SPA6311 Physical Cosmology 2015

Lectures 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3

Lecture by K. A. Malik

The Cosmic Microwave Background

Black Body Spectrum: at early times the universe was radiation dominated. Due to
the frequent interactions, the photons were in thermal equilibrium. Photons are bosons,
and therefore have occupation number
1
N= 
hν

e kB T
−1
The photon number density

8π ν2
nγ (ν) =
c3
 
hν
e kB T
−1
Total energy density is then

ρ(ν) = nγ (ν)E = nγ hν

So
Z ∞
ρrad = hνnγ (ν)dν
0
4 T4 Z ∞
8πkB y 3 dy
=
h3 c3 0 ey − 1
hν
R∞ y 3 dy π4
y= kB T . Using 0 ey −1 = 15 .

Hence we get

ρrad = σT 4

with
π 2 kB
4
σ= = 7.57 × 10−16 Jm−3 K −4
15~3 c3

The energy distribution follows a black body spectrum. The spectrum has a peak at
∼ 3 khν
BT
and Epeak ∼ 3kB T

1
Crucial observation: made by COBE satellite 1990

The CMB radiation has exactly the spectrum of a black body with temperature

T0 = 2.725 ± 0.001K

Using ρrad for a black body, i.e ρrad = σT 4 , we have

ρrad = 4.17 × 10−14 Jm−3

This is known as the energy density for CMB radiation, or for the density parameter

Ωrad = 2.47 × 10−5 h−2

We had ρrad ∝ T 4 and ρrad ∝ a−4 which implies

T ∝ a−1

So the universe cools as it expands!

Using a−1 ∝ (1 + z), we get the temperature redshift relation

T2 1 + z2
=
T1 1 + z1
E.g.

T2 = (1 + z2 ) T0

where T0 is the temperature now, and z = 0. CMB temperature at z = 2 (T0 ' 3K)

T2 ' 9K

This effect has actually been observed → much hotter at early times!. Note, the “black
body character” of the spectrum is conserved, as the universe expands: Frequency and
temperature evolve in the same way

ν ∝ a−1
T ∝ a−1

Or
 
ai
νf = νi
af
 
ai
Tf = Ti
af

2
Hence the final energy density is

8πG νf3 dνf

ρ (νf ) dνf =
c3
 
hνf
kB T f
e −1
4
νi3 dνi

8πG ai
=
c3
 
hνi
af
e kB Ti
−1
 4
ai
= ρ (νi ) dνi
af

Shape is preserved, however the peek of the spectrum gets shifted. T > Tnew (here,
cooling)

CMB History

Existence of the CMB radiation first predicted by George Gamow in 1948 and again
by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman in 1950.

Discovered, by accident, in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson (Nobel Prize in
1978). Explained by Princeton group, including Robert Dickie and Dave Wilkinson,
together with Penzias and Wilson at the same time (Dickie prepared a CMB experiment
when he heard about the discovery!)

The discovery of the CMB convinced most people of the Big Bang theory. In other
theories it is very difficult to get such an exact black body spectrum and a high degree
of isotropy (that is, without a very hot and dense beginning in thermal equilibrium).

The COBE satellite’s main mission was to measure the spectrum of the CMB (in 1990)

What is the origin of the CMB radiation?

The most common element in the universe is hydrogen. As the temperature increases
as we go back in time (recall a factor decreases), the temperature will be high enough
eventually to ionise the hydrogen. NB: photons interact with electrons and ions.

Ionisation energy of hydrogen

Eion = 13.6eV

(i.e need 13.6 eV to knock electron from proton). At what temperature did this happen?
Using the mean energy Emean ' 3kB T where kB = 8.6 × 10−5 eV K get

Eion 13.6
Tion ' = ' 50000K
3kB 3kB

3
To get a better estimate consider high energy photons in the tail of the photon distri-
bution.

Recap

We started with the Cosmic Microwave Background. We stopped at the question where
do the CMB photons actually come from?

Blackbody distribution - Intensity vs frequency

Emean ≈ 3kB T
T ∝ a−1

How many photons and baryons are there?

We had earlier

ρrad = 4.17 × 10−14 Jm−3

The mean energy of a photon today is

Emean = 3kB T0

T0 = 2.725K.

ρrad = nγ Emean
ρrad
nγ =
Emean
= 3.7 × 108 m−3

(Present day photon number density). We will later on see

Ωb,0 = 0.02h−2

and we had

ρb,0 = Ωb,0 ρc,0 = 3.38 × 10−11 Jm−3

Need to know: mean energy per baryon. Baryons are non-relativistic, energy dominated
by their rest mass.

Emean = mb c2 ≈ 1GeV

roughly, assuming only hydrogen important (nucleus of hydrogen atom is the proton).
Get
ρb,0
nb = = 0.22m−3
Emean

4
Hence the proton to baryon ration is

nγ 3.6 × 108
= ≈ 109
nb 0.22

Note, this result is independent of time, because nb ∝ a−3 , but also nγ ∝ a−3 . Also
note, today the baryon energy density is greater then that of photons, despite the photon
number density being much larger then the baryon one.

Matter-radiation equality

Recall: neutrinos are also regarded as relativistic particles, and hence count as radi-
ation. Hence, radiation is actually composed of photons and neutrinos.

ρrad = ργ + ρν

Assuming 3 light neutrino species, we have

 4
7 4 3
Ων = |{z}
3 Ωγ = 0.68Ωγ
8 11
3 Species |{z} | {z }
ν fermions, smaller energy density e− and e+ annihilate produce γ not ν

The overall energy density in neutrinos is smaller then in photons. Total present day
radiation density parameter

Ωr,0 = Ωγ,0 + Ων,0 = 1.68Ωγ,0 = 4.2 × 10−5 h−2

To get aeq , the scale factor when Ωm = Ωr , recall ρr ∝ a−4 and ρm ∝ a−3
ρr
= a−1
ρm
get
Ωr Ωr,0 1
=
Ωm Ωm,0 a
4.2 × 10−5
=
Ωm,0 h2

So
4.2 × 10−5
aeq =
Ωm,0 h2

this happens to take place

T0
Teq =
aeq

5
Recall T ∝ a−1 , Teq aeq = T0 a0

Teq = 6.6 × 104 Ωm,0 h2 K

Temperature-time relation

We have T ∝ a−1 .
1 1
During rad dom: a ∝ t 2 therefore T ∝ t− 2 and hence
 1
teq 2 T
=
t Teq
2 −2
Recall, during matter dom: a ∝ t 3 . We know t0 ≈ 13.8Gyr, T0 ≈ 3K and T ∝ t 3

 2
teq 3 T
=
t Teq

Hence

−1  32
teq = 1.3 × 1010 yr 4.2 × 10−5 Ωm,0 h2

Note, teq is much smaller then t0 , that is the universe was much longer matter dom than
radiation dominated.

Back to the origin of the CMB: we had Tion ≈ 50000K. Not very accurate, we now
that there are 109 photons per baryon, and high energy photons in the tail of the dis-
tribution. Hence these photons can ionise atoms (that is the hydrogen) even when the
temperature below the above value.

The number of E >> ~ω photons is roughly

− k ET
nγ>E ≈ nγ e B

Assuming we need 1 photon with E > Eion per baryon to keep the universe ionised,
nγ>Eion
∼1
nb
get
E
− k ion
nγ>Eion ≈ nγ e BT

We had
nγ
≈ 109
nb

6
Substituting
Eion
−
nγ e kB T
≈1
nb
Hence we find

T ∼ 7000K

This is the temperature at which photons stopped ionising hydrogen, or decoupled from
the hydrogen (using a better approximation). But this is still not the correct value . . .

The actual temperature

The temperature at which photons stop ionising hydrogen or decouple is

Tdec = 3000K

To get this temperature need better description of the physics and solve numerically
(beyond scope of this lecture).

Decoupling: photons stop interacting with or scatter off electrons.

Recombination: protons and electrons form hydrogen atoms, after decoupling.

Consider time on the horizontal axis. Before decoupling we have photons, electrons
and protons (plasma). They interacted (Thompson Scattering). After decoupling we
from hydrogen atoms, and the photons stop interacting with the hydrogen. They move
freely onwards.

Decoupling didn’t happen instantaneously, however fairly suddenly.

The last scattering surface

At decoupling Tdec ≈ 3000K, today T0 ≈ 3K. Since T ∝ a−1 we have that Tdec adec =
a0 T0
a0
adec =
1000
That is the universe increased by a factor of 1000 since then.

Before Decoupling: photons can’t travel freely, get scattered around.

Afterwards (After Recombination): photons can travel freely. The universe turns

7
from opaque to translucent.

The photons we observe today in the CMB radiation have travelled since then. All
these photons originate from the surface of last scattering. They all started at the same
time, i.e at decoupling, and hence the last scattering surface is a sphere.

When did decoupling take place?

tdec ≈ 350000 yrs (after the Big Bang)

Radius of the last scattering surface

rlast scattering ≈ 6000h−1 M pc ≈ 8800M pc

Final Remarks on the CMB

Observations indicate that the CMB is overall very smooth, i.e homogeneous and isotropic,
and hence confirms the cosmological principle. Recall that also the distribution of galax-
ies on the largest is in agreement with this assumption.

There are small fluctuations of the energy density, or actually the temperature in the
CMB. They have an amplitude
δT
∼ 10−5
T
From measuring the distribution of these fluctuations we can learn a lot about the early
universe. Note, due to the gravitational instability, small “primordial” fluctuations in
the matter distribution grew to form the large scale structure, similarly to the fluctua-
tions in the CMB.

The fluctuations in the CMB have been measured by ground, balloon and satellite ex-
periments (WMAP and Planck Satellite). These experiments also all agree that

Ωm,0 + ΩΛ,0 ≈ 1

i.e the geometry of the universe is very close to flat, and the energy density is very close
to critical.