Chapter 2

Descriptive Statistics I:
Tabular and Graphical Presentations

Slide 1

Learning objectives

1. Single variable
1.1. How to use Tables and Graphs to summarize data
1.1.1. Qualitative data
1.1.2. Quantitative data
1.2. How to use Stem-and-Leaf display to explore data

2. Two variables
2.1. How to identify and understand potential relationship
between variables
2.1.1. Using Crosstabulation
– Power of Simpson’s paradox when present
2.1.2. Using Scatter Diagram and Trendline

Slide 2

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 Outline: Tabular and Graphical Procedures
Data
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Tabular Graphical Tabular Graphical

Methods Methods Methods Methods

•Frequency •Bar Graph •Frequency •Dot Plot

Distribution •Pie Chart Distribution •Histogram
•Rel. Freq. Dist. •Rel. Freq. Dist. •Ogive
•Percent Freq. •Cum. Freq. Dist. •Scatter
Distribution •Cum. Rel. Freq. Diagram
•Crosstabulation Distribution
•Stem-and-Leaf
Display
•Crosstabulation

Slide 3

•L.O. 1.1.1.
•Frequency

L.O. 1.1.1. Table and Graph for Qualitative Data

•Bar graph
•Pie chart

n Tabular methods
• Frequency Distribution
• Relative Frequency Distribution
• Percent Frequency Distribution

n Graphical methods
• Bar Graph
• Pie Chart

Slide 4

2
 •L.O. 1.1.1.
•Frequency
Frequency Distribution & Graph •Bar graph
•Pie chart

A frequency distribution is a tabular summary of

data showing the frequency (or number) of items
in each of several nonoverlapping classes.

The objective is to provide insights about the data

that cannot be quickly obtained by looking only at
the original data.

Slide 5

•L.O. 1.1.1.
•Frequency
Qualitative Data Example: Marada Inn •Bar graph
•Pie chart

Guests staying at Marada Inn were

asked to rate the quality of their
accommodations as being excellent,
above average, average, below average, or
poor. The ratings provided by a sample of 20 guests are:
Below Average Average Above Average
Above Average Above Average Above Average
Above Average Below Average Below Average
Average Poor Poor
Above Average Excellent Above Average
Average Above Average Average
Above Average Average

Slide 6

3
 •L.O. 1.1.1.
•Frequency
Frequency Distribution •Bar graph
•Pie chart

.10(100) = 10

Relative Percent
Rating Frequency Frequency Frequency
.10 10
Poor 2
Below Average 3 .15 15
Average 5 .25 25
Above Average 9 .45 45
Excellent 1 .05 5
Total 20 1.00 100

1/20 = .05

Slide 7

•L.O. 1.1.1.
•Frequency
Bar Graph •Bar graph
•Pie chart

Marada Inn Quality Ratings

10
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
Rating
Poor Below Average Above Excellent
Average Average

Slide 8

4
 •L.O. 1.1.1.
•Frequency
Pie Chart •Bar graph
•Pie chart

Marada Inn Quality Ratings

Excellent
5%
Poor
10%
Below
Average
Above 15%
Average
45%
Average
25%

Slide 9

•L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
L.O. 1.1.2. Table and Graph for Quantitative Data •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

n Tabular methods
• Frequency Distribution
• Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency
Distributions

n Graphical methods
• Dot Plot
• Histogram
• Cumulative Distributions (called Ogive when
shown as a line graph)

Slide 10

5
 •L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Quantitative Data Example: Hudson Auto Repair •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

The manager of Hudson Auto

would like to have a better
understanding of the cost
of parts used in the engine
tune-ups performed in the
shop. She examines 50
customer invoices for tune-ups. The costs of parts,
rounded to the nearest dollar, are listed on the next
slide.

Slide 11

•L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Example: Hudson Auto Repair •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

n Sample of Parts Cost for 50 Tune-ups

91 78 93 57 75 52 99 80 97 62
71 69 72 89 66 75 79 75 72 76
104 74 62 68 97 105 77 65 80 109
85 97 88 68 83 68 71 69 67 74
62 82 98 101 79 105 79 69 62 73

Slide 12

6
 •L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Dot Plot •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

Tune-up Parts Cost

.
. .. . . .
. .. .. .. .. . .
. . . ..... .......... .. . .. . . ... . .. .
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Cost ($)

Slide 13

•L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot

Frequency Distribution •Frequency

•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

For Hudson Auto Repair, if we choose six classes:

Approximate Class Width = (109 - 52)/6 = 9.5 ≅ 10
Relative Percent
Parts Cost ($) Frequency Frequency Frequency
.04 4
50-59 2
.26 26
60-69 13 2/50
70-79 16 .32 32
80-89 7 .14 14
90-99 7 .14 14
100-109 5 .10 10
Total 50 1.00 100
.10(100) Slide 14

7
 •L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Histogram •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

Tune-up Parts Cost

18
16
14
12
Frequency

10
8
6
4
2
Parts
50−59 60−69 70−79 80−89 90−99 100-110 Cost ($)

Slide 15

•L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Histogram: Check the Skewness •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

Slide 16

8
 •L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Discussion item •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

n Use the handout given and focus on the portion

instructed by me.
n Identify and understand:
• what is being represented by the Histogram?
• is descriptive statistics helping these authors to
make their case? How?

Slide 17

•L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Cumulative Distributions •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

Cumulative frequency distribution − shows the

number of items with values less than or equal to
the upper limit of each class..

Cumulative relative frequency distribution – shows

the proportion of items with values less than or
equal to the upper limit of each class.

Cumulative percent frequency distribution – shows

the percentage of items with values less than or
equal to the upper limit of each class.

Slide 18

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 •L.O. 1.1.2.
•Dot plot
Cumulative Distributions •Frequency
•Histogram
•Cumulative
Distribution

n Hudson Auto Repair

Cumulative Cumulative
Cumulative Relative Percent
Cost ($) Frequency Frequency Frequency
< 59 2 .04 4
< 69 15 .30 30
< 79 31 2 + 13 .62 15/50 62 .30(100)
< 89 38 .76 76
< 99 45 .90 90
< 109 50 1.00 100

Slide 19

•L.O. 1.1.2.
Ogive with •Dot plot
•Frequency
•Histogram

Cumulative Percent Frequencies •Cumulative

Distribution

Tune-up Parts Cost

100
Cumulative Percent Frequency

80

60 (89.5, 76)

40

20
Parts
Cost ($)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Slide 20

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 •L.O. 1.2.
•Stem-and-leaf
L.O. 1.2. Exploratory Data Analysis

n The techniques of exploratory data analysis consist of

simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures that can
be used to summarize data quickly.

n One such technique is the stem-and-leaf display.

• A stem-and-leaf display shows both the rank order and

shape of the distribution of the data.

Slide 21

Stem-and-Leaf Display:
•L.O. 1.2.
•Stem-and-leaf

Hudson Auto Example

5 2 7
6 2 2 2 2 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9
7 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9
8 0 0 2 3 5 8 9
9 1 3 7 7 7 8 9
10 1 4 5 5 9

a stem
a leaf

Slide 22

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 •L.O. 1.2.
•Stem-and-leaf
Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display

n If we believe the original stem-and-leaf display has

condensed the data too much, we can stretch the
display by using two stems for each leading digit(s).

n Whenever a stem value is stated twice, the first value

corresponds to leaf values of 0 − 4, and the second
value corresponds to leaf values of 5 − 9.

Slide 23

•L.O. 1.2.
•Stem-and-leaf
Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display

5 2
5 7
6 2 2 2 2
6 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 9
7 1 1 2 2 3 4 4
7 5 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 9
8 0 0 2 3
8 5 8 9
9 1 3
9 7 7 7 8 9
10 1 4
10 5 5 9

Slide 24

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 •L.O. 1.2.
•Stem-and-leaf
Stem-and-Leaf Display

n Leaf Units
• A single digit is used to define each leaf.
• In the preceding example, the leaf unit was 1.
• Leaf units may be 100, 10, 1, 0.1, and so on.
• Where the leaf unit is not shown, it is assumed
to equal 1.

Slide 25

•L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
L.O. 2. Crosstabulations and Scatter Diagrams •Scatter diagram

n Thus far we have focused on methods that are used

to summarize the data for one variable at a time.
n Often a manager is interested in tabular and
graphical methods that will help understand the
relationship between two variables.
n Crosstabulation and a scatter diagram are two
methods for summarizing the data for two (or more)
variables simultaneously.

Slide 26

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 •L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
L.O. 2.1.1. Crosstabulation •Scatter diagram

n A crosstabulation is a tabular summary of data for

two variables.
n Crosstabulation can be used when:
• one variable is qualitative and the other is
quantitative,
• both variables are qualitative, or
• both variables are quantitative.
n The left and top margin labels define the classes for
the two variables.

Slide 27

•L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Crosstabulation •Scatter diagram

n Example: Finger Lakes Homes

The number of Finger Lakes homes sold for each
style and price for the past two years is shown below.
quantitative qualitative
variable variable
Price Home Style
Range Colonial Log Split A-Frame Total
< $99,000 18 6 19 12 55
> $99,000 12 14 16 3 45

Total 30 20 35 15 100

Frequency distribution
for the home style variable Frequency distribution
for the price variableSlide 28

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 •L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Discussion item •Scatter diagram

n Use the handout given and focus on the portion

instructed by me.
n Identify and understand:
• what is being represented by Table 2?
• What is being represented by Tables 3 and 4? Are
these examples of crosstabulations?

Slide 29

•L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Crosstabulation: Simpson’s Paradox •Scatter diagram

Aggregate table shows Judge

Kendall is better.
Verdict Luckett Kendall Total
Upheld 129 (86%) 110 (88%) 239
Reversed 21 (14%) 15 (12%) 36
Total (%) 150 (100%) 125 (100%) 275

Judge Luckett Judge Kendall

Common Municipal Common Municipal

Verdict Pleas Court Total Verdict Pleas Court Total
Upheld 29 (91%) 100 (85%) 129 Upheld 90 (90%) 20 (80%) 110
Reversed 3 (9%) 18 (15%) 21 Reversed 10 (10%) 5 (20%) 15
Total (%) 32 (100%) 118 (100%) 150 Total (%) 100 (100%) 25 (100%) 125

However, according to the column percentage tables

above, Judge Luckett seems to be better than Judge
Kendall.

Slide 30

15
 •L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
L.O. 2.1.2. Scatter Diagram and Trendline •Scatter diagram

n A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation of the

relationship between two quantitative variables.
n One variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the
other variable is shown on the vertical axis.
n The general pattern of the plotted points suggests the
overall relationship between the variables.
n A trendline is an approximation of the relationship.

Slide 31

•L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Scatter Diagram •Scatter diagram

n A Positive Relationship

Slide 32

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 •L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Scatter Diagram •Scatter diagram

n A Negative Relationship

Slide 33

•L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Scatter Diagram •Scatter diagram

n No Apparent Relationship

Slide 34

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 •L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation

Example: Panthers Football Team •Scatter diagram

n Scatter Diagram
The Panthers football team is interested
in investigating the relationship, if any,
between interceptions made and points scored.

x = Number of y = Number of
Interceptions Points Scored
1 14
3 24
2 18
1 17
3 30

Slide 35

•L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Scatter Diagram •Scatter diagram

y
35
Number of Points Scored

30
25
20
15
10
5
0 x
0 1 2 3 4
Number of Interceptions

Slide 36

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 •L.O. 2.
•Crosstabulation
Example: Panthers Football Team •Scatter diagram

n Insights Gained from the Preceding Scatter Diagram

• The scatter diagram indicates a positive relationship
between the number of interceptions and the
number of points scored.
• Higher points scored are associated with a higher
number of interceptions.
• The relationship is not perfect; all plotted points in
the scatter diagram are not on a straight line.

Slide 37

Tabular and Graphical Procedures

Data
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Tabular Graphical Tabular Graphical

Methods Methods Methods Methods

•Frequency •Bar Graph •Frequency •Dot Plot

Distribution •Pie Chart Distribution •Histogram
•Rel. Freq. Dist. •Rel. Freq. Dist. •Ogive
•Percent Freq. •Cum. Freq. Dist. •Scatter
Distribution •Cum. Rel. Freq. Diagram
•Crosstabulation Distribution
•Stem-and-Leaf
Display
•Crosstabulation

Slide 38

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End of Chapter 2

Slide 39

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