EC312 Object Oriented Programming Module 1 1

1.1 Software Evaluation

Evolution of software technology is like to the growth of the tree. Like a tree, the software
evolution has had distinct phases “layers” of growth. These layers were building up one by
one over the last five decades as shown in figure . 1.1, with each layer representing and
improvement over the previous one.

Figure 1.1 :Layers In Programming language

Object Oriented Programming (OOP) is an approach to program organization and

development that attempts to eliminate some of the pitfalls of conventional programming
methods by incorporating the best of structured programming features with several powerful
new concepts. It is a new way of organizing and developing programs and has nothing to do
with any particular language. However, not all languages are suitable to implement the OOP
concepts easily.

1.2 Basics of object oriented programming and procedure oriented

programming
1.2.1 Procedure-Oriented Programming
In the procedure oriented approach, the problem is viewed as the sequence of things to be
done such as reading, calculating and printing. The primary focus is on functions. A typical
structure for procedural programming is shown in figure below. The technique is to divide a
larger problem into smaller problems.

Procedure oriented programming basically consists of writing a list of instructions for the
computer to follow, and organizing these instructions into groups known as functions. We

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normally use flowcharts to organize these actions and represent the flow of control from one
action to another.

In a multi-function program, many important data items are placed as global so that they may
be accessed by all the functions. Each function may have its own local data. Global data are
more vulnerable to an inadvertent change by a function. In a large program it is very difficult
to identify what data is used by which function. In case we need to revise an external data
structure, we also need to revise all functions that access the data. This provides an
opportunity for bugs to creep in.

Another serious drawback with the procedural approach is that we do not model real world
problems very well. This is because functions are action-oriented and do not really
corresponding to the element of the problem.

Some Characteristics exhibited by procedure-oriented programming are:

• Emphasis is on doing things (algorithms).

• Large programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions.
• Most of the functions share global data.
• Data move openly around the system from function to function.
• Functions transform data from one form to another.
• Employs top-down approach in program design.

Figure 1.2.1 Typical structure of POP

1.2.2 Object Oriented Programming
The major motivating factor in the invention of object-oriented approach is to remove some
of the flaws encountered in the procedural approach. OOP treats data as a critical element in
the program development and does not allow it to flow freely around the system. It ties data
more closely to the function that operate on it, and protects it from accidental modification
from outside function. OOP allows decomposition of a problem into a number of entities
called objects and then builds data and function around these objects.

The data of an object can be accessed only by the function associated with that object.
However, function of one object can access the function of other objects.

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Figure 1.2.2 Organization of data and functions in a OOP

Some of the features of object oriented programming are:

• Emphasis is on data rather than procedure.
• Programs are divided into what are known as objects.
• Data structures are designed such that they characterize the objects.
• Functions that operate on the data of an object are ties together in the data structure.
• Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external function.
• Objects may communicate with each other through function.
• New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.
• Follows bottom up approach in program design.

Object-oriented programming is the most recent concept among programming paradigms and
still means different things to different people.

Subject of Procedure Oriented Programming Object Oriented Programming

Difference (POP) (OOP)
Problem Decompose the main problem in small Decompose the main problem in
decomposition parts called functions. small parts called objects.
Connects small parts of the program by Connects small parts of the program
Connections of
passing parameters & using operating by passing messages.
parts
system.
Emphasizing Emphasizes on functions. Emphasizes on data.
In large programs, most functions use Each object controls data under it.
Use of data
global data.
Data may get passed from one function Data never get passed from one
Passing of data
to another. object to another.
Appropriate & effective techniques are Data stay secured as no external
Security of data
unavailable to secure the data. function can use data of an object.
Modification of a completed program is Modifications are easy as objects
Modification of
very difficult and it may affect the stay independent to declare and
program
whole program. define.
Designing Employs top-down approach for Employs bottom-up approach for

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approach designing programs. designing.

In large programs, it is very difficult to As data and functions stay close, it
Data
find what data has been used by which is easy to identify data.
identification
function.
Languages like C, FORTRAN, COBOL Languages like C++, JAVA etc. use
Used languages
etc. use POP. OOP.

1.3 Basic Concepts of Object Oriented Programming

It is necessary to understand some of the concepts used extensively in object oriented
programming. These include:

• Objects
• Classes
• Data abstraction and encapsulation
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Dynamic binding
• Message passing

We shall discuss these concepts in some detail in this section.

1.3.1 Objects
Objects are the basic run time entities in an object-oriented system. They may represent a
person, a place, a bank account, a table of data or any item that the program has to handle.
Programming problem is analyzed in term of objects and the nature of communication
between them. Program objects should be chosen such that they match closely with the real-
world objects. Objects take up space in the memory.

When a program is executed, the objects interact by sending messages to one another. For
example, if “customer” and “account” are to object in a program, then the customer object
may send a message to the count object requesting for the bank balance. Each object contain
data, and code to manipulate data.

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Figure. 1.3.1 Representing an object

1.3.2 Classes
We just mentioned that objects contain data, and code to manipulate that data. The entire set
of data and code of an object is defined with with the help of class.. Once a class has been
defined, we can create any number of objects belonging to that class. Hence objects are
variables of the type class.

Each object is associated with the data of type class with which they are created. A class is
thus a collection of objects similar types. For examples, Mango, Apple and orange members
of class fruit.. The syntax used to create an object is not different then the syntax used to
create an integer object in C. If fruit has been defines as a class, then the statement

Fruit Mango;
Will create an object mango belonging to the class fruit.

1.3.3 Data Abstraction and Encapsulation

The wrapping up of data and function into a single unit (called class) is known as
encapsulation. Data and encapsulation is the most striking feature of a class. The data is not
accessible to the outside world, and only those functions which are wrapped in the class can
access it.

Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features without including the
background details or explanation. Classes use the concept of abstraction and are defined as a
list of abstract attributes such as size, wait, and cost, and function operate on these attributes.
They encapsulate all the essential properties of the object that are to be created. Like you
don’t need to understand working of a car to drive.

The attributes are sometime called data members because they hold information. The
functions that operate on these data are sometimes called methods or member function.

1.3.4 Inheritance
Inheritance is the process by which objects of one class acquired the properties of objects of
another classes. For example, the bird, ‘robin’ is a part of class ‘flying bird’ which is again a
part of the class ‘bird’. The principal behind this sort of division is that each derived class
shares common characteristics with the class from which it is derived as illustrated in
figure1.3.4

In OOP, the concept of inheritance provides the idea of reusability. This means that we can
add additional features to an existing class without modifying it. This is possible by deriving
a new class from the existing one. The new class will have the combined feature of both the
classes. The real appeal and power of the Allows the programmer to reuse a class i.e almost,
but not exactly, what he wants, and to tailor the class in such a way that it does not introduced
any undesirable side-effects into the rest of classes.

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Figure 1.3.4 : Real Life example for Inheritance

1.3.5 Polymorphism
Polymorphism is another important OOP concept. Polymorphism, a Greek term, means the
ability to take more than on form. Figure. 1.3.5 illustrates that a single function name can be
used to handle different number and different types of argument. This is something similar to
a particular word having several different meanings depending upon the context.

Figure 1.3.5 : Example for Function overloading

Using a single function name to perform different type of task is known as function
overloading.

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The process of making an operator to exhibit different behaviors in different instances is

known as operator overloading.

1.3.6. Dynamic Binding

Binding refers to the linking of a procedure call to the code to be executed in response to
the call. Dynamic binding means that the code associated with a given procedure call is
not known until the time of the call at run time. It is associated with polymorphism and
inheritance.

1.3.7. Message Passing

An object-oriented program consists of a set of objects that communicate with each other.
The process of programming in an object-oriented language, involves the following basic
steps:

1. Creating classes that define object and their behavior,

2. Creating objects from class definitions, and
3. Establishing communication among objects.

Objects communicate with one another by sending and receiving information much the same
way as people pass messages to one another. A Message for an object is a request for
execution of a procedure, and therefore will invoke a function (procedure) in the receiving
object that generates the desired results. Message passing involves specifying the name of
object, the name of the function(message) and the information to be sent.

Example: Object has a life cycle. They can be created and destroyed. Communication with an
object is feasible as long as it is alive.

1.4 Benefits of OOP

OOP offers several benefits to both the program designer and the user. Object Orientation
contributes to the solution of many problems associated with the development and quality of
software products. The new technology promises greater programmer productivity, better
quality of software and lesser maintenance cost. The principal advantages are:

• Through inheritance, we can eliminate redundant code extend the use of existing Classes.
• We can build programs from the standard working modules that communicate with one
another, rather than having to start writing the code from scratch. This leads to saving of
development time and higher productivity.
• The principle of data hiding helps the programmer to build secure program that can not be
invaded by code in other parts of a programs.
• It is possible to have multiple instances of an object to co-exist without any interference.
• It is possible to map object in the problem domain to those in the program.
• It is easy to partition the work in a project based on objects.
• The data-centered design approach enables us to capture more detail of a model can
implemental form.
• Object-oriented system can be easily upgraded from small to large system.
• Message passing techniques for communication between objects makes to interface
descriptions with external systems much simpler.
• Software complexity can be easily managed.

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1.5. Applications of OOP

OOP has become one of the programming buzzwords today. There appears to be a great
deal of excitement and interest among software engineers in using OOP. Applications of
OOP are beginning to gain importance in many areas. The most popular application of
object-oriented programming, up to now, has been in the area of user interface design
such as window. Hundreds of windowing systems have been developed, using the OOP
techniques.

Real-business system are often much more complex and contain many more objects
with complicated attributes and method. OOP is useful in these types of application
because it can simplify a complex problem. The promising areas of application of OOP
include:

• The promising areas includes the followings, Real Time Systems Design Simulation and
Modeling System
• Object Oriented Database
• Client-Server System
• Hypertext, Hypermedia
• Neural Networking and Parallel Programming
• Decision Support and Office Automation Systems
• CIM/CAD/CAM Systems
• AI and Expert Systems

1.6 Introduction to C++

C++ is an object-oriented programming language. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA, in the early 1980’s.
Stroustrup, an admirer of Simula67 and a strong supporter of C, wanted to combine the
best of both the languages and create a more powerful language that could support
object-oriented programming features and still retain the power and elegance of C. The
result was C++. Therefore, C++ is an extension of C with a major addition of the class
construct feature of Simula67. Since the class was a major addition to the original C
language, Stroustrup initially called the new language ‘C with classes’. However, later in
1983, the name was changed to C++. The idea of C++ comes from the C increment
operator ++, thereby suggesting that C++ is an augmented version of C.

C+ + is a superset of C. Almost all c programs are also C++ programs. However, there
are a few minor differences that will prevent a c program to run under C++ complier. We
shall see these differences later as and when they are encountered.

The most important facilities that C++ adds on to C care classes, inheritance, function
overloading and operator overloading. These features enable creating of abstract data
types, inherit properties from existing data types and support polymorphism, thereby
making C++ a truly object-oriented language.

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1.7 Structure of C++ Program

A typical C++ program would contain four sections as shown in figure below. The first
section is include section where header files needed for the program is placed. Next section
classes are declared if object are needed in the program and function prototypes or
declarations.

Next section will have definitions of member functions of classes. Next section will have
main function which joins together all these sections.Last section will have function
definitions. These sections can be placed in different files or in the same file.

Include Files
Class declaration &Function prototypes
Member functions definitions
Main function program
Other function definitions
Figure 1.7 Structure of a C++ program

This approach is based on the concept of client-server model, where client asks for the
service of the server like your browser and a website, as shown in figure below. The class
definition including the member functions constitute the server that provides services to the
main program known as client. The client uses the server through the public interface of the
class.

Fig. 1.10 The client-server model Server

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1.8 Simple C++ Program

Let us begin with a simple example of a C++ program that prints a string on the screen.

#include<iostream>
Using name space std;

int main()
{
cout<< “C ++ is the best”;
return 0;
}

Program 1.8. Simple C++ Program

Output
C++ is the best
This simple program demonstrates several C++ features.

1.8.1 Program Feature

Every C++ program must a main() function. Also the execution of every C++ program begins
at main()(even if we have other functions above it). C++ statements(simply lines) terminate
with semicolons ‘;’.
1.8.2. Comments
Comments are special lines which will not be executed. They are used to help the reader of a
program understand it better. The double slash comment is basically a single line comment,
you can write comment that is one line long.
// This is an example of
// C++ program to illustrate
// some of its features

If you want to write comments that have more than one line use /*,*/:
/*This is an example
of C++ program to illustrate
some of its features */

1.8.3. Output operator

The only statement in program 1.10.1 is an output statement. The statement cout<< “C++ is
better than C.”;

Causes the string in quotation marks to be displayed on the screen. This statement introduces
two new C++ features, cout and <<. The identifier cout(pronounced as C out) is a predefined
object that represents the standard output stream(monitor) in C++. Here, the standard output
stream represents the screen. It is also possible to redirect the output to other output devices.
The operator << is called the insertion or put to operator.

<< insertion operator

>> extraction operator

1.8.4 The iostream File

We have used the following #include directive in the program:

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#include<iostream>

The #include directive instructs the compiler(the software which converts your program into
an exe and also checks for any mistakes or errors in your code) to include the contents of the
file enclosed within angular brackets into the source file. The header file iostream should be
included at the beginning of all programs that use input/output statements that is to print or
read from keyboard.

1.8.5 Namespace
Namespace is a new concept introduced by the ANSI C++ standards committee. This defines
a scope for the identifiers that are used in a program. For using the identifier defined in the
namespace scope we must include the using directive, like
Using namespace std;

Here, std is the namespace where ANSI C++ standard class libraries are defined. All ANSI
C++ programs must include this directive. This will bring all the identifiers defined in std to
the current global scope. Using and namespace are the new keyword of C++.

1.8.6 Return Type of main()

In C++, main () returns an integer value to the operating system. Therefore, every main () in
C++ should end with a return (0) statement; otherwise a warning an error might occur. Since
main () returns an integer type for main () is explicitly specified as int.

Introduction to class and Object

1.9 Definition and Declaration of A Class
A class in C++ combines related data and functions together. It makes a data type which is
used for creating objects of this type. Classes represent real world entities that have both data
type properties (characteristics) and associated operations (behaviour) like a bank account
which has properties like account number, balance and functions like withdraw amount or
deposit amount.

The syntax of a class definition is shown below :

Class name_of _class

{
private:
variable declaration; // data member Function declaration; //
Member Function (Method)

protected:
Variable declaration;
Function declaration;
public variable declaration;
Function declaration;
};

Here, the keyword class specifies that we are using a new data type and is followed by the
class name.

The body of the class has two keywords namely :

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(i) private
(ii) public

In C++, the keywords private and public are called access specifiers. The data hiding concept
in C++ is achieved by using the keyword private.

Private data and functions can only be accessed from within the class itself.
Public data and functions are accessible outside the class also. This is shown below :
Private Can only be accessed from within the class data members and member functions Data
hiding not mean the security technique used for protecting computer databases. The security
measure is used to protect unauthorized users from performing any operation (read/write or
modify) on the data.

The data declared under Private section are hidden and safe from accidental manipulation.
Though the user can use the private data but not by accident. The functions that operate on
the data are generally public so that they can be accessed from outside the class but this is not
a rule that we must follow.

Data Members
Data members are variables that you create in a normal program. Here while we define
members we also specify its protection level(public, private). Unlike a normal variable data
members are usually accessed within a class

Member Function
We have already seen the class definition syntax as well as an example. In C++, the member
functions can
be coded in two ways :
(a) Inside class definition
(b) Outside class definition using scope resolution operator (::)
The code of the function is same in both the cases, but the function header is different as
explained below :

Inside Class Definition:

When a member function is defined inside a class, we do not require to place a membership
label along with the function name. We use only small functions inside the class definition
and such functions are known as inline functions. In case of inline function the compiler
inserts the code of the body of the function at the place where it is invoked (called) and in
doing so the program execution is faster but memory penalty is there.

Outside Class Definition Using Scope Resolution Operator (::) :

In this case the function‟s full name (qualified_name) is written as shown:

Name_of_the_class :: function_name

The syntax for a member function definition outside the class definition is :

return_type name_of_the_class::function_name(argument list)

{
body of function
}

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Here the operator::known as scope resolution operator helps in defining the member function
outside the class.

1.10 Declaration of Objects as Instances of A Class

The objects of a class are declared after the class definition. One must remember that a class
definition does not define any objects of its type, but it defines the properties of a class. For
utilizing the defined class, we need variables of the class type. For example,

Largest ob1,ob2; //object declaration

will create two objects ob1 and ob2 of largest class type. As mentioned earlier, in C++ the
variables of a class are known as objects. These are declared like a simple variable i.e., like
fundamental data types.

In C++, all the member functions of a class are created and stored when the class is defined
and this memory space can be accessed by all the objects related to that class. Memory space
is allocated separately to each object for their data members. Member variables store different
values for different objects of a class.

Accessing Class Members

The private data of a class can be accessed only through the member functions of that class.
The main() cannot contain statements that access private directly. The public members of a
class can be accessed in the following syntax(for a function),

Object_name.function_name (arguments);

For example, the function call statement complexnum. display();

Example program

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class complex
{
int real;
int imag;
public:
complex()

{
real=0;
imag=0;

void display()
{
cout<<real<<"+"<<imag<<"i"<<endl;
}
};

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int main()
{
complex cnum;
cnum.display();
return 0;
}

Program 1.10 : Example for accessing member function and Default Constructor

1.11 Constructor
A constructor is a special member function whose task is to initialize the object of a class. Its
name is same as the class name. A constructor does not have a return value. A constructor is
called or invoked when the object of its associated class is created. It is called constructor
because it constructs the values of data members of the class

Types of constructors:
(i) Default Constructor
(ii) Parameterized Constructor
(iii) Copy Constructor

1.11.1 Default Constructor

The constructor which has no arguments is known as default constructor.
class_name ()
{ Constructor Definition }

Program 1.10 is an example for the default constructor . In the above program class name and
member function name is same ie complex.

1.11.2 Parameterized Constructor

The constructor which takes some argument is known as parameterized constructor. These
are the constructors with parameter. Using this Constructor you can provide different values
to data members of different objects, by passing the appropriate values as argument.

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
class complex
{
int real;
int imag;
public:
complex(int r, int i)
{
real=r;
imag=i;
}
void display()
{

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cout<<real<<"+"<<imag<<"i"<<endl;
}
};
int main()
{
complex cnum(10,5);
cnum.display();
return 0;
}
Program 1.11 : Example for accessing member function and Default Constructor

A parameterized constructor can be called:

(i) Implicitly: account jimsaccount(1000);
(ii) Explicitly : account samsaccount=account(5000);

1.11.3 Copy Constructor

A copy constructor is a like a normal parameterized Constructor, but which parameter is the
same class object. Copy constructor uses to initialize an object using another object of the
same class.

1.12 Destructor
Destructors are the functions that are complimentary to constructors. These are
used to deinitialize objects when they are destroyed. A destructor never takes
any argument nor does it return any value. A destructor is called when an object
of the class goes out of scope, or when the memory space used by it is de
allocated with the help of delete operator. Like constructor, the destructor is a
member function whose name is the same as the class name but is preceded by a
tilde.

~ integer ( ) { }

It is a good practice to declare destructors in a program since it releases memory

space for further use.

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Sample Questions

Enumerate the features of OOP

Differentiate POP and OOP

Explain basic structure of a C++ program with help of a simple program to display your
name in first line and roll no in second line

Differentiate between data member and member function

How to define a class and object in a C++ program with example

Differentiate between function overloading and operator overloading with examples

Explain applications of OOP

Find errors in the c++ statement

i. cout <<”x=” x;

ii. m=5 //n=10; //s=m+n;

iii. cin >>x;>>y

iv. cout<<\n “Name:”<<name;

v. cout<<”Enter value:”; cin >>x;

If you are a software programmer , which high level language prefer for design a software
for your client ? why?

What are constructors and destructors?

What are the procedure to call a member function from main function?. Discuss with an
example

What are the two type of polymorphism explain with simple example

Sample Programming Question

1. Write program to read two numbers from the key board and display the larger value
on the screen
2. Write program to find negative of a number
3. Design a simple calculator with C++. You have to use minimum 4 simple class for the
implementation
4. Create a class in C++ having three members (an integer number, sum of digits of
the number and a single digit formed by finding the sum of digits of the number
until the number is a single digit). Include appropriate functions to enter thenumber
from user end, do calculations and displaying. Also include appropriate

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constructors for initialising all members to zero.

(eg: 1236, sum of digits =12,sum of digits as single digit =3)
Write a main program to test the class.

5. Write a C++ to print and find the sum of first 20 prime numbers.
6. Write a program to find square and cube of a number

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