Formulas for IPhO 7. sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β 3. Read carefully the recommendations in the 5.

3. Read carefully the recommendations in the 5. Non-inertial reference frames:

Version: November 11, 2017 cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β problem’s text. Pay attention to the problem’s ~v2 = ~v0 + ~v1 , ~a2 = ~a0 + ~a1 + ω 2 R~ + ~aCor
tan(α ± β) = (tan α + tan β)/(1 ∓ tan α tan β) formulation — insignificant details may carry Note: ~aCor ⊥ ~v1 , ω ~ ; ~aCor = 0 if ~v1 = 0.
I Mathematics cos2 α = 1+cos 2α
, sin2 α = 1−cos 2α
vital information. If you have solved for some
2
cos(α+β)+cos(α−β)
2
time unsuccessfully, then read the text again —
6∗ . Ballistic problem: reachable region
1. Taylor series (truncate for approximations): cos α cos β = 2 , ... y ≤ v02 /(2g) − gx2 /2v02 .
perhaps you misunderstood the problem.
cos α + cos β = 2(cos 2 + cos α−β
α+β
2 ), . . . .
X
F (x) = F (x0 ) + F (n) (x0 )(x − x0 )n /n! 4. Postpone long and time-consuming math- For an optimal ballistic trajectory, initial and
Special case — linear approximation:
8. An angle inscribed in a circle is half of the ematical calculations to the very end (when
final velocities are perpendicular.
central angle that subtends the same arc on 7. For finding fastest paths, Fermat’s and Huy-
F (x) ≈ F (x0 ) + F 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) the circle. Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right
everything else is done) while writing down all
the initial equations which need to be simplified. gens’s principles can be used.
Some examples for |x|  1: triangle is the diameter of its circumcircle; if
5. If the problem seems to be hopelessly diffi- 8. To find a vector (velocity, acceleration), it
sin x ≈ x, cos x ≈ 1 − x2 /2, ex ≈ 1 + x the angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, is enough to find its direction and a projection
it is a cyclic quadrilateral. cult, it has usually a very simple solution (and a
ln(1 + x) ≈ x, (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx simple answer). This is valid only for Olympiad to a single (possibly inclined) axes.
2. Perturbation method: find the solution itera- 9. Taking derivatives: problems, which are definitely solvable.
tively using the solution to the ”non-perturbed” (f g)0 = f g 0 + f 0 g, f [g(x)]0 = f 0 [g(x)]g 0
(sin x)0 = cos x, (cos x)0 = − sin x
6. In experiments a) sketch the experimental IV Mechanics
(directly solvable) problem as the 0th approxi- scheme even if you don’t have time for measure-
mation; corrections for the next approximation (e ) = ex , (ln x)0 = 1/x, (xn )0 = nxn−1
x 0
ments; b) think, how to increase the precision of
1. For a 2D equilibrium of a rigid body: 2
are calculated on the basis on the previous one. (arctan x)0 = 1/(1 + x2p ) the results; c) write down (as a table) all your
eqns. for force, 1 eq. for torque. 1 (2) eq. for
3. Solution of the linear differential equation 0 0
(arcsin x) = −(arccos x) = 1/ 1 − x2 force can be substituted with 1 (2) for torque.
direct measurements.
with constant coefficients ay 00 + by 0 + cy = 0: Torque is often better — “boring” forces can
10. Integration: the formulas are the same as be eliminated by a proper choice of origin. If
y = A exp(λ1 x) + B exp(λ2 x), for derivatives, but with swapped left-hand-side
and rhs. (inverse operation!), e.g.
III Kinematics forces are applied only to 2 points, the (net)
where λ1,2 is the solution of the characteristic Z force application lines coincide; for 3 points, the
equation aλ2 + bλ + c = 0 if λ1 6= λ2 . If the
xn dx = xn+1 /(n + 1).
1. For a point or for a translational motion of 3 lines meet at a single point.
solution of the characteristic equation is com- a rigid body (integral → area under a graph):
plex, while a, b and c are real numbers, then Special case of the substitution method:
Z Z 2. Normal force and friction force can be com-
d~
x bined into a single force, applied to the contact
λ1,2 = γ ± iω and
Z ~v = , ~
x= ~v dt (x = vx dt etc.)
γx f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b)/a. dt point under angle arctan µ with respect to the
y = Ce sin(ωx + ϕ0 ). normal force.
d2 ~
Z
d~v x
4. Complex numbers 11. Numerical methods. Newton’s iterative ~a = = 2 , ~v = ~adt 3. Newton’s 2nd law for transl. and rot. motion:
dt Z dt
z = a + bi = |z|eiϕ , z̄ = a − ib = |z|e−iϕ method for finding roots f (x) = 0: ~ = m~a, M
F ~ = I~ ε (M ~ = ~r × F~ ).
Z Z
vx
b xn+1 = xn − f (xn )/f 0 (xn ). t= vx−1 dx = a−1
x dvx , x = dvx ~
|z|2 = z z̄ = a2 + b2 , ϕ = arg z = arcsin ax For 2D geometry M and ~ ε are essentially scalars
|z| Trapezoidal rule for approximate integration: If a = Const., then previous integrals can be and M = F l = Ft r, where l is the arm of a force.
Z b
Rez = (z + z̄)/2, Imz = (z − z̄)/2 b−a found easily, e.g. 4. Generalized coordinates. Let the system’s
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 f (x)dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + . . .
a 2n x = v0 t + at2 /2 = (v 2 − v02 )/2a. state be defined by a single parameter ξ and
eiϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ time derivative ξ˙ so that the pot. energy
cos ϕ = e +e
iϕ −iϕ iϕ
, sin ϕ = e −e
−iϕ
+2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )] 2. Rotational motion — analogous to the trans- its Π = Π(ξ) and kin. en. K = µξ˙2 /2; then
2 2i 12. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: differ- lational one: ω = dϕ/dt, ε = dω/dt;
5. Cross and dot products of vectors are dis- entiate/integrate each component; alternatively µξ¨ = −dΠ(ξ)/dξ. (Hence for transl. motion:
~a = ~τ dv/dt + ~nv 2 /R force is the derivative of pot. en.)
tributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac. differentiate by applying the triangle rule for the
~ ~
~a · b = b · ~a = ax bx + ay by + . . . = ab cos ϕ difference of two infinitesimally close vectors. 3. Curvilinear motion — same as point 1, but 5. If the X system consists of mass points mi :
X X
vectors are to be replaced by linear velocities, ~rc = mi~ri / mj , P~ = mi~vi
|~a × ~b| = ab sin ϕ; ~a × ~b = −~b × ~a ⊥ ~a, ~b accelerations and path lengths.
~a × ~b = (ay bz − by az )~ex + (az bx − bz ax )~ey + . . .
II General recommendations ~ =
L
X
mi~ri × ~vi , K =
X
mi vi2 /2
4. Motion of a rigid body. a) vA cos α =
~a × [~b × ~c] = ~b(~a · ~c) − ~c(~a · ~b). 1. Check all formulas for veracity: a) examine Z
vB cos β; ~vA , ~vB — velocities of pts. A and X
Mixed prod. (volume of parallelep. def. by 3 dimensions; b) test simple special cases (two B; α, β — angles formed by ~vA , ~vB with line Iz = mi (x2i + yi2 ) = (x2 + y 2 )dm.
vec.): parameters are equal, one param. tends to 0 AB. b) The instantaneous center of rotation (6= 6. In a frame where the mass center’s velocity
(~a, ~b, ~c) ≡ (~a · [~b × ~c]) = ([~a × ~b] · ~c) = (~b, ~c, ~a). or ∞); c) verify the plausibility of solution’s center of curvature of material pt. trajectories!) is ~v (index c denotes quantities rel. to the mass
c
qualitative behaviour. can be found as the intersection pt. of perpendic- center):
6. Cosine and sine laws: 2. If there is an extraordinary coincidence in ulars to ~vA and ~vB , or (if ~vA , ~vB ⊥ AB) as the
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos ϕ ~ =L
L ~ c + MΣ R ~ c × ~vc , K = Kc + MΣ vc2 /2
the problem text (e.g. two things are equal) intersection pt. of AB with the line connecting
a/ sin α = b/ sin β = 2R then the key to the solution might be there. endpoints of ~vA and ~vB . ~ =P
P ~c + MΣ~vc
7. Steiner’s theorem is analogous (b — distance equal projections to the contact plane; f) if slid- 2. Eq. of motion
P for a system of coupled oscil- 2. Snell’s law:
of the mass center from rot. axis): I = Ic + mb2 . ing doesn’t stop, the momentum delivered from lators: ẍi = j aij xj . sin α1 / sin α2 = n2 /n1 = v1 /v2 .
8. With P~ and L ~ from pt. 5, Newton’s 2nd law: one body to the other forms angle arctan µ with 3. A system of N coupled oscillators has N
the normal of the contact plane. 3. If refraction index changes continuously,
~Σ = dP
F ~ /dt, M
~ Σ = dL/dt
~ different eigenmodes when all the oscillators
17. Every motion of a rigid body can be repre- then we imaginarily divide the media into lay-
oscillate with the same frequency ωi , xj =
ers of constant n and apply Snell’s law. Light
9∗ . Additionally to pt. 5, the mom. of inertia sented as a rotation around the instantaneous xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕij ), and N eigenfrequencies ωi
ray can travel along a layer of constant n, if
rel. to the z-axis through the mass center can center of rotation C (in terms of velocities of (which can be multiple, ωi = ωj ). General solu-
the requirement of total internal reflection is
be found as Iz0 = i,j mi mj [(xi − xj )2 + (yi − the body points). NB! Distance of a body point
P
tion (with 2N integration constants Xi and φi )
P from C 6= to the radius of curvature of the marginally satisfied, n0 = n/r (where r is the
yj )2 ]/2MΣ . is a superposition
X of all the eigenmotions : curvature radius).
trajectory of P .
10.
P Mom. of inertia rel. to the origin θ = xj = Xi xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕij + φi ) 4. If refraction index depends only on z, the
2
mi~ri is useful for calculating Iz of 2D bodies 18. Tension in a string: for a massive hang- i
ing string, tension’s horizontal component is photon’s mom. px , py , and en. are conserved:
or bodies with central symmetry using 2θ = 4. If a system described with a generalized
Ix + Iy + Iz . constant and vertical changes according to the coordinate ξ (cf IV-2) and K = µξ˙2 /2 has an kx , ky = Const., |~k|/n = Const.
string’s mass underneath. Pressure force (per
11. Physical pendulum with a reduced length unit length) of a string resting on a smooth equilibrium state at ξ = 0, for small oscilla- 5. The thin lens equation (pay attention to
˜
l: tions Π(ξ) ≈ κξ 2 /2 [where κ = Π00 (0)] so that signs):
surface is determined by its radius of curvature ω 2 = κ/µ.
ω 2 (l) = g/(l + I/ml), and tension: N = T /R. Analogy: surface ten- 1/a + 1/b = 1/f ≡ D.
sion pressure p = 2σ/R; to derive, study the 5. The phase of a wave at pt. x, t is ϕ =
q
ω(l) = ω(˜
l − l) = g/˜
l, ˜
l = l + I/ml 6.
Newton’s eq. (x1 , x2 — distances of the
pressure force along the diameter. kx − ωt + ϕ0 , where k = 2π/λ is a wave vec- image and the object from the focal planes):
12. Coefficients for the momenta of inertia: tor. The value at x, t is a0 cos ϕ = <a0 eiϕ . The
x1 x2 = f 2 .
19. Liquid surface takes equipot. shape (ne- phase velocity is vf = νλ = ω/k and group
cylinder 12 , solid sphere 25 , thin spherical shell glecting σ); in incompr. liquid, p = p0 − w, velocity v = dω/dk. 7. Parallax method for finding the position of
2 1 1 1 g
3 , rod 12 (rel. to endpoint 3 ), square 6 . w—vol. dens. of pot. en. (for a gas, see X-6). an image: find such a pos. for a pencil’s tip
6. For linear waves (electromagn. w., small- that it wouldn’t shift with resp. to the image
13. Often applicable conservation laws: 20. Bernoulli law for incompr. fluid: amplit. sound- and water w.) any pulse can be
energy (elastic bodies, no friction), 1 2 when moving perpendicularly the position of
p + ρv + ρϕ = const; considered as a superpos. of sinusoidal waves; a
your eye.
momentum (no net external force; can hold only 2 standing w. is the sum of two identical counter-
along one axis), in homog. field, the gravit. potential ϕ = gh. propagating w.: 8. Geometrical constructions for finding the
angular momentum (no net ext. torque, e.g. the For gas of specific heat cp [J/kg], paths of light rays through lenses:
ei(kx−ωt) + ei(−kx−ωt) = 2e−iωt cos kx.
arms of ext. forces are 0 (can be written rel. to 1 2 a) ray passing the lens center does not refract;
2 or 3 pts., then substitutes conservation of lin. v + cp T = const. 7. Speedp of sound in a gas b) ray k to the optical axis passes through the
2 p p
mom.). cs = (∂p/∂ρ)adiab = γp/ρ = v̄ γ/3. focus;
14. Additional forces in non-inertial frames of 21∗ . Adiabatic invariant: if the relative change 8. Speed of sound in elastic material cs = c) after refr., initially k rays meet at the focal
~ of the parameters of an oscillating system is p plane;
ref.: inertial force −m~a, centrifugal force mω 2 R E/ρ.
∗ ~ small during one period, the area of the loop d) image of a plane is a plane; these two planes
and Coriolis force 2m~v × Ω (better to avoid it; 9.
drawn on the phase plane (ie. in p-x coordi- √ Sp. of shallow (h  λ) water waves: v = meet at the plane of the lens.
being ⊥ to the velocity, it does not create any gh.
nates) is conserved with a very high accuracy.
work). 1+v /c 9. Luminous flux Φ [unit: lumen (lm)] mea-
22. For studying stability use a) principle of 10. Doppler’s effect: ν = ν0 1−ukk /css . sures the energy of light (emitted, passing a
15. Tilted coordinates: for a motion on an minimum potential energy or b) principle of 11. Huygens’ principle: wavefront can be con-
inclined plane, it is often practical to align axes contour, etc), weighted according to the sensi-
small virtual displacement. structed step by step, placing an imaginary tivity of an eye. Luminous intensity [candela
along and ⊥ to the plane; gravit. acceleration
has then both x- and y- components. Axes may 23∗ . Virial theorem for finite movement: wave source in every point of previous wave (cd)] is the luminous flux (emitted by a source)
also be oblique (not ⊥ to each other), but then a) If F ∝ |~r|, then hKi = hΠi (time averages); front. Results are curves separated by distance per solid angle: I = Φ/Ω. Illuminance [lux (lx)]
with ~v = vx~ex + vy ~ey , vx 6= to the x-projection b) If F ∝ |~r|−2 , then 2 hKi = − hΠi. ∆x = cs ∆t, where ∆t is time step and cs is theis the luminous flux (falling onto a surface) per
of ~v . 24. Tsiolkovsky rocket equation ∆v = u ln M . unit area: E = Φ/S.
velocity in given point. Waves travel perpendic-
m
16. Collision of 2 bodies: conserved are a) net ular to wavefront. 10. Gauss theorem for luminous flux: the flux
momentum, b) net angular mom., c) angular through a closed surface surrounding P the point
V Oscillations and waves sources of intensity Ii is Φ = 4π Ii ; single-
mom. of one of the bodies with respect to the VI Geometrical optics.
impact point, d) total energy (for elastic colli- 1. Damped oscillator: source-case: at a distance r, E = I/r2 .
Photometry.
sions); in case of friction, kin. en. is conserved ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω02 x = 0 (γ < ω0 ). 11. An experimental hint: if a grease stain on
only along the axis ⊥ to the friction force. Also:
Solution of this equation is (cf. I.2.):
1. Fermat’s principle: waves path from point a paper is as bright as the surrounding paper,
e) if the sliding stops during the impact, the p A to point B is such that the wave travels the then the paper is equally illuminated from both
final velocities of the contact points will have x = x0 e−γt sin(t ω02 − γ 2 − ϕ0 ). least time. sides.
 VII Wave optics 12. Malus’ law: for linearly polarized light 9. E = −dΦ/dt = −d(LI)/dt, Φ = BS. inside a ball (d = 3), cylinder (d = 2) or layer
I = I0 cos2 ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between the 10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method — (d = 1) of homogeneous ρ or ~j:
1. Diffraction — method based on Huygens’ polarization planes.
principle: if obstacles cut the wavefront into
find the solution in U -I coordinates as an inter- ~ = ρ ~r; B
E ~ = 1 ~j × ~r
fragment(s), the wavefront can be divided into
13. λ/4-plate: phase shift π/2 between linearly section point of a nonlinear curve and a line rep- dε0 dµ0
polarized components. resenting Ohm/Kirchoff laws. In case of many (~r — radius vector from the centre).
small pieces which serve as imaginary point-like
light sources; the wave amplitude at the observ. 14. Brewster’s angle: reflected and refracted intersection points study stability — some solu- 7. Long solenoid: inside B = Inµµ0 , outside
rays are ⊥; reflected ray is completely polarized; tions are usually unstable. 0; flux Φ = N BS and (with n = Nl ) induc-
site will be the sum over the contributions of
these sources. incidence angle tan ϕB = n. 11. Make use of short- and long-time limits. tance L = Φ/I = V n2 µµ0 . Short solenoid
2. Two slit interference (the slit width 15. Diffr. with optical elements: no need to For tobservation  τRC or τLR , quasiequilibrium Bk = Inµµ4π
0Ω
(Ω — solid angle).
calculate optical path lengths through lenses, is reached: IC ≈ 0 (wire is “broken” near C)
d  a, λ): angles of maxima ϕmax =
and EL ≈ 0 (L is effectively short-circuited). For
8. Measuring magnetic field with a small
R E coil
arcsin(nλ/a), n ∈ Z; I ∝ cos2 (k a2 sin ϕ), where prisms etc.: work simply with images. Particu- and ballistic galvanometer: q = R dt =
lar conclusion: biprism gives the same diffr. as tobservation  τRC or τLR , the charge leakage
k = 2π/λ. N S∆B/R.
a double slit. of C and current drop in L are small, ∆Q  Q
3. Single slit: angles of minima ϕmin = ∗ and ∆I  I: C is “short-circuited” and L is 9. Potential energy ofZ a system of charges:
arcsin(nλ/d), n ∈ Z, n 6= 0. NB! the central 16 . Optical fibres: Mach-Zehnder interfer- X qi qj 1
2 d ometer is analogous to a double-slit diffraction; “broken”. Π=k = ϕ(~r)dq, dq = ρ(~r)dV.
maximum is double-wide. I ∝ sin (k 2 sin ϕ)/ϕ. rij 2
circular resonator — to Fabry-Pérot interferom- 12. If L 6= 0, then I(t) is a continuous function. i>j
4. Diffraction grating: the main maxima are eter; Bragg filters work similarly to the X-ray 13. Through a superconducting contour, mag-
the same as in pt. 2, the width of the main case. Single-mode fibres: ∆n/n ≈ 1 (λ/d)2 . 10. Force between parts of a uniformly charged
2 netic flux Φ = Const. In particular, with no sphere or cylindrical surface: substitute force
maxima — the same as for pt. 3 with d being
external B, LI = Const. due to charges with force due to hydrostatic
the net grating length. Spectral resolving power
λ VIII Circuits 14. Mutual inductance: magnetic flux through pressure.
∆λ = nN , where n is the order number of the
main max. and N — the number of slits. a contour Φ1 = L1 I1 + L12 I2 (I2 — current in 11. If all the charges are at the distance R (eg.
1. U = IR, P = U I
5. Resolving power of a spectral device: ∆λ λ
= X X −1 √ contour). Theorems: L12 = L21 ≡ M ;
a second at the center of an inhomogeneously charged
L Rseries = Ri , Rk−1 = Ri M ≤ L1 L2 . sphere or ring), ϕ = kQ/r.
λ , where L is the optical path difference be-
tween the shortest and longest beams. 2. Kirchoff’s 12. To find the net charge (or potential) in-
Xlaws: duced by external charges, use the superpos.
6. Resolving power of a prism: ∆λ IX Electromagnetism
λ
X
= a dn
dλ . I = 0, U =0 pr.: “smear” the charges to make the problem
7. Angular distance when two pts. are resolved node contour 1. F = kq1 q2 /r2 , Π = kq1 q2 /r — Kepler’s symmetric.
in an ideal telescope (lens): ϕ = 1.22λ/d. For 3. To reduce the number of eqns. for pt 2: laws are applicable (Ch. XII). 13. Conductor shields charges and electric
that angle, the center of one point falls onto the method of node potentials; method of loop cur- ~ S~ = 0,
2. Gauss’s law: Bd
H
fields, eg. charge distribution inside a hollow
first diffr. min. of the other point. rents; equivalent circuits (any 3-terminals ⇒ ∆ I I sphere cannot be seen from outside (it seems
8. Bragg theory: a set of k ion planes of a crys- or Y ; 2-term. with emf ⇒ r and E in series). ~ S
εε0 Ed ~ = Q, ~ = −4πGM.
~g dS as if there is a conducting ball carrying a total
tal reflects X-rays if 2a sin α = kλ; a — distance 4. Resistance of infinite chain: use self- charge Q)
between neighb. planes, α — glancing angle. similarity; resistance between neighbour nodes 3.ICirculation theorem 14. Capacitances: C = εε0 S/d (plane),
9. Reflection from optically denser dielectric of infinite grid: generalized method of electrical I
~
Bdl
I 4πεε0 r(sphere), 2πεε0 l(ln R/r)−1 (coaxial).
media: phase shift π. Semi-transparent thin images. ~ ~l = 0 (= Φ̇),
Ed = I, ~g d~l = 0.
µµ0 15. Dipole moment:
filmS also introduce phase shifts. 5. AC: apply pts. 1–4 while substituting R d~e =
X
qi~ri = ~lq, d~µ = I S.
~
10. Fabry-Pérot interferometer: two k semi- with Z: 4. Magnetic field caused by current element:
transp. mirrors with large reflectivity r (1−r  ZR = R, ZC = 1/iωC, ZL = iωL; ~
~ = µµ0 I dl × ~er ;
16. Energy and torque of a dipole:
1). Resolving power ∆ν ν 2a
≈ λ(1−r) . Trans- dB
ϕ = arg Z, Ueff = |Z|I
Xeff 2 4π r2 W = −d~ · E~ (B),
~ M~ = d~ × E ~ (B).
~
mission spectrum can be found by introduc-
P = |U ||I| cos(arg Z) = Ii Ri . hence, at the center of circular I: B = µ2r
0I
17. Dipole field: ϕ = kd~ · ~er /r2 ; E, B ∝ r−3 .
ing 5 plane waves (for left- and rightwards-
propagating waves before the device, in the dev. 6. Characteristic √ times: τRC = RC, τLR = 5. F~ = e(~v × B~ + E),
~ F ~ = I~ × Bl.
~ 18. Forces acting on a dipole: F = (E ~ d~e )0 ,
and after the dev.) and tailoring these at the L/R, ωLC = 1/ LC. Relaxation to stationary 6. From the Gauss’s and circulation laws: F = (B ~ d~µ ) ; interaction between 2 dipoles:
0

region boundaries. current distribution exponential, ∝ e−t/τ . charged wire: E = 2πε σ

0r
, DC: B = 2πrIµ0
; F ∝ r−4 .
11. Coherent electromagnetic waves: electric 7. Energy conservation for electric circuits: σ
charged surface E = 2ε0 , current sheet B = 19. Point charge as a magn. dipole: dµ ∝ Φ ∝
fields are added; vector diagram can be used, ∆W + Q = U q, where q is charge which has µ0 j 2
v⊥ /B is an adiab. inv (see IV-20).
2 ;
angle between vectors p is the phase shift; NB! dis- crossed a potential drop U ; work of emf is inside a sphere (or infinite cylindrical surface) 20. Electric and magnetic images: grounded
persion: n = n(ω) = ε(ω). Energy flux den- A = Eq. of homogeneous surface charge E = 0, inside a (superconducting for magnets) planes act as mir-
sity (en. per unit area and time): I = nc ε0 E 2 . 8. WC = CU 2 /2, WL = LI 2 /2. cylindrical surface current k to the axes B = 0, rors. Field of a grounded (or isolated) sphere
can be found as a field of one (or two) fictive 2. Internal energy of one mole U = 2i RT . 2. Interference: as in wave optics. 7. Properties of an ellipse: l1 + l2 = 2a (l1 , l2
charge(s) inside the sphere. The field in a planar 3. Volume of one mole at standard cond. is 3. Uncertainty (as a math. theorem): — distances to the foci), α1 = α2 (light from one
waveguide (slit between metallic plates) can be 22,4 l. h̄ h̄ 1 focus is reflected to the other), S = πab.
obtained as a superposition of electromagnetic ∆p∆x ≥ , ∆E∆t ≥ , ∆ω∆t ≥ . 8. A circle and an ellipse with a focus at the
plane waves.
4. Adiabatic processes: slow as compared to 2 2 2
sound speed, no heat exchange: pV γ = Const. For qualitative estimates by non-smooth shapes, circle’s center can touch each other only at the
21. Ball’s (cylinder’s) polarization in homo- (and T V γ−1 = Const.). h serves better (∆p∆x ≈ h etc). longer axis.
geneous (electric) field: superpos. of homoge-
5. γ = cp /cv = (i + 2)/i. 4. Spectra: hν = En − Em ; width of spectral 9∗ . Runge-Lenz vector (the ellipticity vector):
neously charged (+ρ and −ρ) balls (cylinders), lines is related to lifetime: Γτ ≈ h̄. ~ × ~v
6. Boltzmann’s distribution: L
d ∝ E. ~
ε= + ~er = Const.
ρ = ρ0 e−µgh/RT = ρ0 e−U/kT . 5. Oscillator’s (eg. molecule) en. levels (with GM m
22. Eddy currents: power dissipation density eigenfrequency ν0 ): EnP = (n+ 12 )hν0 . For many
∼ B 2 v 2 /ρ; momentum given during a single 7.
Maxwell’s distribution (how many molecules eigenfrequencies: E = i hni νi . XIII Theory of relativity
pass: F τ ∼ B 2 a3 d/ρ (where d — thickness; a 2
have speed v) ∝ e−mv /2kT .
— size). 6. Tunnelling effect: barrier Γ with width l 1. Lorentz transforms (rotation of 4D
8. Atm. pressure: if ∆p  p,pthen ∆p = ρg∆h. is p easily penetrable, if Γτ ≈ h̄, where τ = space-time of Minkowski geometry), γ =
23. Inside a superconductor and for fast pro-
9. p = 13 mnv̄2 = nkT , v̄ = 3kT /m,
cesses inside a conductor B = 0 and thus I = 0 l/ Γ/m. p
1/ 1 − v 2 /c2 :
ν = vnS.
(current flows in surface layer — skin effect). 7. Bohr’s model: En ∝ −1/n . In a (clas- 2
x0 = γ(x − vt), y 0 = y, t0 = γ(t − vx/c2 )
24. Charge in homog. magnetic field B~ = B~ez10. Carnot’s cycle: 2 adiabats, 2 isotherms. sically calculated) circular orbit, there is an
η = (T1 − T2 )/T1 ; derive using S-T -coordinates. integer number of wavelengths λ = h/mv. p0x = γ(px − mv), m0 = γ(m − px v/c2 )
moves along a cycloid with drift speed v =
E/B = F/eB; generalized mom. is conserved 11. Heat pump, inverse Carnot: η = T1T−T 1
. 8. Compton effect — if photon is scattered 2. Length of2 4-vector:
s = c 2 t 2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2
2
p0x = mvx − Byq, p0y = mvy + Bxq, 12. Entropy: dS = dQ/T . from an electron, photon’s ∆λ = λC (1 − cos θ).
m0 c2 = m2 c2 − p2x − p2y − p2z
2
13. I law of thermodynamics: δU = δQ + δA 9. Photoeffect: A + mv /2 = hν (A - work
2
as well as gen. angular mom. L0 = L + 12 Bqr2 .
14. II law of thermodynamics: ∆S ≥ 0 (and starts at the counter-voltage U = −(hν − A)/e, 3. Adding velocities:
25. MHD generator (a — length along the of exit for electrons). I-U -graph: photocurrent
~
direction of E): ηreal ≤ ηCarnot ). w = (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2 ).
saturates for large forward voltages.
E = vBa, r = ρa/bc. 15. GasZwork (look also p. 10) 4. Doppler effect:
26. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve (loop) in B- 10. Stefan-Boltzmann: P = σT 4 .
ν 0 = ν0 (1 − v/c)/(1 + v/c).
p
i
H-coordinates (for a coil with core also B-I- A= pdV, adiabatic: A = ∆(pV )
2 5. Minkowski space can be made Euclidean
coord.): the loop area gives the thermal energy XII Kepler laws
dissipation density per one cycle). 16. Dalton’s law: p = pi .
P if time is imaginary (t → ict). Then, for rot.
~ = εε0 E ~ = ε0 E 17. Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour
~ +P ~,
1. F = GM m/r2 , Π = −GM m/r. angle ϕ, tan ϕ = v/ic. Express sin ϕ, and cos ϕ
27. Fields in matter: D 2. Gravitational interaction of 2 point masses via tan ϕ, and apply the Euclidean geometry
~ pv = p0 ; at the interface betw. 2 liquids:
where P is dielectric polarization vector (vol-
pv1 + pv2 = p0 . (Kepler’s I law): trajectory of each of them is an formulae.
ume density of dipole moment); H ~ = B/µµ
~ 0 = parabola or hyperbola, with a focus at 6. Shortening of length: l0 = l0 /γ.
~ ~ ~ 18. Heat flux P = kS∆T /l (k — thermal ellipse,
B/µ0 − J, where J is magnetization vector (vol- the center of mass of the system. Derive from 7. Lengthening of time: t0 = t0 γ.
ume density of magnetic moment). conductivity); analogy to DC circuits (P corre-
R.-L. v. (pt 9). 8. Simultaneity is relative, ∆t = −γv∆x/c2 .
sponds to I, ∆T to U , k to 1/ρ).
28. In an interface between two substances Et , 3. Kepler’s II law (conserv. of angular mom.):
19. Heat capacity: Q = c(T )dT . Solids: for for a point mass in a central force field, radius 9. F~ = d~p/dt [= dtd (m~v), where m = m0 γ].
R
Dn (= εEt ), Ht (= Bt /µ) and Bn are continu-
ous. low temperatures, c ∝ T 3 ; for high T , c = 3N k, vector covers equal areas in equal times. 10. Ultrarelativistic approximation: v ≈ c,
where N — number of ions in crystal lattice.
p p
29. Energy density: W = 12 (εε0 E 2 + B 2 /µµ0 ). 4. Kepler’s III law: for two point masses at p ≈ mc, 1 − v 2 /c2 ≈ 2(1 − v/c).
20. Surface tension:
30. For µ  1, fieldlines of B are attracted to elliptic orbits in r−2 -force field, revolution peri- 11∗ . Lorentz tr. for E-B: B ~0 = B ~0 = E
~ || , E ~ || ,
|| ||
the ferromagnetic (acts as a potential hole, cf. U = Sσ, F = lσ, p = 2σ/R. ods relate as the longer semiaxes to the power ~
pt. 28). 21. Stefan-Boltzmann law (gray body): P = of 2 :
3
E 0
~⊥ = γ(E ~ ⊥ +~v × B~ ⊥ ), B
~⊥0
= γ(B ~ ⊥ −~v × E⊥ ).
c2
31. Current density ~j = ne~v = σE~ = E/ρ. ~ εσT 4 . T12 /T22 = a31 /a32 .
32. Lenz’s law: system responds so as to op- 22. Wien’s law: fmax = AkB T /h (A ≈ 2.8), 5. Full energy (K + Π) of a body in a gravity
pose to changes. λmax = hc/A0 kB T (A0 ≈ 5) field:
∗
E = −GM m/2a. marks an advanced material.
X Thermodynamics XI Quantum mechanics 6. For small ellipticities ε = d/a  1, trajec- Corrections/suggestions ⇒ [email protected].
tories can be considered as having a circular Composed by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk
1. pV = mµ RT 1. p~ = h̄~k (|~p| = h/λ), E = h̄ω = hν. shapes, with shifted foci. and J.K.