Polarized Light and Quantum Mechanics

Introduction

Readily available and inexpensive polarizing films can be used to illustrate many fundamental
quantum mechanical concepts. The purpose of this tutorial is to use polarized light to illustrate
one of quantum theory’s deepest and most challenging concepts - the linear superposition.
According to Richard Feynman the superposition principle “has in it the heart of quantum
mechanics” and is its “only mystery.” (1)

Three Polarizer “Paradox”

If two polarizing films are aligned in the same direction light from the first polarizer passes
through the second. If the polarizers are opposed at a 90° angle, the polarized light from the first
polarizer is stopped by the second. If a third polarizer is sandwiched between the two opposed
polarizers at a 45° angle some light gets through the last polarizer.(2, 3) The analysis that follows
is based on the quantum mechanical superposition principle. A graphical representation is shown
below.

Quantum Mechanical Analysis

A photon polarized at an angle 2 with respect to the vertical can be written as a linear
combination (superposition) of a vertically polarized photon, *v,, and a horizontally polarized
photon, *h,. We say *v, and *h, are the polarization basis states, which means +v*v, = +h*h, = 1
and +v*h, = +h*v, = 0.

(1)
From this figure we see that the projections of *1, onto *v, †+ v *1, and *h, †+h*1, are cos (1)
and sin (1), respectively.

(2)

The probability that a photon polarized at an angle 1 will pass a vertical polarizer is

(3)

The light incident on the first polarizer is unpolarized, but the photons that pass the vertical
polarizer are vertically polarized. In other words the photons are eigenfunctions of the
measurement operator, which in this case is a vertically oriented linear polarizer. At this point
only two experiments have definite outcomes.

1. The probability that vertically polarized photons will pass a second filter that
is also vertically polarized is one. It is certain that a vertically polarized photon
will pass a vertically polarized filter.

(4)

2. The probability that vertically polarized photons will pass a second filter that
is horizontally polarized is zero. It is certain that a vertically polarized photon
will not pass a horizontally polarized filter.

(5)

For any other orientation of the second filter, quantum mechanics can only predict the probability
that a vertically polarized photon will pass, and that probability is, of course,
 (6)

Now a vertically polarized photon may be written as a linear superposition of any other
orthogonal basis states, for example *45°, and *-45°,.

(7)

If a 45° polarizer is inserted between the vertical and horizontal polarizers photons get through
the horizontal polarizer that stopped them previously. Here is the quantum mechanical
explanation. The probability that a vertically polarized photon will get through a polarizer
oriented at an angle of 45° is, by eqns (7), 1/2.

(8)

At this point the photon is in the state *45°, and according to the superposition principle a photon
in this state can be written as a linear combination of *v, and *h,.

(9)

Therefore, the probability that this photon will pass the final horizontally oriented polarizer is

(10)

Alternatively, the probability that a photon emerging from the vertical polarizer will pass through
the final horizontal polarizer in the presence of an intermediate 45° polarizer can be calculated as
follows:

(11)

In other words, half of the photons that emerge from the vertical polarizer pass the 45° polarizer,
and half of those pass the final horizontal polarizer. So 25% of the photons that pass the initial
vertical polarizer also pass the final horizontal polarizer.
 Unpolarized Light

The unpolarized light illuminating the first polarizer is a 50-50 mixture of any orthogonal set of
polarizer angles – (0°, 90°), (-45°, 45°), or in the general case (1, 1+B/2).(4) A mixture cannot
be represented by a single wave function, so the expectation value for a mixture of unpolarized
photons to pass a vertical polarizer is calculated as follows:

(12)

where V represents the operator associated with the vertical polarizer, and pi is the fraction of
photons in the state .

For the general case of a beam of unpolarized light incident on a vertical polarizer the
expectation value for transmission is,

(13)

Since, , equation (13) can be written as,

(14)

This expression simplifies to,

(15)

Thus c (= ½ ½ ½) of the photons incident on the initial vertical polarizer pass the final
horizontal polarizer.

References:

1. Feynman, R. P.; Leighton, R. B.; Sands, M. The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.3;
Addison-Wesley: Reading, 1965

2. N. David Mermin, "Spooky Action at a Distance: Mysteries of the Quantum Theory," in The
Great Ideas Today 1988, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, pp 2-53.

3. Nick Herbert, Quantum Reality: Beyond the New Physics, Anchor Books, New York, 1985,
pp 182-185.

4. H. J. Lipkin, Quantum Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1973, pp 12-14.