Software Project

Management
Intro to Project Management

Presentation By
NISHA R.S.
Lecturer,
Dept. of MCA
Course Objectives
 Understand the fundamental principles of Software
Project management & will also have a good
knowledge of responsibilities of project manager and
how to handle these.

 Be familiar with the different methods and techniques

used for project management.

 By the end of this course student will have good

knowledge of the issues and challenges faced while
doing the Software project Management and will also
be able to understand why majority of the software
projects fails and how that failure probability can be
reduced effectively. Will be able to do the Project
Scheduling, tracking, Risk analysis, Quality
management and Project Cost estimation using
different techniques
Unit I

Introduction
Project – Definition
In the broadest sense, a project is a
specific, finite task to be
accomplished. Any activity that results
in a deliverable or a product.

Projects always begin with a problem.

The project is to provide the solution
to this problem.

When the project is finished it must be

evaluated to determine whether it
satisfies the objectives and goals.
What is Management?
 Management can be defined as all activities
and tasks undertaken by one or more
persons for the purpose of planning and
controlling the activities of others in order to
achieve objectives or complete an activity
that could not be achieved by others acting
independently.
 Management functions can be categorized as
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Controlling
Management Functions
 Planning
Predetermining a course of action for accomplishing
organizational Objectives
 Organizing
Arranging the relationships among work units for
accomplishment of objectives and the granting of
responsibility and authority to obtain those objectives
 Staffing
Selecting and training people for positions in the
organization
 Directing
Creating an atmosphere that will assist and motivate
people to achieve desired end results
 Controlling
Establishing, measuring, and evaluating performance
of activities toward planned objectives
What is Project Management
 “The application of knowledge, skills,
tools and techniques to project
activities in order to meet project
requirements”
What is Project Management
Project management is a system of
 management procedures,
 practices,
 technologies,
 skills, and
 experience
that are necessary to successfully
manage a project.
Software Project Management
Concerned with activities involved in
ensuring
that software is delivered:
 on time
 on schedule
 in accordance with the requirements
of the organization developing and
procuring the software
Project Stakeholders
Stakeholders are the people involved
in or affected by the project actives
 Stakeholders include
 The project sponsor and project team
 Support staff
 Customers
 Users
 Suppliers
 Opponents to the project
Project Characteristics

 One clear objective

 A well defined set of end results
 Goal oriented
 End product or service must result

 Finite
 Fixed timeline, start date, end date, milestone dates

 Limited
 Budget, Resources, Time

 Life Cycle
 Recognizable sequence of phases
 Product

Project People

Software Project Management

Product Project People

1. Assessing Processes 12. Building a WBS 23. Appraising Performance

2. Awareness of Process Standards 13. Documenting Plans 24. Handling Intellectual Property
3. Defining the Product 14. Estimating Costs 25. Holding Effective Meetings
4. Evaluating Alternative Processes 15. Estimating Effort 26. Interaction and Communication
5. Managing Requirements 16. Managing Risks 27. Leadership
6. Managing Subcontractors 17. Monitoring Development 28. Managing Change
7. Performing the Initial Assessment 18. Scheduling 29. Negotiating Successfully
8. Selecting Methods and Tools 19. Selecting Metrics 30. Planning Careers
9. Tailoring Processes 20. Selecting Project Mgmt Tools 31. Presenting Effectively
10. Tracking Product Quality 21. Tracking Process 32. Recruiting
11. Understanding Development Activities 22. Tracking Project Progress 33. Selecting a Team
34. Teambuilding

34 Competencies Every Software Project Manager Needs to Know

Product Life Cycles
Products also have life cycles
The Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC) is a framework for describing
the phases involved in developing and
maintaining information systems
Typical SDLC phases include planning,
analysis, design, implementation, and
support
Steps in SDLC
 Concept Exploration
 System exploration
 Requirements
 Design
 Implementation
 Installation
 Operations and support
 Maintenance
 Retirement
Process & Process Model
Software Process
 the set of activities, methods, and
practices that are used in the production
and evolution of software
Software Process Model
 one specific embodiment of a software
process architecture
Why Modeling?
To provide a common understanding
To locate any inconsistencies,
redundancies and omissions
To reflect the development goals and
provide early evaluation
To assist development team to
understand any special situation
Sample SDLC Models
 Waterfall model: has well-defined, linear
stages of systems development and support
 Spiral model: shows that software is
developed using an iterative or spiral
approach rather than a linear approach
 Incremental release model: provides for
progressive development of operational
software
 RAD model: used to produce systems
quickly without sacrificing quality
 Prototyping model: used for developing
prototypes to clarify user requirements
Waterfall Model

Requirement
Analysis

System
Design

Coding

Testing

Maintenance
Waterfall Model (cont’d)
classical
one-shot approach
effective control
limited scope of iteration
long cycle time
not suitable for system of high
uncertainty
V Model
Maintenance

Requirements User Acceptance

Analysis Testing

System Design System Testing

Unit and
Program Design
Integration Testing

Coding
V Model (cont’d)
Additional validation process
introduced
Relate testing to analysis and design
Loop back in case of discrepancy
Spiral Model (adapted from Boehm 1987)
Spiral Model (cont’d)
Evolutionary approach
Iterative development combined with
risk management
Risk analysis results in “go, no-go”
decision
Spiral Model (cont’d)
Four major activities
 Planning
 Risk analysis
 Engineering
 Customer evaluation
Prototyping Model
Goals
 meet users’ requirements in early stage
 reduce risk and uncertainty
Classification of Prototype
Throw-away
 After users agree the requirements of the
system, the prototype will be discarded.
Evolutionary
 Modifications are based on the existing
prototype.
Incremental
 Functions will be arranged and built
accordingly.
Prototyping Model

YES
User
Build prototype
satisfaction

NO

User feedback
Benefits of Prototyping
Learning by doing
Improved communication
Improved user involvement
Clarification of partially-known
requirements
Prototyping Sequences
 Requirements gathering
 Quick design
 Prototype construction
 Customer evaluation
 Refinement
 Loop back to quick design for fine tuning
 Product engineering
Benefits of Prototyping
Demonstration of the consistency and
completeness of a specification
Reduced need for documentation
Reduced maintenance costs
Feature constraint
Production of expected results
Drawbacks of Prototyping
Users sometimes misunderstand the
role of the prototype
Lack of project standards possible
Lack of control
Additional expense
Close proximity of developers
Forms of Prototypes
Mock-ups
Simulated interaction
Partial working model
Incremental Model
Break system into small components
Implement and deliver small
components in sequence
Every delivered component provides
extra functionality to user
Incremental Model (cont’d)

Arrange Design and

Requirements
requirements develop
Analysis
in increments increment

NO

Validate Integrate System

increment increment OK?

YES
Iterative Model
Deliver full system in the beginning
Enhance functionality in new releases
Iterative Model (cont’d)

Design system
n = n+1
version n NO

Develop system Validate system System

version n version n complete

YES
Why Have Project Phases and
Management Reviews?

A project should successfully pass

through each of the project phases in
order to continue on to the next
Management reviews (also called
phase exits or kill points) should occur
after each phase to evaluate the
project’s progress, likely success, and
continued compatibility with
organizational goals
Distinguishing Project Life Cycles and
Product Life Cycles

The project life cycle applies to all

projects, regardless of the products
being produced
Product life cycle models vary
considerably based on the nature of the
product
Most large IT products are developed
as a series of projects
Project management is done in all of
the product life cycle phases
Capability Maturity Model

 The CMM is a process model based on software best-

practices effective in large-scale, multi-person projects.
The CMM has been used to assess the maturity levels
of organization areas as diverse as software
engineering, system engineering, project management,
risk management, system acquisition, information
technology (IT) or personnel management, against a
scale of five key processes, namely:
Initial,
Repeatable,
Defined,
Managed and
Optimized.
Level 1 - Initial

 At maturity level 1, processes are

usually ad hoc, and the organization
usually does not provide a stable
environment. Success in these
organizations depends on the
competence and heroics of the people
in the organization, and not on the
use of proven processes
Level 2 - Repeatable

 At maturity level 2, software

development successes are
repeatable. The processes may not
repeat for all the projects in the
organization. The organization may
use some basic project management
to track cost and schedule.
Level 3 - Defined

 The organization’s set of standard

processes, which are the basis for level 3,
are established and improved over time.
These standard processes are used to
establish consistency across the
organization. Projects establish their
defined processes by applying the
organization’s set of standard processes,
tailored, if necessary, within similarly
standardized guidelines.
Level 4 - Quantitatively Managed

 Using precise measurements,

management can effectively control
the software development effort. In
particular, management can identify
ways to adjust and adapt the process
to particular projects without
measurable losses of quality or
deviations from specifications
Level 5 - Optimizing

 Maturity level 5 focuses on continually

improving process performance through
both incremental and innovative
technological improvements. Quantitative
process-improvement objectives for the
organization are established, continually
revised to reflect changing business
objectives, and used as criteria in
managing process improvement.
International Organization for
Standardization(ISO)
12 Engineering Activities
• Systems requirement analysis
• System architectural design
• Software requirement analysis
• Software architectural design
• Software detailed design
• Software coding and testing
• Software Integration
• Software qualification testing
• System integration
• System qualification testing
• Software installation
• Software acceptance test
Unit II

Domain Processes
Scope Planning and the Scope
Statement
A scope statement is a document used
to develop and confirm a common
understanding of the project scope. It
should include
 a project justification
 a brief description of the project’s products
 a summary of all project deliverables
 a statement of what determines project
success
Scope Planning and the Work
Breakdown Structure

After completing scope planning, the

next step is to further define the work
by breaking it into manageable pieces
Good scope definition
 helps improve the accuracy of time, cost,
and resource estimates
 defines a baseline for performance
measurement and project control
 aids in communicating clear work
responsibilities
The Work Breakdown
Structure

A work breakdown structure (WBS) is

an outcome-oriented analysis of the
work involved in a project that defines
the total scope of the project
It is a foundation document in project
management because it provides the
basis for planning and managing
project schedules, costs, and changes
WBS
 WBS was initially developed by the U.S.
defense establishment, and it is described in
Military Standard (MIL-STD) 881B (25 Mar
93) as follows:

 "A work breakdown structure is a product-

oriented family tree composed of hardware,
software, services, data and facilities .... [it]
displays and defines the product(s) to be
developed and/or produced and relates the
elements of work to be accomplished to
each other and to the end product(s)."
Sample Intranet WBS Organized by
Product
Sample Intranet WBS Organized by
Phase
Intranet
1.0 Concept
WBS in Tabular Form
1.1 Evaluate current systems
1.2 Define Requirements
1.2.1 Define user requirements
1.2.2 Define content requirements
1.2.3 Define system requirements
1.2.4 Define server owner requirements
1.3 Define specific functionality
1.4 Define risks and risk management approach
1.5 Develop project plan
1.6 Brief web development team
2.0 Web Site Design
3.0 Web Site Development
4.0 Roll Out
5.0 Support
 Approaches to Developing
WBSs
Using guidelines: Some organizations,
like the DOD, provide guidelines for
preparing WBSs
The analogy approach: It often helps to
review WBSs of similar projects
The top-down approach: Start with the
largest items of the project and keep
breaking them down
The bottoms-up approach: Start with
the detailed tasks and roll them up
 Basic Principles for Creating WBSs*
1. A unit of work should appear at only one place in the WBS.
2. The work content of a WBS item is the sum of the WBS items below
it.
3. A WBS item is the responsibility of only one individual, even though
many people may be working on it.
4. The WBS must be consistent with the way in which work is actually
going to be performed; it should serve the project team first and
other purposes only if practical.
5. Project team members should be involved in developing the WBS to
ensure consistency and buy-in.
6. Each WBS item must be documented to ensure accurate
understanding of the scope of work included and not included in that
item.
7. The WBS must be a flexible tool to accommodate inevitable changes
while properly maintaining control of the work content in the project
according to the scope statement.
*Cleland, David I. Project Management: Strategic Design and Implementation, 1994
Scope Verification and Scope
Change Control
It is very difficult to create a good scope
statement and WBS for a project
It is even more difficult to verify project
scope and minimize scope changes
Many IT projects suffer from scope
creep and poor scope verification
 Factors Causing IT Project
Problems*
Factor Rank
Lack of user input 1
Incomplete requirements and specifications 2
Changing requirements and specifications 3
Lack of executive support 4
Technology incompetence 5
Lack of resources 6
Unrealistic expectations 7
Unclear objectives 8
Unrealistic time frames 9
New Technology 10

*Johnson, Jim, "CHAOS: The Dollar Drain of IT Project Failures," Application Development Trends,
January 1995, www.stadishgroup.com/chaos.html
Suggestions for Improving User
Input
Insist that all projects have a sponsor
from the user organization
Have users on the project team
Have regular meetings
Deliver something to project users and
sponsor on a regular basis
Co-locate users with the developers
 Suggestions for Reducing
Incomplete and Changing
Requirements
 Develop and follow a requirements management process
 Employ techniques such as prototyping, use case
modeling, and Joint Application Design to thoroughly
understand user requirements
 Put all requirements in writing and current
 Create a requirements management database
 Provide adequate testing
 Use a process for reviewing requested changes from a
systems perspective
 Emphasize completion dates
Unit III

Software Development
Software Size and Reuse
Estimating
Software Size and Reuse Estimating
”Predicting the size of a software
system becomes progressively easier
as the project advances”

”At no other time are the

estimates so important than at the
beginning of a project”
Product Development Life Cycle

Estimating size and effort will occur

many times during the life cycle
After requirements, after analysis,
after design, and so on...
Learning Objectives

 Explain why the sizing of software is an

important estimating technique
 Describe how Work Breakdown Structure
can be used to estimate software size
 List, explain and describe several models
used to estimate size
 Summarize the advantages and
disadvantages of the models
 Explain the impact of reused software
components upon the size estimate
Problems with Estimating
Problem is not well understood
Little or no historical data
No standards
Management uses estimates as
performance goals
Developers are optimistic
Customer demands quick estimates
etc...
Risks of Estimating

If incomplete or incorrect estimate:

 disappointing the customer
 possibly losing future business
 too optimistic fixed-price contract result in
the contractor losing money and losing
face
How to tackle size-related risks

 Produce a WBS, decomposed to the lowest

level possible  smaller is easier to
estimate
 Review assumptions with all stakeholders
 Research past organizational experiences
and historical data
 Stay in close communication with other
developers, common language
 Update estimates
 Use many size estimating methods
 Educate staff in estimation methods
Getting Started
 Sizing is the prediction of product
deliverables needed to fulfill requirements
 Estimation is the prediction of effort
needed to produce the deliverables
 WBS is a description of the work to be
performed, broken down into key elements
 WBS is our TOC, a hierarchical list of the
work activities required to complete a
project
 Choose a method and stick with it
 Compare actual data to planned estimates
 Everything should be counted, any
observable physical piece of software
Size measures

Lines of Code (LOC)

Function Points
Feature Points
Object Points
Model Blitz
Wideband Delphi
Lines of Code

 Very difficult to know how many LOC will be

produced before they are written or even
designed
 LOC measure has become infamous
 Still the most used metric
 Average programmer productivity rate
remains despite of new languages
 Functionality and quality are the real
concerns, not the LOC
Lines of Code 2

 WBS should be decomposed to the lowest

level possible
 Estimating using expert opinions, asking
experts who have developed similar
systems
 Estimating using Bottom-Up summing,
asking developers to estimate the size of
each decomposed level
 Ask for an optimistic (200), pessimistic
(400) and realistic size (250) estimate 
(200+400+(4*250)) / 6 = 266 LOC
 What exactly is a line of code? Standards
and rules needed
Lines of Code 3

 Translate the number of LOC to assembly

language line in order to make comparisons
between programming languages
 e.g.
convert 50,000 LOC system written in C to
Java
Assembler level for C = 2.5, Java = 6
50,000 * 2.5 = 125,000 if written in
assembler
125,000 / 6 = 20,833 LOC if written in Java
Advantages of LOC

 Widely used and accepted

 Allows for comparison between diverse
development groups
 Directly relates to the end product
 Easily measured upon project completion
 Measure from the developer’s point of view
 Continuous improvement
Disadvantages of LOC
 Difficult to estimate early in the life cycle
 Source instructions variate with language,
design, programmer etc.
 No industry standars for counting LOC
 Fixed costs are not included with coding
 Programmers may be rewarded for large
LOC counts
 Distinguish between generated code and
hand-crafted code
 Can not be used for normalizing if
languages are different
 Only existing products and expert opinions
can be used to predict a LOC count
Function Points

Idea:
software is better measured in terms
of the number and complexity of the
functions that it performs
Function points measure categories of
end-user business functions
Function Point Process Steps
1. Count number of functions in each
category (outputs, inputs, interfaces
etc..)
2. Apply complexity weighting factors
(simple, medium, complex)
3. Apply environmental factors
4. Calculate complexity adjustment factor
5. Compute adjusted function points
6. Convert to Lines of Code (optional)
Advantages of Function Point Analysis
 Can be applied early in the life cycle
 Independent of language and technology
 Provide a reliable relationship to effort
 Can be used as a productivity goal
 Users understand better
 Provide a mechanism to track and monitor
scope
 Environmental factors are considered
Disadvantages of Function Point Analysis
Requires subjective evaluations
Results depend on technology used
to implement the analysis
Many effort and cost models depend
on LOC, must be converted
Best after the creation of a design
specification
Not good to non-MIS applications
Feature Points

Extension of the function point

method
Designed to deal with different kinds
of applications, like embedded or real-
time systems
A feature point is a new category of
function point that represent complex
algorithms
Areas where Feature Points are
used …
RTS such as missile defense systems
System software
Embedded Systems like radar
navigation packages
CAD & CAM
Feature Point Process Steps
1. Count number of feature points in each
category
2. Count feature points (algorithms)
3. Weigh Complexity (avg for feature
points, simple/avg/complex for
algorithms)
4. Evaluate environmental factors
5. Calculate complexity adjustment factor
6. Adjust feature points
7. Convert to LOC (optional)
Advantages of Feature Point
Analysis

Same as in function point analysis

Additional advantage for
algorithmically intensive systems
Disadvantages of Feature Point
Analysis

Primary disadvantage:
 subjective classification of algorithmic
complexity
Object Points

 Method developed for object-oriented

technology
 Counting ”object points” to determine
software size
 Conducted at a more macro level than
function points
 Assigns one object point to each unique
class or object
 Otherwise similar to function and feature
points
Model Blitz

 Estimating gets better with each passing

phase
 Concept of blitz modelling is counting
number of process (object classes) *
number of programs per class * avg
program size = Estimated size (LOC)
 A historical database is essential
 Function-strong systems and data-strong
systems are calculated separately
 Contd…

20 object classes implemented to 5

procedural programs & on an avg 75
LOC per procedural prg
No. of Process X no. of programs per
class X Avg Prg Size = Estimated Size
20 X 5 X 75 = ?
7500 LOC
Advantages of Model Blitz
Easy to use with structured methods
and with object-oriented classes
Accuracy increases with historical data
Continuous improvement activities
used for estimation techniques
Disadvantages of Model Blitz
Requires use of design methodology
Estimation can not begin until design
is complete
Requires historical data
Does not evaluate environmental
factors
Wideband Delphi

Popular and simple technique to

estimate size and effort
Group consensus approach
Uses experience of several people to
reach an estimate
Wideband Delphi steps

1. Present experts with the problem

and a response form
2. Group discussion
3. Collect opinions anonymously
4. Feed back a summary of results
5. Another group discussion
6. Iterate until consensus
Advantages of Wideband Delphi
Easy and inexpensive
Expertise of several people
Participants become better educated
about the software and project
Does not require historical data
Used for high-level and detailed
estimation
Results more accurate than in LOC
Disadvantages of Wideband
Delphi
 Difficult to repeat with different group of
experts
 Possible to reach consensus on an
incorrect estimate, people may not be
skeptical enough
 Can develop a false sense of confidence
 May fail to reach a consensus
 Experts may be biased in the same
subjective direction
Effects of Reuse on Software Size

 Many softwares are derived from previous

programs
 Result in savings of cost and time, increased
quality
 Can also cost more, take longer time and
yield lower quality
 First step in code reuse is to separate new
code from modified and reused code
Effects of Reuse continues
 If the unit has changed, it is modified
 If more than 50% of the unit is changed, it
is considered to be ”new”
 Reused code will be converted to
equivalent new code
 Conversion factor reflects the amount of
effort saved by reuse
 Reuse factors come from experience (e.g.
30% for reused, 60% for modified)
 Can also be done on more accurate level
Unit IV

Scheduling Activities
Project management resource
activities.

 Inference management is the process of

managing all the different interfaces with
other people and groups related to the
product and the project, it includes
identifying, documenting, scheduling,
communicating, and monitoring these
interfaces throughout the course of project.
 Kinds of interfaces:

• Personal
• Organizational
• System
• PERSONAL
It deals with all conflicts involving people in or
related to the project.

• ORGANIZATIONAL
It deals with conflicts due to varying
organizational goals and the different management
styles of the
project and resource supplying organizations.

• SYSTEM
It deals with the product, facility, or other
non people interfaces developed by the project.
Organizational structure:

 "An organization is a system that

exchanges materials,
personnel, manpower, and energy
with the environment“
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS:

 Functional organizations

 Matrix organizations

 Projectized organizations

 Combination of all the above

FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

 The functional organization is a

standard old-fashioned
organization. It is the style in which
people are divided into their
functional specialties and report to a
functional area manager.
MATRIX ORGANIZATIONS

 In the matrix organizations there is a

balance of power
established between the functional
and project managers.
· The project worker in a matrix
organization has a multiple
command system of accountability
and responsibility.
PROJECTIZED ORGANISATIONS:

 In projectized organizations the

project manger has total
authority and acts like a mini-CEO.
· All personnel assigned to the project
report to project
manager.
Software development
dependencies
 "Dependencies are any relationship
connections between activities in
a project that may impact their
scheduling".
 External vs Internal Dependencies
 Resource vs Activity Dependencies
DEPENDENCY RELATIONSHIPS:
 Finish-to-start(FS)
Start-to-start(SS)
Finish-to-finish(FF)
Start-to-finish(SF)
Scheduling fundamentals:

 The three most common forms of

presenting a project schedule are:
Ø Table.
Ø Gantt chart.
Ø Network diagram.
 Critical Path Method (CPM)
CPM is a project network analysis
technique used to predict total project
duration
A critical path for a project is the series
of activities that determines the
earliest time by which the project can
be completed
The critical path is the longest path
through the network diagram and has
the least amount of slack or float
Finding the Critical Path
First develop a good project network
diagram
Add the durations for all activities on
each path through the project network
diagram
The longest path is the critical path
Simple Example of Determining the
Critical Path

 Consider the following project network

diagram. Assume all timesC=2 are
4 in days.
E=1
A=2 B=5
start 1 2 3 6 finish

D=7 5 F=2

a. How many paths are on this network diagram?

b. How long is each path?
c. Which is the critical path?
d. What is the shortest amount of time needed to
complete this project?
Determining the Critical Path
for Project X
More on the Critical Path
 If one of more activities on the critical path
takes longer than planned, the whole project
schedule will slip unless corrective action is
taken
 Misconceptions:
 The critical path is not the one with all the critical
activities; it only accounts for time
 There can be more than one critical path if the
lengths of two or more paths are the same
 The critical path can change as the project
progresses
 Using Critical Path Analysis to
Make Schedule Trade-offs
Knowing the critical path helps you
make schedule trade-offs
Free slack or free float is the amount of
time an activity can be delayed without
delaying the early start of any
immediately following activities
Total slack or total float is the amount
of time an activity may be delayed
from its early start without delaying the
planned project finish date
Techniques for Shortening a
Project Schedule
Shortening durations of critical tasks
for adding more resources or changing
their scope
Crashing tasks by obtaining the
greatest amount of schedule
compression for the least incremental
cost
Fast tracking tasks by doing them in
parallel or overlapping them
 Importance of Updating Critical
Path Data
It is important to update project
schedule information
The critical path may change as you
enter actual start and finish dates
If you know the project completion
date will slip, negotiate with the project
sponsor
 Critical Chain Scheduling
 Technique that addresses the challenge of
meeting or beating project finish dates and an
application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC)
 Developed by Eliyahu Goldratt in his books The
Goal and Critical Chain
 Critical chain scheduling is a method of
scheduling that takes limited resources into
account when creating a project schedule and
includes buffers to protect the project
completion date
 Critical chain scheduling assumes resources do
not multitask because it often delays task
completions and increases total durations
Multitasking Example
Buffers and Critical Chain
 A buffer is additional time to complete a task
 Murphy’s Law states that if something can go
wrong, it will, and Parkinson’s Law states that
work expands to fill the time allowed. In
traditional estimates, people often add a buffer
and use it if it’s needed or not
 Critical chain schedule removes buffers from
individual tasks and instead creates
 A project buffer, which is additional time added
before the project’s due date
 Feeding buffers, which are addition time added
before tasks on the critical path
Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
PERT is a network analysis technique
used to estimate project duration when
there is a high degree of uncertainty
about the individual activity duration
estimates
PERT uses probabilistic time estimates
based on using optimistic, most likely,
and pessimistic estimates of activity
durations
PERT Formula and Example
PERT weighted average formula:
optimistic time + 4X most likely time + pessimistic time
6
Example:
PERT weighted average =
8 workdays + 4 X 10 workdays + 24 workdays =
12 days 6
where 8 = optimistic time, 10 = most likely time, and 24
= pessimistic time
Controlling Changes to the
Project Schedule
Perform reality checks on schedules
Allow for contingencies
Don’t plan for everyone to work at
100% capacity all the time
Hold progress meetings with
stakeholders and be clear and honest in
communicating schedule issues
Working with People Issues
Strong leadership helps projects
succeed more than good PERT charts
Project managers should use
 empowerment
 incentives
 discipline
 negotiation
Using Software to Assist in
Time Management
Software for facilitating
communications helps people exchange
schedule-related information
Decision support models help analyze
trade-offs that can be made
Project management software can help
in various time management areas
Words of Caution on Using
Project Management Software
Many people misuse project
management software because they
don’t understand important concepts
and have not had good training
You must enter dependencies to have
dates adjust automatically and to
determine the critical path
You must enter actual schedule
information to compare planned and
actual progress
Unit V
Quality Assurance
Integratedchange
Integrated Change Control
control involves
identifying, evaluating, and managing
changes throughout the project life
cycle (Note: 1996 PMBOK called this
process “overall change control”)
Three main objectives of change
control:
Influence the factors that create
changes to ensure they are agreed
upon
Determine that a change has
occurred
Manage actual changes when and as
Integrated Change Control
Integrated change control requires
 Maintaining the integrity of the
performance measurement baseline
 Ensuring that changes to the product
scope are reflected in the definition of the
project scope
 Coordinating changes across the
knowledge areas
Integrated Change Control --
Coordination
Communications Integration
10.3: Performance 4.3: Integrated
Reporting Change control

Subsidiary Change Control

•Scope change control
•Schedule change control
•Cost change control
•Quality control
•Risk change control
•Contract Administration

Coordinating changes Across the Entire Project

Change Control on Information
Technology Projects

 Former view: The project team should strive

to do exactly what was planned on time and
within budget
 Problem: Stakeholders rarely agreed up-
front on the project scope, and time and
cost estimates were inaccurate
 Modern view: Project management is a
process of constant communication and
negotiation
 Solution: Changes are often beneficial, and
the project team should plan for them
Integrated Change Control --
Process
Integrated Change Control
Process
Change Control System
A formal, documented process that
describes when and how official
project documents and work may be
changed
Describes who is authorized to make
changes and how to make them
Often includes a change control board
(CCB), configuration management,
and a process for communicating
changes
Change Control Boards (CCBs)
A formal group of people responsible
for approving or rejecting changes on
a project
Provides guidelines for preparing
change requests, evaluates them, and
manages the implementation of
approved changes
Includes stakeholders from the entire
organization
Making Timely Changes
Some CCBs only meet occasionally, so
it may take too long for changes to
occur
Some organizations have policies in
place for time-sensitive changes
 “48 hour policy” allowed project team
members to make decisions, then they
had 48 hours reverse the decision
pending senior management approval
 Delegate changes to the lowest level
possible, but keep everyone informed of
 Configuration
 Ensures Management
that the products and their
descriptions are correct and complete
 Concentrates on the management of
technology by identifying and controlling the
functional and physical design characteristics
of products
 Configuration management specialists
identify and document configuration
requirements, control changes, record and
report changes, and audit the products to
verify conformance to requirements
Suggestions for Managing
Integrated Change Control
 View project management as a process of
constant communications and negotiations
 Plan for change
 Establish a formal change control system,
including a Change Control Board (CCB)
 Use good configuration management
 Define procedures for making timely decisions on
smaller changes
 Use written and oral performance reports to help
identify and manage change
 Use project management and other software to
help manage and communicate changes