13

10.5 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS: AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING.

Members that are axially, i.e., concentrically, compressed occur rarely, if ever, in
buildings and other structures. Components such as columns and arches chiefly carry loads in
compression, but simultaneous bending is almost always present. Bending moments are
caused by continuity, i.e., by the fact that building columns are parts of monolithic frames in
which the support moments of the girders are partly resisted by the abutting columns, by
transverse loads such as wind forces, by loads carried eccentrically on column brackets, or in
arches when the arch axis does not
coincide with the pressure line. Even when
design calculations show a member to be
loaded purely axially, inevitable
imperfections of construction will introduce
eccentricities and consequent bending in
the member as built. For this reason
members that must be designed for
simultaneous compression and bending are
very frequent in almost all types of concrete
structures.

When a member is subjected to combined axial compression and moment, such as in

the figure (a), it is usually convenient to
replace the axial load and moment with an
equal load applied at eccentricity, as in figure
(b). The two loadings are statically equivalent.
All columns may then be classified in terms of
the equivalent eccentricity. Those having
relatively small are generally characterized by
 14

compression over the entire concrete section, and if overloaded, will fail by crushing of the
concrete accompanied by yielding of the steel in compression on the more heavily loaded
side. Columns with large eccentricity are subject to tension over at least a part of the section,
and if overloaded, may fail due to tensile yielding of the steel on the side farthest from the
load. For columns, load stages below the ultimate are generally not important. Cracking of
concrete, even for columns with large eccentricity, is usually not a serious problem, and lateral
deflections at service load levels are seldom, if ever, a factor. Design of columns is therefore
based on the factored load, which must not exceed the design strength, as usual, i.e.

The design limitations for columns, according to the ACI Code, Section 10.2, are as
follows:

1. Strains in concrete and steel are proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.

2. Equilibrium of forces and strain compatibility must be satisfied.

3. The maximum usable compressive strain in concrete is 0.003.

4. Strength of concrete in tension can be neglected.

5. The stress in the steel is .

6. The concrete stress block may be taken as a rectangular shape with concrete stress
of that extends from the extreme compressive fibers a distance , where
is the distance to the neutral axis and where as defined in ACI 10.2.7.3
equal:
 15

The eccentricity, , represents the distance from the plastic centroid of the section to the
point of application of the load. The plastic centroid is obtained by determining the location of
the resultant force produced by the steel and the concrete, assuming that both are stressed in
compression to and , respectively. For symmetrical sections, the plastic centroid
coincides with the centroid of the section. For nonsymmetrical sections, the plastic centroid is
determined by taking moments about an arbitrary axis, as explained in example below.

Example Determine the plastic centroid of the section in figure. Take

Solution:
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6.6 LOAD-MOMENT (STRENGTH) INTERACTION DIAGRAM

When a normal force is applied on a short reinforced concrete column, the following
cases may arise, according to the location of the normal force with respect to the plastic
centroid.

1. Axial compression ( ) – Point A. This is a theoretical case assuming that a large axial
load is acting at the plastic centroid; and . Failure of the column occurs by
crushing of the concrete and yielding of steel bars. This is represented by on the curve
of Fig. a.
2. Maximum nominal axial load : This is the case of a normal force acting on the
section with minimum eccentricity. According to the ACI Code, for tied
columns and for spirally reinforced columns, as explained in before in this chapter.
In this case, failure occurs by crushing of the concrete and the yielding of steel bars.
 17

3. Compression failure: This is the case of a large axial load acting at a small eccentricity.
The range of this case varies from a maximum value of to a minimum value
of (balanced load). Failure occurs by crushing of the concrete on the
compression side with a strain of 0.003, whereas the stress in the steel bars (on the
tension side) is less than the yield strength, ( ). In this case and .
 18

The strain distribution at Point B corresponds to the axial load and moment at the onset
of crushing of the concrete just as the strains in the concrete on the opposite face of the column
reach zero. Case B represents the onset of cracking of the least compressed side of the
column. Because tensile stresses in the concrete are ignored in the strength calculations, failure
loads below point B in the interaction diagram represent cases where the section is partially
cracked.

Region A–C - Compression-Controlled Failures. Columns with axial loads and moments
that fall on the upper branch of the interaction diagram between points A and C initially fail
due to crushing of the compression face before the extreme tensile layer of reinforcement
yields. Hence, they are called compression-controlled columns.

4. Balanced condition ( ) – Point C: A balanced condition is reached when the

compression strain in the concrete reaches 0.003 and the strain in the tensile
reinforcement reaches simultaneously; failure of concrete occurs at the same time
as the steel yields. The moment that accompanies this load is called the balanced moment,
, and the relevant balanced eccentricity is .
5. Tension failure: This is the case of a small axial load with large eccentricity, that is, a
large moment. Before failure, tension occurs in a large portion of the section, causing the
tension steel bars to yield before actual crushing of the concrete. At failure, the strain in the
tension steel is greater than the yield strain, , whereas the strain in the concrete
reaches 0.003 . The range of this case extends from the balanced to the case of pure
flexure. When tension controls, and .

Point D - Tensile-Controlled Limit. Point D corresponds to a strain distribution with 0.003

compressive strain on the top face and a tensile strain of 0.005 in the extreme layer of tension
steel (the layer closest to the tensile face of the section.) The failure of such a column will be
ductile, with steel strains at failure that are about two and a half times the yield strain (for Grade-
420 steel). ACI Code Section 10.3.4 calls this the tension-controlled strain limit.
 19

Region C–D - Transition Region. Flexural members and columns with loads and moments
which would plot between points C and D are called transition failures because the mode of
failure is transitioning from a brittle failure at point C to a ductile failure at point D, corresponding
respectively to steel strains of 0.002 and 0.005 in the extreme layer of tension steel. This is
reflected in the transition of the factor, which equals 0.65 (tied column) or 0.75 (spiral
column) at point C and equals 0.9 at point D.

6. Pure flexure: The section in this case is subjected to a bending moment, , whereas the
axial load is . Failure occurs as in a beam subjected to bending moment only. The
eccentricity is assumed to be at infinity. Note that radial lines from the origin represent
constant ratios of eccentricity of the load from the plastic centroid.
 20

10.7 BALANCED STRAIN CONDITION – RECTANGULAR SECTIONS.

The balanced strain condition represents the dividing point between the “section compression
controlled” and the “transition zone” of the strength interaction diagram (point C on the
interaction diagram). It is the simultaneous occurrence of a strain of 0.003 in the extreme fiber
of concrete and the strain on
the tension steel. It may be noted that
in the case of bending moment without
axial load, the balanced strain
condition is not permitted by ACI –
10.3.5. However, in the case of
combined bending and axial load, the
balanced strain condition is only one
point on an acceptable interaction
diagram.

Substituting

Or:

Force equilibrium requires

Where:

And if compression steel yields at balanced strain condition:

( ) ( ) Or
 21

Thus the equation (1) becomes

( )
The eccentricity is measured from the plastic centroid, which has been defined before in this
chapter. For symmetrical sections the plastic centroid is at the middepth of the section.
Rotational equilibrium of the forces is satisfied by taking moments about any point such as the
plastic centroid,
( ) ( ) or

( ) ( )( )
Equations (**) and (***) may be solved simultaneously to obtain
The balanced eccentricity is

Example:
Determine the eccentric balanced compressive strength and the eccentricity for a
balanced strain condition on the section below. Take:
 22

Example Determine the eccentric balanced compressive strength and the eccentricity for
a balanced strain condition on the section below. Take:
 23

10.10 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH. PRACTICAL DESIGN APPROACH.

Generally, designers have access to published interaction diagrams or computer

programs to compute interaction diagrams based on a sectional analysis for use in design.
Occasionally, this is not true, as, for example, in the design of hollow bridge piers, elevator
shafts, or unusually shaped members. Typical interaction charts are given below.

The design of eccentrically loaded columns using the strain compatibility method of
analysis described requires that a trial column be selected. The trial column is then investigated
to determine if it is adequate to carry any combination of and that may act on it should the
structure be overloaded.

Graphs A.6 through A.14 (pages 106-132) are representative of column design charts, in
this case for concrete with and steel with yield strength , for
varying cover distances. Graphs A.6 through A.8 are drawn for rectangular columns with
reinforcement along two opposite faces. Graphs A.9 through A. 11 are for rectangular columns
with reinforcement distributed around the column perimeter. Circular columns with bars in a
circular pattern are shown in Graphs A. 12 through A. 14. Instead of plotting versus ,
corresponding parameters have been used to make the charts more generally applicable, i.e.,
load is plotted as

while moment is expressed as

 24

Families of curves are drawn for various values of ⁄ between 0.01 and 0.08.

The graphs also include radial lines representing different eccentricity ratios ⁄ , as well as
lines representing different ratios of stress ⁄ or values of strain (compression

controlled limit), and (tension-controlled limit) in the extreme tension steel. Charts
such as these permit the direct design of eccentrically loaded columns throughout the common
range of strength and geometric variables. They may be used in one of two ways as follows. For
a given factored load and equivalent eccentricity :

1. Select trial cross-sectional dimensions b and h.

2. Calculate the ratio based on required cover distances to the bar centroids, and
select the corresponding column design chart.
3. Calculate and , where (for rectangular section)
4. From the graph, for the values found in (3), read the required reinforcement ratio .
5. Calculate the total steel area .
6. Select the reinforcement ratio .
7. Choose a trial value of and calculate and .
8. From the corresponding graph, read and calculate the required .

9. Calculate .
10. Revise the trial value of if necessary to obtain a well-proportioned section.
11. Calculate the total steel area .

Important Note:

The interaction diagrams are drawn for materials strength

To convert from MPa to ksi : 1 Mpa = 0.145 ksi

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Example Design a rectangular tied column with bars in four faces to support the
following loads:

Solution:

1-Assume h=500mm.

2-compute the ratio ⁄

The ratio of the distance between the centers of the outside layers of bars to the overall depth
of the column. Assume for bars.

3. Use interaction diagram A-9b to determine

From the interaction diagram, try then;

Take column dimensions h =500mm and b= 350mm

4. Use interaction diagram A-9b to determine for the selected dimensions:

h =500mm and b= 350mm. The interaction diagrams are entered with

 26

5. Select the reinforcement:

Take

Or Take

Note that in last combination of bars ( ) the

ratio will be different when using this bars
arrangement, it will be greater than 0.75, which gives
less .

6.Try another section taking h=500mm and b=400mm.

Use interaction diagram A-9b to determine for the

selected dimensions. The interaction diagrams are
entered with
 27

7. Select the reinforcement:

Take

Example Design a rectangular tied column with bars in four faces to support the
following loads:

Solution

1-compute the ratio ⁄

To construct the line, take value 0.22 on axis and value 1.0 on axis.
 28

The ratio of the distance between the centers of the outside layers of bars to the overall depth
of the column. Assume for bars.

Because the interaction diagrams are given for = 0.75 and = 0.9 it will be necessary to
interpolate. Also, because the diagrams only can be read with limited accuracy, it is
recommended to express with only two significant figures.

2. Use interaction diagrams trying :

Diagram A-9b (for = 0.75).

Diagram A-9c (for = 0.9). ).

Use linear interpolation to compute the value for = 0.81

( ) or

( )

Take column dimensions: h=650mm and b=300mm

3. Use interaction diagram A-9b and A-9c to determine for the selected dimensions:

H=650mm and b=300mm

Diagram A-9b (for

Diagram A-9c (for

 29

( )

4. Select the reinforcement:

Take

Example Design a circular spiral column section to support the following loads:

Solution

1- Try D=600 mm
2- Compute the ratio :

-The ratio of the distance between the centers of the outside layers of bars to the overall
depth of the column. Assume for bars.
 30

Because the interaction diagrams are given for = 0.75 and = 0.9 it will be necessary to
interpolate.

3. Use interaction diagram A-12b and A-12c to determine for the selected diameter:

D=h=600mm

Diagram A-12b (for

Diagram A-12c (for

4-Try D=h=550mm.

To construct the line, take value 0.22 on axis and value 1.0 on axis.

Because the interaction diagrams are given for = 0.75 and = 0.9 it will be necessary to
interpolate.

5- Use interaction diagram A-12b and A-12c to determine for the selected diameter:

D=h=550 mm.
 31

Diagram A-12b (for

Diagram A-12c (for

( )

6. Select the reinforcement:

Take
 32

For all previous examples, the ties design and the check for ACI requirements must be
provided as in examples for concentrically loaded columns:

- Design of Ties:
Use ties with spacing of ties shall not exceed the smallest of:
1. 48 times the tie diameter,
2. 16 times the longitudinal bar diameter,
3. the least dimension of the column.

- Check for code requirements:

1. Clear spacing between longitudinal bars:
2. Gross reinforcement ratio,
3. Number of bars.
4. Minimum tie diameter.
5. Spacing of ties.
6. Arrangement of ties.