabilisation

Sieve Designation Percentage Passing

600 microns 100
300 microns 98-100
150 microns 60-65
75 microns 4-5

In the U.S.A., sands with not more than 65 per cent passing 75 microns sieve are permitted
for stabilisation, but with certain other added precautions.

6.8.2.1.2 Type of binder

The types of binder used for sand-bitumen work are:

(i) Penetration Grade Bitumen
(ii) Road Tar
(iii) Cold Application Cut-back
(iv) Hot application Cut-back
(v) Emulsions

Penetration Grade bitumen 30/40 or 80/100 can be used provided the sand is pre-heated
and dried to a suitable temperature (135-165° C). A small quantity of flux such as kerosene
can be beneficial to make the bitumen workable. Road Tar of grade RT-3 has also been
used. The use of cold-application cut-backs has been very popular for sand-bitumen
stabilisation. A medium-curing cut-back such as MC-1 and MC-6 are most common, though
both rapid-curing and slow-curing (RC-1, RC-6 and SC-1 and SC-6) have also been
frequently used.

Emulsions are ideal for dry conditions in desert regions in the tropics, since they provide the
optimum fluids content for compaction. The use of emulsions for sand-bitumen under wet
conditions is however, difficult.

6.8.2.1.3 Quantity of binder

For sand-bitumen stabilisation, the quantity I of binder ift selected after carrying out stability
tests with various binder contents. The optimum binder content at which the stability is

23
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

maximum is determined. The range of binder contents found to be satisfactory is 4-10 per
cent by weight of total mix.

6.8.2.1.4 Incorporation of hard aggregates

Blending of sand with some quantity of hard crushed aggregate will improve the stability of
sand-bitumen mixtures, especially if the sand is single-size. The proportion of coarse
aggregates can be about 30 per cent by weight.

6.8.2.1.5 Design criteria

For satisfactory performance as a base course, the Hubbard-Field stability values should be
as below:

Table 6.13 Minimum values of Hubbard-Field stability of sand-bitumen for base course

Type of mix Specimen Teat Method Stability (kg)

Sand-bitumen with
1. penetration grade 5 cm dia x6'5 cm height Testing at 60°C 360
bitumen
Sand-bitumen with cut-
6. 5 cm dia x 5 cm height Testing at 65°C 540
back bitumen
Sand-bitumen with
15 cm dia x 7 cm
3. incorporation of coarse Testing at 60°C 900
height
aggregates
Sand-bitumen with
15 cm dia X 7 cm
4. incorporation of coarse Testing at 65°C 1100
height
aggregate

6.8.2.1.6 Surfacing

Sand-bitumen base courses are generally laid to a compacted thickness of 100 mm. They
require a surfacing course to provide a good running surface and to protect the base from
abrasive action of traffic. A 60 mm premix chipping carpet has been found to be suitable for
this purpose in Kenya

6.8.2.2 Soil-bitumen

The term soil-bitumen is generally used for stabilising cohesive fine-grained soils. The
incorportion of bitumen in a cohesive soil result in water-proofing the layer. Such soils have
good bearing capacity at low moisture contents, but they tend to lose the bearing capacity
when the moisture content increases. The bituminous binder ensures that the moisture
content never reaches beyond the safe limit. Soil-bitumen layers are used as sub-bases and
bases.
6.8.2.2.1 Type of soils suitable for stabilisation

The following gradation limits are generally prescribed

Steve Designation Percentage Passing

4'75 mm 50
465 micron 35-100
75 micron 10-50

24
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

The liquid limit should be less than 40 and the plasticity index should be less than 18. Highly
plastic soils are hard to stabilise, because of the difficulty in dispersing the binder.

6.8.2.2.2 Typical amount of binder

The binders which find ready application for soil-bitumen are the cut-backs, road tars and
emulsions. A medium-curing cut-back is preferable, but slow-curing cut-backs can be used
with relatively highly plastic soils. Rapid curing cut-backs can be used with sandy soils. Road
Tars in the grades RT-3, RT-4, RT-5 and RT-6 can be used. Emulsions can be used with
relatively less plastic soils and in dry climates, where the natural moisture content of the soils
is not high. Slow-curing emulsions are appropriate.

The amount of binder depends upon the moisture content of the soil, the type of soil and type
of binder used. The combined volume of bitumen and water must not exceed the pore space
in the soil at the desired density. The normal range is 4 to 8 per cent by weight of dry mix It is
usually found that if the clay mineral content is high, a greater quantity of binder is needed.
On the other hand, if the iron and aluminium content is high, a smaller quantity of binder is
needed. The binder content is selected after carrying out tests such as density-fluids content,
strength, water absorption and swelling.

6.8.2.2.3 Design criteria

Soil-bitumen stabilisation is yet in a developmental stage and further research is needed to

understand the behaviour. Design criteria can thus be very tentative. A common requirement
is that the Hubbard-Field Stability Value on 5 cm diax5 cm height specimens should not be
less, than 180 kgs after standing the specimens in water for 7 days. The stability value of the
specimen before saturation should be 453 kgs. A further requirement is that the swelling
should not exceed 5 per cent and water absorption should exceed 7 per cent.

6.8.2.2.4 Usage

Soil-bitumen is generally used as a sub-base. The thickness provided varies from 100 mm to
600 mm.

6.9 Soil-aggregate bitumen stabilisation

6.9.1 Principles

Soil-aggregate-bitumen mixture implies the addition of a suitable quantity of bituminous

binder to a granular mixture which is fairly well graded and has good internal friction but lacks
cohesion. The binder not only supplies cohesion, but also waterproofs the layer. The addition
of binder prevents softening and loss of strength in a mixture containing fines.

6.9.2 Gradation

The gradation of the granular materials should be generally similar to those indicated under
mechanical stabilisation (Table 61). The maximum P.I. values can, however be in the range
of 10 to 15.

25
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.9.3 Binder

A rapid curing cut-back (RC-1, RC-6 or RC-3) or a slow-curing emulsion or Road Tar (RT-4,
RT-5 or RT-6) is generally suitable. The quantity to be used will generally be in the range of
6-6 percent by weight of dry materials. The binder should be able to coat adequately the
individual particles of the fines fraction.

6.9.4 Design criteria

For soil-aggregate-bituminous mixtures, the CBR tests can be conveniently used for design.
The CBR values of the untreated and treated mixtures can both be determined and
compared before selecting the final design.

6.10 Spraying bitumen on earth/gravel roads (oiling)

6.10.1 Principles

Earth/gravel surfaces are dusty in the dry season when the moisture which binds the soil
particles is absent. In the wet season, water easily enters the surface and softens the same.
The conditions can be improved by spraying a binder which will coat the dusty particles
and hold them together, at the same time providing a reasonably water-proof surface.
The binder is of a law viscosity so that it is able to penetrate the compacted surface by
gravity. The process is rather cheap and economical and is suitable for low-volume low-cost
roads.

6.10.2 Binder

The binder is usually a medium curing or a slow-curing cut-back. MC-0, MC-1, SC-0 or SC-1
cut-backs are generally suitable. Slow-curing cut-backs have the advantage that the vola-
tiles do not evaporate too rapidly, thus giving more time for the binder to seep into the soil.

A rate of application of about 5 litres per sq.m. in two" or three applications will usually result
in a penetration of about 15 mm to 65 mm into th? soil and be found to be satisfactory. A light
dressing of sand will render the surface non-slippery in* wet weather.

6.11 Thermal Stabilization

(a) Heating:
One of the methods of reducing the plasticity of highly clayey soils is heat treatment. This is
one of the oldest methods of soil stabilization which has been used extensively by the
Australian agencies in making pathways.
For heat treatment of soil in situ, a travelling furnace capable of handling large amounts of
soil at temperature over 500°C is employed.
The heat treatment of pulverized black cotton soil to reduce its plasticity in laboratory was
studied in India. These studies show that the soil becomes non-plastic after being heated to
about 500°C.
Depending upon the method of burning these will always be a mixture of pulverized soil and
clods after heat treatment which gives a good gradation. The CBR values of this material
after 4 days soaking would be of the order of 110 to 140 per cent.
There is also a possibility of further improving the heat treated soil with cement or bitumen.
To increase its reactivity with cement, some raw clayey soil may have to be added to heat

26
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

treated soil. The optimum clay content to be added can be determined in the laboratory
based on compressive strength tests.
(b) Freezing:
Cooling causes a small loss of strength of clayey soil due to an increase in interparticle
repulsion. However, if the temperature is reduced to the freezing point, the pure water
freezes and the soil is stabilized.
Ice so formed acts as a cementing agent. Water in cohesionless soils freezes at about 0°C.
However, in cohesive soils, water may freeze at a much lower temperature.
The strength of the soil increases as more and more water freezes. This method of
stabilization is very costly.
This method is used only in some special cases. It has been successfully used to solidify
soils beneath foundations. This method is commonly used when advancing tunnels or shafts
through loose silt or fine sand.
Freezing may cause serious trouble to adjacent structures if the freezing front penetrates
these areas. It may cause excessive heaving.

6.12 Electrical Stabilization

Electrical stabilization of cohesive soil is performed using a process known as Electro-

osmosis. A direct current (D.C) is supplied through clayey soil to migrate pore water to
negative electrode (cathode). The strength of such soil is increased substantially as water is
removed from it.

Electrical stabilization of clayey soils is done by a process known as electro-osmosis. As a

direct current (D.C.) is passed through a clayey soil, pure water migrate to the negative
electrode (cathode).

It occurs because of the attraction of positive ions (cations) that are present in water towards
cathode.

The strength of the soil is considerably increased due to removal of water. Electro-osmosis is
an expensive method, and is mainly used for drainage of cohesive soils. Incidentally, the
properties of the soil are also improved

6.12.1 Electro-Osmosis

Electeo-osmosis is a method which drain water from cohesive soil with the help of direct
current(D.C) . The cathode is a well point which collects the water, have to drained from the
soil and discharges the water as in a conventional well-point system.

27
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

6.12.2 Mechanism of Electro-Osmosis

Cation (positive ions) are formed in pore water when the dissolved minerals go into solution.
These cations move towards the negatively charged surface of clay minerals to satisfy the
electrical charge. As the water molecules act as dipoles, the cations also attract the negative
end of dipoles. When the cations move to the cathode, they take with them the attached
water molecules.

6.12.3 Significance of Electro-Osmosis

As considerable amount of water is removed from the soil mass, the strength properties are
increased. It is also found that a small reversing of the direction of flow helps in increasing
the stability of the slope even if there is no significant decrease in the water content of soil.
So this process also increase the slope stability substantially.

6.12.4 Limitation of Electro-Osmosis

This process requires specialized and sophisticated equipment as well as electrical

consumption of high amount is associated with this process. Thus it is a highly expensive
drainage process compared with other method.

6.12.5 Suitability

This method should be used only in exception cases when other method cannot be used. It
is normally used to drain water in a cohesive soil of low permeability of

K=1 x 10-5 to 1 x 10-8 m/sec

6.13 Constructional practice in soil-stabilised roads

6.13.1 General

The constructional practice in soil-stabilisation varies with the type of stabilisation, but there
are certain steps and procedures which are common. It is, therefore, , convenient to deal
with the construction practice for all types of stabilisation together. The minor variations
needed for each type of stabilisation will be indicated at the appropriate place.

The construction technique to be adopted for a given situation depends upon a number of
factors, viz:
(i) Type of stabilisation
(ii) Type to binder, if any, to be added
(iii) Type of soils
(iv) Leads involved for the materials
(v) Magnitude of the project
(vi) Availability of equipment
(v) Availability of labour.

Broadly, the following three construction techniques can be identified:

28
LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

(i) Labour intensive methods

(ii) Machinery intensive methods

Labour intensive techniques are indicated for the following conditions :

(i) Availability of cheap labour, as in developing countries, making it more economical to use
labour-intensive techniques than equipment intensive techniques.
(ii) Small magnitude of the work, which is also scattered. This condition is prevalent in
developing countries where the construction of link roads to villages is given emphasis.
(iii) Equipment is not manufactured indigenously, and the level of skill needed for operation
and maintenance of imported equipment has not been developed.
Equipment intensive techniques are indicated for the following conditions:
(i) The equipment is produced indigenously.
(ii) Labour is scarce, and it becomes more economical to use equipment.
(iii) The work is of a large magnitude, fairly concentrated, and the time schedule for
compaction is tight.

Intermediate or appropriate technology is an intelligent blend of labour and machinery. Under

this, it is recognised that small implements and tools and simple mechanical equipment can
raise the productivity of labour and aid in obtaining good quality of work. Kenya is a country
which has already a good industrial base for manufacturing and servicing simple tools and
equipment, and at the same time has surplus labour. Intermediate technology can be applied
with good benefit in Kenya under the prevailing conditions.

6.13.2 Labour intensive methods

The various operations involved can be discussed under the-following heads :

(i) Collection of materials
(ii) Preparation of the subgrade
(iii) Pulverisation, where necessary
(iii) Mixing
(v) Spreading
(vi) Compaction.

The materials (soil, sand, gravel etc.) are collected on the sides of the sub-grade in requisite
proportions and stacked in the form of windrows.

The sub-grade is well-compacted to the required density and true to grades and the desired
cross-profile.

If clay is one of the soil materials to be used, it is necessary to pulverise it. The clods are
broken with the help of pick-axes or rammers. Application of a country plough driven by a
bullock can also be tried. If a power roller is available, the same can be passed over the layer
of clods a number of times, with frequent raking of the crushed material.

If the materials to be mixed are soil, sand and gravel, they are mixed by dry labour using
spades or shovels. The required quantity of water is added and the materials are wet mixed
by manual labour. If an additive such as lime or cement is to be added, the soil is first spread
to a uniform thickness and the bags of lime or cement are spotted at the desired spacing.
The bags are then opened and the contents spread by manual means to cover the calculated
area, which should be marked by strings. Water to the required quantity is added in stages
and the soil and lime are mixed till the mixture has a uniform colour and the desired moisture
content. If a bituminous binder is to be added, the mixing should preferably be done in a
paddle type mixer, for a period of about 1 to 6 minutes.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Bitumen stabilised mixtures are spread to a uniform thickness in loose layers not exceeding
15 cm. Mechanically stabilised mixes, soil-lime mixes and soil-cement mixes are spread to a
thickness which will give a compacted thickness of not more than 150 mm. The thickness of
any stabilised laver should not be less than 100 mm.

The cement soil mix should be compacted within 6 hours of the mixing (. 3). When cut-back
bitumen is used as a binder, rolling should start only after the mix has cured. The curing time
depends upon the type of cut-back used and varies from 1 to 7 days. With penetration grade
mixes, rolling can start as soon as the mix is laid and spread. When emulsions are used, the
rolling can start after £ hour.

Rolling of stabilised mixtures should be by 8- 10 tonne power rollers. When sand-bitumen

and soil bitumen stabilisation is used, it is preferable to carry out initial rolling by means of a
light pneumatic tyred roller. Rolling is carried out till 100 per cent laboratory density is
achieved.
Traffic is allowed on bitumen and sand-bitumen layers only after 64 hours Only light
pneumatic vehicles are allowed initially. Normal traffic is allowed only after a month. Soil-lime
and soil-cement layers are moist cured for a period of 7 days. Curing is achieved by
providing or covering the surface with damp sand, straw or hessian.

6.13.3 Machinery intensive methods

Three basic construction methods are available when machinery is employed, viz.,

(i) Mix-in-place
(ii) Travelling plant
(iii) Stationary plant.

6.13.3.1 Mix-in-place method

In this method, a train of machines is run over the soil to be processed. For breaking and
pulverising the soil, rippers, cultivators, rotary tillers, ploughs, scarifies or disc harrows are
used. Water is then added to the loose soil from a water tanker. If the stabiliser is liquid, it is
distributed by a spraying tanker. Dry powder is "either spread manually or from bulk
spreaders. Mixing is carried out by means of disc harrows or pulvi-mixers. Dry mixing is
initially done in two to three passes of the machines and is followed by wet mixing with the
addition of water. A single-pass stabiliser is also used, and it performs the various operations
such as cutting the soil, pulverising and mixing in one operation itself. Compacting is done by
rollers which follow the machines for laying the mix.

6.13.3.2 Travelling plant method

This method involves the use of a travelling plant which travels along the job site, picking up
the soil and stabiliser, mixing it in a mixer, discharging the mix on the ground. Compacting is
done separately by rollers which follow the travelling plant.

6.13.3.3 Stationary plant method

This method is based on the process of mixing the ingredients in a centrally located plant,
conveying the mix to the site, laying and compacting the same. The central mixing plant can
be of the batch type or continuous type.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

The advantages and disadvantages of the three types are summarised below.

Table 6.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Types of Stabilisation Techniques using

Equipment

Type Advantages Disadvantages

(i) It is difficult to obtain a uniform
( i ) Plant is simple, cheap and thickness of lift, because of the
1. Mix-in-place
easily transported. difficulty of setting the machines
to a given depth.
(i) The number of machines can (ii) The mixing is not uniform as
be adjusted to suit the quantum with travelling plant or stationary
of work. Flexibility is available. plant.
(iii) The whole processed section
(iii) Heavy rain is likely to spoil the
is ready for compaction at the
whole section.
same time.
(iv) A large out-put may be (iv) In a dry climate, water lost by
maintained. evaporation is difficult to replace.
(v) If excess moisture is to be
got rid of as, for example, in a
wet area, this is the only suitable
method.
(i) Accurate proportioning of (i) The cost of plant initially is
6. Travelling plant
added water possible. high.
(ii) Is suitable for concentrated
(ii) Uniform mixing obtained.
and large/ quantum of work.
(iii) Minor breakdowns can cause
(iii) Short mixing time is involved.
considerable dislocation.
(iv) Uniform surface can be
obtained.
(v) Depth of lift can be accurately
controlled.
(vi) It has the highest output for
given expenditure of plant and
labour.
3. Stationary Plant (i) Accurate proportioning of (i) Expensive if in-situ soil is to be
mixture and water is possible. processed.
(iii) Material must be compacted
(ii) The depth can be easily and
as delivered and not as a
accurately controlled.
complete section.
(iii) Concrete mixers can be
used.
(iv) Losses of moisture during
mixing and transporting are
small.
( v ) Suitable for location where
formwork is needed, as in the
case of sandy layers where
vibrators are needed.
(vi) No additional haulage in soil
has to be taken from a borrow
pit.

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LECTURE 6 SOIL STABILIZATION

Intermediate or appropriate technology for soil stabilisation

The use of simple tools, implements and equipment can be beneficial in soil-stabilisation
work in many ways. Firstly, it can lend itself to a reasonable control over the quality of the
work, which is so essential for the success of the specification. Secondly, it can be suitable
for a large quantum of work which is to be completed in a tight schedule. Thirdly, it does not
do away with labour totally, and hence is not inappropriate to labour-surplus economies.

The implements that are frequently used are the agricultural attachments such as disc
harrows, disc ploughs, grader blades, rotillors etc. which can be conveniently towed by a
small agricultural tractor or even by animal power. Water tankers for adding water can be
pneumatic-wheeled and pulled by bullocks. The Central Road Research Institute has
developed a simple equipment known as the Rotillor which is a versatile multi-purpose
machine suitable for agriculture as well as for road making. For road making, the machine
scarifies the top soil upto the required depth, pulverises the soil and mixes the soil and
stabiliser. The equipment is towed by an agricultural tractor.

QUESTIONS
1. (a) Define the term soil stabilisation. (b) What is the purpose of soil stabilisation ?
6. What are the various earth-moving equipment and their usage?
3. What are the various types of equipment used for transporting road materials ?
4. What are the various types of equipment used for compacting earthwork and pavement ?
5. Describe the working of a hot-mix plant.
6. Describe the working of a paver-finisher.
7. How is the usage rate of a road-making equipment calculated ?

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