NTC 1PHN EXAM REVIEWER NOTES

 ENGINEERING NOTATION AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

SI prefixes
Prefix Representations
Base Base
Name Symbol Value
1000 10
yotta Y 10008 1024 1E+24
zetta Z 10007 1021 1E+21
exa E 10006 1018 1E+18
peta P 10005 1015 1E+15
tera T 10004 1012 1E+12
giga G 10003 109 1E+09
mega M 10002 106 1000000
kilo k 10001 103 1000
10000 100 1
milli m 1000−1 10−3 0.001
micro μ 1000−2 10−6 0.000001
nano n 1000−3 10−9 1E-09
pico p 1000−4 10−12 1E-12
femto f 1000−5 10−15 1E-15
atto a 1000−6 10−18 1E-18
zepto z 1000−7 10−21 1E-21
yocto y 1000−8 10−24 1E-24

 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE SPECTRUM

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Band Unit Wavelength Range Energy Range
(Lowest) (Highest) Range
100M meter -10M
ELF 3 30 Hz 3 - 30 Hz 12.4 feV - 124 feV
meter
10M meter - 1M
SLF 30 300 Hz 30 - 300 Hz 124 feV - 1.24 peV
meter
ULF 300 3000 Hz 300 Hz - 3KHz 1M meter - 100 Km 1.24 peV - 12.4 peV
VLF 3 30 KHz 3 - 30 KHz 100 Km - 10 Km 12.4 peV - 124 peV
LF 30 300 KHz 30 - 300 KHz 10 Km - 1 Km 124 peV - 1.24 neV
MF 300 3000 KHz 300 KHz - 3 MHz 1 Km - 100 m 1.24 neV - 12.4 neV
HF 3 30 MHz 3 - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m 12.4 neV - 124 neV
VHF 30 300 MHz 30 - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m 124 neV - 1.24 µeV
UHF 300 3000 MHz 300 MHz - 3GHz 1 m - 100 mm 1.24 µeV - 12.4 µeV
SHF 3 30 GHz 3 - 30 GHz 100 mm - 10 mm 12.4 µeV - 124 µeV
EHF 30 300 GHz 30 - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm 124 µeV - 1.24 meV
FIR 300 3000 GHz 300 GHz - 3 THz 1 mm - 100 µm 1.24 meV - 12.4 meV
MIR 3 30 THz 3 - 30 THz 100 µm - 10 µm 12.4 meV - 124 meV
NIR 30 300 THz 30 - 300 THz 10 µm - 1 µm 124 meV - 1.24 eV
NUV 300 3000 THz 300 THz - 3 PHz 1 µm - 100 nm 1.24 eV - 12.4 eV
EUV 3 30 PHz 3 - 30 PHz 100 nm - 10 nm 12.4 eV - 124 eV
SX 30 3000 PHz 30 PHz - 3 EHz 10 nm - 100 pm 124 eV - 12.4 KeV
HX 3 30 EHz 3 - 30 EHz 100 pm - 10 pm 12.4 KeV - 124 KeV
Y 30 300 EHz 30 - 300 EHz 10 pm - 1pm 124 KeV - 1.24 MeV
 SPEED OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE IN FREE SPACE

c = wavelength / frequency
c=λ/f
c = 3 x 108 m/s

 TYPE OF RADIO STATIONS WITH CORRESPONDING FREQUENCY BAND

 AM BROADCAST (Medium Frequency)
 FM BROADCAST (Very High Frequency)
 SHORTWAVE BROADCAST (High Frequency)
 DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITE (Super High Frequency)

 STANDARD AM BROADCAST
 employs Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation (DSB-AM)

 Video TV signals – are transmitted using Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Visual portion (image) – propagated/transmitted using Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation (SSB-AM)
 Aural portion (sound) – propagated/transmitted using Frequency Modulation (FM)

 Type of Radio Emissions

Designation Details:

Bandwidth
The bandwidth (BBBB above) is expressed as four characters: three digits and one letter. The letter occupies the
position normally used for a decimal point, and indicates what unit of frequency is used to express the bandwidth.
The letter H indicates Hertz, K indicates kiloHertz, M indicates megaHertz, and G indicates gigaHertz. For instance,
"500H" means 500 Hz, and "2M50" means 2.5 MHz. The first character must be a digit between 1 and 9; it may
not be the digit 0 or a letter.

Type of modulation
Character Description
N Unmodulated carrier
A Double-sideband amplitude modulation (e.g. AM broadcast radio)
H Single-sideband with full carrier (e.g. as used by CHU)
R Single-sideband with reduced or variable carrier
J Single-sideband with suppressed carrier (e.g. Shortwave utility and amateur stations)
B Independent sideband (two sidebands containing different signals)
C Vestigial sideband (e.g. NTSC)
F Frequency modulation (e.g. FM broadcast radio)
G Phase modulation
D Combination of AM and FM or PM
P Sequence of pulses without modulation
K Pulse amplitude modulation
L Pulse width modulation (e.g. as used by WWVB)
M Pulse position modulation
Q Sequence of pulses, phase or frequency modulation within each pulse
V Combination of pulse modulation methods
W Combination of any of the above
X None of the above

Type of modulating signal

Character Description
0 No modulating signal
1 One channel containing digital information, no subcarrier
2 One channel containing digital information, using a subcarrier
3 One channel containing analog information
7 More than one channel containing digital information
8 More than one channel containing analog information
9 Combination of analog and digital channels
X None of the above
 Types 4 and 5 were removed from use with the 1982 Radio Regulations. In previous editions, they had indicated
facsimile and video, respectively.

Type of transmitted information

Character Description
N No transmitted information
A Aural telegraphy, intended to be decoded by ear, such as Morse code
B Electronic telegraphy, intended to be decoded by machine (radioteletype and digital modes)
C Facsimile (still images)
D Data transmission, telemetry or telecommand (remote control)
E Telephony (voice or music intended to be listened to by a human)
F Video (television signals)
W Combination of any of the above
X None of the above

Details of information
Character Description
A Two-condition code, elements vary in quantity and duration
B Two-condition code, elements fixed in quantity and duration
C Two-condition code, elements fixed in quantity and duration, error-correction included
D Four-condition code, one condition per "signal element"
E Multi-condition code, one condition per "signal element"
F Multi-condition code, one character represented by one or more conditions
G Monophonic broadcast-quality sound
H Stereophonic or quadraphonic broadcast-quality sound
J Commercial-quality sound (non-broadcast)
K Commercial-quality sound—frequency inversion and-or "band-splitting" employed
L Commercial-quality sound, independent FM signals, such as pilot tones, used to control the demodulated
signal
M Greyscale images or video
N Full-color images or video
W Combination of two or more of the above
X None of the above

Multiplexing
Character Description
N None used
C Code-division (excluding spread spectrum)
F Frequency-division
T Time-division
W Combination of Frequency-division and Time-division
X None of the above

 Common examples

Broadcasting

A3E or A3E G - Ordinary amplitude modulation used for low frequency and medium frequency AM broadcasting
A8E, A8E H - AM stereo broadcasting.
F8E, F8E H - FM broadcasting for radio transmissions on VHF, and as the audio component of analogue television
transmissions. Since there are generally pilot tones (subcarriers) for stereo and RDS the designator '8' is used, to
indicate multiple signals.
C3F, C3F N - Analogue PAL, SÉCAM, or NTSC television video signals (formerly type A5C, until 1982)
C7W - ATSC digital television, commonly on VHF or UHF
G7W - DVB-T, ISDB-T, or DTMB digital television, commonly on VHF or UHF

Two-way radio

A3E - AM speech communication – used for aeronautical communications

F3E - FM speech communication – often used for marine radio and many other VHF communications
20K0 F3E - Wide FM, 20.0 kHz width, ±5 kHz deviation, still widely used for Ham Radio, NOAA weather radio,
marine, and aviation users and land mobile users below 50 MHz [1]
 11K2 F3E - Narrow FM, 11.25 kHz bandwidth, ±2.5 kHz deviation – In the United States, all Part 90 Land Mobile
Radio Service (LMRS) users operating above 50 MHz were required to upgrade to narrowband equipment by
January 1, 2013. [2] [3] [4]
6K00 F3E - Even narrower FM, future roadmap for Land Mobile Radio Service (LMRS), already required on 700 MHz
public safety band
J3E - SSB speech communication, used on HF bands by marine, aeronautical and amateur users
R3E - SSB with reduced carrier (AME) speech communication, primarily used on HF bands by the military (a.k.a.
compatible sideband)

Low-speed data

N0N - Continuous, unmodulated carrier, formerly common for radio direction finding (RDF) in marine and
aeronautical navigation.
A1A - Signalling by keying the carrier directly, a.k.a. Continuous Wave (CW) or On-Off Keying (OOK), currently
used in amateur radio. This is often but not necessarily Morse code.
A2A - Signalling by transmitting a modulated tone with a carrier, so that it can easily be heard using an ordinary
AM receiver. It was formerly widely used for station identification of non-directional beacons, usually but not
exclusively Morse code (an example of a modulated continuous wave, as opposed to A1A, above).
F1B - Frequency-shift keying (FSK) telegraphy, such as RTTY.[a]
F1C - High frequency Radiofax
F2D - Data transmission by frequency modulation of a radio frequency carrier with an audio frequency FSK
subcarrier. Often called AFSK/FM.
2B - Phase-shift keying such as PSK31 (BPSK31)

There is some overlap in signal types, so a transmission might legitimately be described by two or more
designators. In such cases, there is usually a preferred conventional designator.

 Types of Resistor
 Resistor Color Coding

 American Wire Gauge (AWG) Classification

 Skin Effect
Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed within a conductor such
that the current density is largest near the surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the
conductor. The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface and a
level called the skin depth. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher
frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-section of the conductor. The skin
effect is due to opposing eddy currents induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the alternating
current. At 60 Hz in copper, the skin depth is about 8.5 mm. At high frequencies the skin depth becomes much
smaller. Increased AC resistance due to the skin effect can be mitigated by using specially woven litz wire. Because
the interior of a large conductor carries so little of the current, tubular conductors such as pipe can be used to
save weight and cost.
 SI Electromagnetism Units
 Resistance
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric current. The inverse
quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance
shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the
ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in Siemens (S).

 Reactance
In electric and electronic systems, reactance is the opposition of a circuit element to a change in current or voltage,
due to that element's inductance or capacitance. The notion of reactance is similar to electric resistance, but it
differs in several respects.

 Reluctance
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used in the analysis of magnetic circuits. It is defined
as the ratio of magnetomotive force (mmf) to magnetic flux. It represents the opposition to magnetic flux, and
depends on the geometry and composition of an object.

 Inductance
In electromagnetism and electronics, inductance describes the tendency of an electrical conductor, such as coil,
to oppose a change in the electric current through it. The change in current induces a reverse electromotive force
(voltage). When an electric current flows through a conductor, it creates a magnetic field around that conductor.
A changing current, in turn, creates a changing magnetic field, the surface integral of which is known as magnetic
flux.

 Transformer
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits. A varying
current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a varying
electromotive force across a second coil wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred
between the two coils, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction
discovered in 1831 described the induced voltage effect in any coil due to changing magnetic flux encircled by
the coil.

Transformers are used for increasing or decreasing the alternating voltages in electric power applications, and
for coupling the stages of signal processing circuits.

Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for
the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric power.[2] A wide range of transformer
designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF
transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the
power grid.

 Real Transformer

Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects of real transformers:

(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of[9]

 Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer core, and
 Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the
transformer's applied voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances
associated with:

 Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings[9]

 Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and
secondary reactive impedance.
(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field
distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are
provided [10]

 Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

  Capacitance between adjacent layers;
 Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;
 Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is rarely attempted; the ‘real’
transformer model’s equivalent circuit does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance
effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the inductance of a primary winding
when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.

 Eddy Current Loss

 Eddy Current Loss Reduction
 Slicing the core of a transformer into thin sheets.
 Thin sheets are used instead of a solid core.

 Semiconductors

 P-Type Semiconductor
 majority carrier = hole
 minority carrier = electron
 N-Type Semiconductor
 majority carrier = electron
 minority carrier = hole
 Diodes
 Current flow in one direction only
 Semiconductor diodes are generally used as rectifier
 the most commonly used diode for voltage regulation is Zener diode
 PIN diodes are commonly used as RF switch
 Transistors
 Three (3) basic parts of are base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E)
 Current operated
 The most widely used transistor configuration for amplifier circuit is common emitter
 Common collector amplifier = emitter-follower circuit
 IC / IB = Current amplification factor (Beta or β)
 In a common emitter circuit, the phase relationship of the input to the output signal is 180 degrees
out of phase

 Vacuum Tubes
 a vacuum tube having a heater, an anode and a cathode is a diode
 the primary purpose of control grid in a triode tube is to effect amplification
 the screen grid of a vacuum tube prevents inter-electrode capacitance
 the screen grid is added to a tetrode in order to eliminate the problem of secondary emission

 Rectifiers
 Half-Wave Rectifier
 ripple frequency = line frequency (fr = fin)
example:
line frequency = fin = 60 Hz
ripple frequency = fr = 60 Hz
 Full-Wave Rectifier
 ripple frequency = 2 x line frequency (fr = 2fin)
example:
line frequency = fin = 60 Hz
ripple frequency = fr = 120 Hz
 Meters and Instruments
 Ammeter
 connect a resistor in parallel to increase the measuring range of an ammeter
 resistors that extend the range of ammeters are called shunts
 Voltmeter
 connect a resistor in series to increase the measuring range of an voltmeter
 resistors that extend the range of voltmeters are called multiplier
 resistors that extend the range of ammeters are called shunts
 Spectrum Analyzer
 instrument or device used to present test signals in the frequency domain
 CRT Oscilloscope
 device that can give the most accurate instantaneous peak-of-modulation indications
 Field Intensity Meter
 Instrument used to measure strength of electromagnetic waves propagated over a certain distance
from the source.

 Transmission Lines and Antennas

 Unity SWR
 identical or matched impedance of transmission line and antenna (ZL = ZO)
 1 : infinity SWR
 worst kind of antenna and transmission line
 Electromagnetic Wave Harmonics
 Length of the Nth harmonic of a signal
 LN = λ / N (wavelength / Nth harmonic)
 example
Problem: Find the 4th Harmonic of a one meter long radio wave
Solution:
L4TH = 1m / 4
L4TH = 0.25 meter

 Wave Analysis

 Sine Wave

 Root Mean Square (RMS) / Effective Value

  Ratio of Peak Amplitude Voltage to RMS Voltage
Vp
= √𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟐
Vrms

 Ratio of RMS Voltage to Peak Amplitude Voltage

Vrms √𝟐
= = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟏 (𝟕𝟎. 𝟕𝟏%)
Vp 𝟐

 Average Value

Vrms √𝟐
= = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟏 (𝟕𝟎. 𝟕𝟏%)
Vp 𝟐

 Ratio of Average Voltage to Peak Amplitude Voltage

Vave 𝟐
= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟔 (𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟔%)
Vp 𝛑

 Ratio of Peak Amplitude Voltage to Average Voltage

Vave 𝛑
= = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟏
Vp 𝟐

 Advanced Circuit Analysis

 Electrical Resistance and Conductance

 Ohm’s Law
 For many materials, the current I through the material is proportional to the voltage V applied

across it:

 Relation to Resistivity and Conductivity








































 Power Factor

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷
𝑷𝑭 = = = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋)
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐒

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑹
𝑷𝑭 = = = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋)
𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐙

 Reactive Power
 Out-of-Phase, Non-Productive Power associated with Inductance and Capacitance

 Purely Resistive Circuit

 circuit that has a unity power factor (PF = 1)

 Leading Power Factor

 an electrical circuit which has predominantly capacitive reactance

 Purely Inductive Circuit

 The current lags the voltage by 90 degrees

 Ratio of Average Voltage to Peak Amplitude Voltage

𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝟐
= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟔 (𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟔%)
𝐕𝐩 𝛑

 Ratio of Peak Amplitude Voltage to Average Voltage

𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝛑
= = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟏
𝐕𝐩 𝟐

 AC POWER

 Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy past a given point of the circuit. In alternating
current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductorsand capacitors may result in periodic
reversals of the direction of energy flow.
 The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer
of energy in one direction is known as active power (more commonly called real power to avoid
ambiguity especially in discussions of loads with non-sinusoidal currents). The portion of power due to
stored energy, which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.
 Electrical Resonance


 

 Radio Wave Propagation


















 Radiation Resistance





 Antenna