Galvanizing Design Manual PDF
Galvanizing Design Manual PDF
INTRODUCTION.
In this manual, the fundamental design rules that will ensure that steel sections and fabrications
are hot dip galvanized to the highest quality standards and at the lowest cost are featured. There
is additional supplementary information included in this 2nd Edition of the manual to provide
information on important aspects of galvanizing that af affect
fect its durability in service. Industrial
stafff are available for consultation on detailed aspects of design on specific
Galvanizers' technical staf
projects.
GALVANIZING FUNDAMENT
GALV ALS
FUNDAMENTALS
Hot dip galvanizing is an immersion process where steel sections and fabrications undergo the following
operations:
1. Hot caustic degr easing (removal of oil, organic materials, mill primers and paint)
degreasing
2. Hydr ochloric acid pickling (removal of rust and mill scale)
Hydrochloric
3. Rinsing (removal of pickling acid residues)
4. Prefluxing in zinc ammonium chloride solution (surface conditioning)
Prefluxing
.
5. Hot dip galvanizing (at 455-460 degrees C)
6. Chr omate quenching (passivation of the zinc surface to prevent early oxidation)
Chromate
2
IMPORTANT DESIGN F
IMPORT ACT
FACTORS
ACTORS
Hot dip galvanizing is a self inspecting process that - The hot dip galvanized coating will not form
relies heavily on proper design to achieve a quality unless the steel is heated to 455-460 degr ees C.
degrees
result. The major difference between hot dip - Items cannot be galvanized unless the item will
galvanizing and all paint coatings is that hot dip fit in the pr eparation tanks and galvanizing
preparation
galvanized coatings can only be applied to bath.
perfectly pr epar
prepar ed surfaces.
epared
These requirements are the fundamentals of Design
- The zinc will not rreact
eact with the steel to form the for Galvanizing and fall into the four major design
galvanized coating unless the surface of the steel
categories: Venting,
is perfectly clean .
- The hot dip galvanized coating will not form
Draining,
unless the zinc can intimately contact the steel Dimension instability and
surface. Design.
A consequence of poor venting; this RHS frame exploded due to moisture entrapment
3
BASIC VENTING RULES
SAFETY NOTE: Water or process solutions may enter hollow sections during fabrication or
during the galvanizing process. When the item is heated to 450 degrees C
C, water is converted to steam
and undergoes an expansion of approximately 1750 times its original volume. Pressures in the order of
50 MPa can be produced.
Adequate hole sizes in sealed hollow sections in the correct locations ensures galvanizing quality.
4
THE PRINCIPLES OF DRAINING
When an item is immersed in process solutions or molten zinc, the liquids have to flow freely into and out of
the item. The viscosity of molten zinc and its density are important factors in designing adequate drainage into
fabrications.
When the item is immersed, good galvanizing practice requires that it is lowered into the galvanizing bath at
a steady rate. If drain holes are too small, the zinc will not flow fast enough and the item may become buoyant
which may result in the item floating off the dipping equipment, rolling over or otherwise being subjected to
erratic immersion.
When a hollow vessel or section is withdrawn from the galvanizing bath, the zinc must be able to flow freely
from it. Molten zinc has a density of 6620 kg/m3 and excessive dead weight may be applied to the item or the
lifting equipment is molten zinc is retained in the item.
With thin walled vessels such as tanks, this can result in mechanical distortion of the item.
Good detail design provides adequate Closed pipes require at least two diametrically opposed vent and
natural drainage without requiring holes drain holes aligned with the lifting points.
Vessels with large internal volume requires large drain holes. This tank
contains over 10 tonnes of molten zinc when immersed
5
BASIC DRAINING RULES
Channel frames require at least four and preferably By using outward facing channels, no special
eight vent/drain holes using conventional design venting or draining provisions are required
NOTE: Water or process solutions enter hollow sections during fabrication or during the galvanizing
process. If the drain holes are not located at the lowest point in the fabrication;
- process chemicals will be trapped internally and cause an explosion hazard when immersed in the molten
zinc.
- zinc will be trapped internally and will freeze in the undrained area. This may interfere with assembly, it
will add to the weight of the item in service and it is a waste of zinc which adds to the cost of galvanizing.
Vent and drain holes must be located as close to the high and low points of the hollow section as
possible to prevent air locks, entrapment of pretreatment chamicals and zinc puddling
6
THE PRINCIPLES OF AVOIDING DIST
AV OR
DISTORTION
ORTION
When steel sections or fabrications are immersed in However, at galvanizing temperatures, the yield strength
molten zinc, their temperature is raised to that of the of steel is lowered by approximately 50%. If the adjacent
molten zinc which is typically 455oC. The rate at steel is not at the same temperature and any stresses
which the steel will reach this temperature across its exist, the weaker area will be subject to movement by
entire surface will depend on; the stronger area. There is a responsibility on the
- the thickness of the individual sections making designer, the fabricator and the galvanizer to co-operate
up the item. in ensuring that distortion risks are minimised or
- the total mass of the item. eliminated.
- the dimension of the item.
At galvanizing temperatures, there is no change to
steel's metallurgical microstructure and the
galvanizing process is not hot enough to have any
heat treating effects on the mechanical properties of
the steel after galvanizing.
The pattern of distortion in this 3 mm floorplate is clearly the result of the welding technique used.
Attatching the channels with fasteners after galvanizing would significantly reduce the risk of distorting
1. Design to use uniform thickness sections throughout 4. Ensure that the structural design of the item is
the fabrication. sufficient to support its own weight at 50% of the
2. Ensure welding and assembly techniques minimise steel's specified yield strength. Consider temporary
stresses in components making up the item. bracing if potential to yeild exists.
3. Ensure that venting and draining are adequate. This 5. Avoid using large areas of thin (under 8 mm) flat
will allow the item to be immersed in and withdrawn plate.
from the molten zinc as quickly as possible. 6. Guillotine cut plate is preferred to oxy cut plate.
7
GALVANIZING RULES T
GALV O A
TO VOID DIST
AV OR
DISTOR TION
ORTION
8
BASIC RULES - DESIGN FOR GALVANIZING
GALV
9
BASIC DESIGN RULES (CONT)
10
FACTORS AFFECTING GAL
ACTORS VANIZING QUALITY AND SER
GALV VICE
SERVICE
There are a number of factors in the nature of steelwork presented for galvanizing that impact on the galvaniz-
ers ability to provide a quality product and service. These are:
1. Surface condition of the steel: rusty
rusty,, painted, previously galvanized.
previously
Steel that is badly corroded will be slow to pickle and
removal of heavy rust on part of the surface may remain
on the surface to cause galvanizing defects. Badly rusted
steel should be abrasive blasted too remove heavy rust
areas prior to delivery for galvanizing.
Steel coated with old paint may not be able to be cleaned
effectively in the caustic pre-treatment. Paint remaining
on the surface will prevent the acid pickling the surface
and galvanizing defects will result.
This jig of general work illustrates the variety of conditions that steel is received for galvanizing, including newly
manufactured, rusty and previously galvanized.
11
FACTORS AFFECTING GAL
ACTORS VANIZING QUALITY AND SER
GALV VICE (CONT
SERVICE .)
(CONT.)
3. Steel metallurgy
The galvanized coating is formed by the steel reacting with the zinc at galvanizing temperature. The metal-
lurgy of the steel combined with its surface condition will affect the appearance and the thickness of the
galvanized coating.
Steel composition: Most structural steels have low levels of alloying elements that are typically carbon, phos-
phorous, manganese, silicon and sulphur which total around 1% of the constituents. The balance is iron.
The effect of each of these elements is as follows:
1. Iron. Iron (Fe) is the major component in the zinc-steel reaction that forms the galvanized coating. Pure iron
Iron.
is not highly reactive with zinc. Very low alloy steels will produce below Australian Standard (AS 1650) thick-
ness coatings with a smooth and shiny appearance.
2. Carbon. Carbon (C) does not have a significant effect on galvanized coating characteristics. High carbon
steels with tensile strengths over 1000 MPa may be affected mechanically through hydrogen embrittlement
caused by hydrogen absorption into the steel during pickling.
3. Manganese. Manganese (Mn) is a toughening element used in stee. It has little effect on coating appearance at
the levels found in structural steels. Steels with high manganese content may produce galvanized coatings with an
uneven brown or gold colouration and may produce thicker coatings that are less impact resistant.
4. Phosphor
Phosphorous.ous. Phosphorous (P) is a very reactive residual element in structural steels that does not present a
problem at residual levels. It is found as an alloying element only in special electrical grades of steel which are
rarely galvanized. High phosphorous content will produce thick, brittle coatings.
5. Silicon. Silicon (Si) is the most common reactive alloying element in steel. Most hot rolled structural sections
do not have significant reactive silicon content. High silicon levels commonly occur in some plate products and
large diameter pipe and RHS which is produced from the same steel source. Thick, grey or unevenly coloured
galvanized coatings arise with this type of steel.
6. Sulphur
Sulphur.. Sulphur is a reactive residual element in structural steel that does not pose a problem at residual
levels. It is found as an alloying element in free machining steels. Threaded sockets and fittings manufactured
from high sulphur steel are sometimes incorporated into fabrications for galvanizing. Zinc and acid attack on the
steel may be severe with high sulphur steels.
12
FACTORS AFFECTING GAL
ACTORS VANIZING QUALITY AND SER
GALV VICE (CONT
SERVICE .)
(CONT.)
4. Surface Pr ofile
Profile
The rate of reaction between steel and zinc is also af- Heavy gauge wire used in pool and fence panels may
fected by the surface profile. Very smooth surfaces also produce uneven galvanized coatings , typically in
such as those found on cold rolled sheet and tube prod- a spiral pattern, caused by surface stresses induced in
ucts will have a relatively low rate of reaction and may the steel during straightening.
not produce galvanized coatings that comply with the
AS 1650 standard for minimum coating thickness.
Also, very smooth steel surfaces on reactive steels may
give rise to galvanized coatings that may flake or
peel on impact.
Hot rolled sections have a natural surface profile arising
from the presence of mill scale during rolling. The mill
scale is removed by pickling during the galvanizing
process leaving a steel surface that will generally
produce galvanized coatings in excess of the thickness
required by AS 1650.
5. Weld quality
Weld
Weld quality can have a direct impact on galvanizing
qualty in both the design of the weld and its execution.
The hot dip galvanized coating reflects the surface Most welding wire is high in silicon and this will
condition and metallurgy of the steel. These cause the weld metal to react more vigorously with
highly finished heat exchanger tubes produce a the zinc than the parent metal, resulting in thicker
very smooth, uniform hot dip galvanized coating. coatings on the weld metal. If weld aesthetics are
important and welds are required to be flush finished
Heavy galvanized coatings may be created deliberately after galvanizing, low silicon welding wire or rods
by abrasive blasting, which increased the surface area of similar metallurgy to the parent metal should be
per unit. Galvanized coatings well above the Australian used.
Standard requirement can be produced on pre-blasted
steel and the rougher as-rolled surface on hot rolled
merchant sections will also produce thicker galvanized
coatings.
Old steelwork that has been heavily rusted, and cast
iron and steel which has a rough steel surface will
also produce galvanized coatings significatly thicker
that the minimum specified in AS 1650 .
13
5. Weld quality (cont)
Weld
Weld design will be a function of weld location and MIG welding can leave a thin slag layer on welds.
extent. Unsealed welds will allow preparation chemicals This must be removed prior to galvanizing as it will
to penetrate joints. Entrapped liquids will boil out and cause coating defects in the weld area.
cause surface defects during galvanizing. Residual flux Weld spatter should be removed as it will remain on
crystals left in joints will absorb atmospheric moisture the surface and result in an aesthetic defect after
and cause staining and corrosion problems after galvanizing.
galvanizing. Fully sealed welds offer the best
performance for galvanizing and in service. The surface
tension of molten zinc is such that it will not readily
penetrate gaps narrower than 1 mm.
14
6. Dimensions
Three-dimensional fabrications
require careful design to ensure
proper venting and draining and
awkward fabrications like these have
low weight per unit of volume,
which increases processing cost.
15
THREADED PARTS
PARTS
Galvanized fasteners should be used with hot dip Studs welded to assemblies may have to be cleaned
galvanized assemblies. When the item to be galvanized after the assembly has cooled. This requires reheating
contains threaded assemblies, the pitch diameter of with an acetylene torch and wire brushing to remove
the female threads must be increased to permit hand excess zinc. Alternatives to welded studs should be
assembly after the addition of a galvanized coating to considered when possible.
the male parts. Internal threads and nuts must be tapped
Masking to prevent galvanizing threads on pipe or
oversize after galvanizing to accommodate the thickness
fittings on external threads can be done using glass
of the galvanized coating on the stud or bolt.
cloth tape. Internal threads require the application of
a high temerature silicone based masking compound
While the internal threads that are tapped after
or otherwise to clean or tap after galvanizing.
galvanizing have no galvanized coating, the close
contact with the galvanized male threads provide Tapped-through holes must be retapped oversize after
sufficient cathodic protection for adequate durability. galvanizing if they are to contain a galvanized bolt
Items too long or too large to be centrifuged, such as after assembly. Tapping of all holes after galvanizing
long threaded rods, may be wire brushed while hot to is recommended to eliminate double tapping costs and
remove any excess zinc from the threads. the possibility of cross threading.
The rrecommended
ecommended over tapping for nuts and interior thr
overtapping eads is as follows:
threads
On hinges all adjacent surfaces must be ground 0.8 mm on both pieces to allow for thickness increase
during galvanizing.
16
Manufacturers of threaded parts recognize that 3. Sharp manufacturing tools are mandatory. Ragged
special procedures must be followed in their plants and torn threads open up in the pickling and
where certain items are to be galvanized. Following galvanizing processes. Worn tools also increase bolt
are some examples: diameters. Frequent checking is necessary on long
runs.
1. Low carbon bars are recommended since high carbon
or high silicon causes a heavier, rougher galvanized 4. Standard sized threads are cut on the bolt, while
coating on the threads. standard sized nuts are retapped oversize after
galvanizing.
2. Hot formed heading or bending requires cleaning
at the manufacturing plant to remove scale before
threading. Otherwise, over-pickling of threads will
result during scale removal.
MOVING PAR
PARTS
ARTS
When a galvanized assembly incorporates moving parts Before galvanizing, any adjacent edges should be
(such as drop-handles, shackles and shafts), a radial ground to give at least 0.8 mm clearance. The pin
clearance of not less than 1.6 mm must be allowed to holes can be cleared of excess zinc at time of assembly.
ensure full freedom of movement after the addition of
zinc during galvanizing. After hinges are galvanized, it is recommended that
an undersized pin be used to compensate for the zinc
Designs should provide additional clearance for moving picked up during the galvanizing process. If desired,
parts to allow for the pickup of zinc during galvanizing. the pin holes in the hinges may be reamed 0.8 mm
It is recommended that, whenever possible, work be after galvanizing to permit the use of regular size
designed so that hinges can be bolted to frames, covers, pins.
bodies, and the like after galvanizing.
17
MARKING FOR IDENTIFICATION
Identification markings on fabricated items should be Where permanent identification is needed there are suit-
carefully prepared before galvanizing, so they will be able alternatives for marking steel fabrications to be
legible after galvanizing. hot dip galvanized. Each will enable items to be rap-
idly identified after galvanizing and at the assembly
Do not use paint to apply addresses, shipping site. The three marking alternatives are:
instructions, and job numbers on items to be galvanized.
Oil based paints and crayon marks are not removed by 1 Fixing a deep stamped steel tag (minimum thick -
the pickling acids. This results in extra work and extra ness - 2.5 mm) to the fabrication by seal-welded
charges by the galvanizer to properly prepare the steel directly to the item to be galvanized.
for galvanizing. 2. Stamping the surface of the item using die cut deep
stencils or series of center punch marks. These marks
For temporary identification, use heavily embossed should be placed in a standard position on each of
metal tags wired to the work or a water soluble marker
the members. They should be a minimum of 12 mm
such as Dymark PB80 should be specified. For
high and 0.80 mm deep to ensure readability after
permanent identification use heavily embossed, punched galvanizing. This method should not be used to mark
or welded lettering.
fracture critical members.
18
WET STORAGE ST
STORAGE AIN PREVENTION
STAIN
19
PAINTING GALVANIZED STEEL
Galvanized steel surfaces are painted easily and *NOTE: Diesel fumes falling onto surfaces from truck
satisfactorily using established and proven paint systems exhausts are a major cause of surface contamination.
ranging from simple self-priming finishes to complex Clean galvanized work being transported to painting
systems suitable for the most demanding service facilities should be covered in transit.
requirements. Powder coatings over galvanized steel
also offer advantages in architectural applications. Pretreatment systems for galvanized steel
Paint systems for galvanized steel Many specialised paint systems require pretreatment
of the galvanized surface to obtain adequate long
Different procedures and paint types are necessary from term adhesion and optimum paint performance.
those used in painting uncoated steel. Two factors are Manufacturers’ instructions should be followed
critical to the satisfactory performance of paint coatings exactly from product data sheets.
applied over galvanized coatings:
Mechanical preparation using abrasive blasting
1. Initial adhesion techniques should be done using the following
2. Long term adhesion parameters:
Initial adhesion of the paint system is achieved by use - blast pressure 40 psi (280 MPa) maximum
of a recommended pretreatment primer or self priming - abrasive grade 0.2-0.5 mm - ilmenite
finish on an uncontaminated surface, which provides a - blasting angle - 45 degree angle to surface
base for subsequent coatings. - distance from surface 300-400 mm
- nozzle type - minimum 10 mm venturi
Long term adhesion depends on compatibility of the
pretreatment primer or finish coats with the galvanized This will ensure that the blasting causes minimum
coating. Use of incompatible paint systems, or direct damage to the galvanized coating and removes no
application of unsuitable finishes without the correct more than 10 microns of the coating
primer or pretreatment will result in premature paint
failure. Chemical etching: of galvanized surfaces prior to
painting is not recommended because of inconsist-
Preparation of galvanized steel surfaces for paint- ency of application and entrapment of corrosive
ing residues.
20
Weathering: Leaving galvanized surfaces to weather Specialised primers for galvanized steel
as a pretreatment for painting is not recommended.
While weathering will establish stable carbonate films Several primer types may be applied directly to
on the surface, atmospheric contaminants will also galvanized steel without pretreatment other than
accumulate. cleaning and degreasing. These include specific
formulations of the following types:
Chemical conversion pr etr
pretr eatments: A range of
etreatments:
chemical conversion treatments is available which 1. Modified acrylic water-borne primers
convert the galvanized surface to an insoluble complex
to provide good adhesion for subsequent paint finish. 2. Certain water borne self priming finishes
21
Maintenance painting is normally carried out using produce a high quality powder coating on hot dip
the same type of water-borne finish. Water-borne fin- galvanizing.
ishes designed specifically for galvanized surfaces may
be top coated with oil or synthetic vehicle systems. Galvanized steel intended for powder coating is best
not chromate quenched. For normal exposure
Etch primers conditions, the freshly galvanized steel surface is zinc
phosphate or iron phosphate pretreated, and then powder
Single pack or two-pack etch primers or wash primers coated. For heavy duty applications where maximum
are ideal for priming galvanized steel surfaces. Thin adhesion, salt spray resistance and durability is required,
coatings, typically no more then 12-15 micr ons should
microns zinc phosphate pretreatment is recommended.
be applied, preferably by spray and strictly in accord-
ance with the manufacturers' instructions
Polyester powder coating over hot dip galvanizing provides a high performance architectural finish that can stand up
to UV exposure and wear. Pedestrian railings like this have been in service for nearly 10 years without maintenance.
22
GALVANIZING GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Acid pickling: Hydrochloric acid is used to remove rust and mill scale from steel prior to galvanizing.
Alloy layers: The hot dip galvanized coating consists of a series of alloy layers of zinc-iron alloys, coated with
a layer of zinc. The alloy layers enhance the abrasion resistance and allow thicker coating to be applied.
Ash: Zinc oxidation products formed from the molten zinc’s reaction to air and the flux on the steel surface float
on the bath’s surface and is skimmed off as zinc ash which can then be processed to recover zinc metal and
compounds.
Bare spots: Defects in the galvanized coating due to inadequate cleaning prior to galvanizing.
Beam work: Dipping beams are used in the galvanizing process to support items suspended from the beam from
hooks or wire to minimise the non-productive steel entering the bath .
Brush blasting: Light abrasive blasting to prepare galvanized surfaces for painting. Mild abrasives such as
illmenite are required at low nozzle pressures (40 psi) to prevent damage to the galvanizing.
Centrifuge work: Small parts are galvanized by spinning or centrifuging in a bucket to throw off excess zinc. Used
for fasteners, washers, chain, brackets and bolts.
Cathodic protection: Zinc is more electrochemically reactive than steel and will corrode preferentially of steel is
exposed through the galvanized coating through cutting or damage.
Caustic degreasing: All work to be galvanized is first treated in a hot caustic bath to remove grease, oil, some types
of paint and organic material so that the steel can be pickled . Acid will not remove rust and oxides if organic
contamination is present on the surface.
Chain work: Large, long or awkward items dipped by suspending them on chains are classified as chain work in the
galvanizing process.
Clockwise fr om top: 1. Alloy layers are shown in this micrograph of a galvanized coating on high silicon steel. 2.
from
Ash forms on the surface of the galvanizing bath and is skimmed off periodically. 3. Bare spots occur when
pretreatment is inadequate or air locks prevent the molten zinc contacting the stee; the cause of this particular defect.
4. Chain work is work that is too large to fit onti jigs or beams and is handles through the galvanizing process on
chains as individual items.
23
GALVANIZING GLOSSAR
GALV Y (CONT
GLOSSARY .)
(CONT.)
Chromate treatment: After steel is galvanized, it is quenched in water containing a small amount of sodium
dichromate which passivates the new zinc surface and prevents early oxidation of the surface.
Coating thickness: hot dip galvanized coatings are Double dipping allows large and complex
thicker on heavier sections like these lighting fabrications to be satisfactorily galvanized.
columns which have 200 micron coatings applied.
Coating thickness: The hot dip galvanized coating thickness is determined by the metallurgy , surface condition
and section thickness of the steel. Australian Standard AS1650-1989 defines minimum coating thickness
standards for hot dip galvanizing.
Continuous galvanizing: Sheet, wire and some tube sections are continuously galvanized. The coating formed is
relatively thin and soft.
Corrosion rate: The corrosion rate of galvanized coatings is predictable so the life of the coating can be accurately
estimated in any known environment.
Double-dipping: Long or wide fabrications or sections can be galvanized by dipping each end or side sequentially.
Dross: Steel reacting with the zinc in the galvanizing bath forms dross which is a zinc-iron crystal that is heavier
than zinc and has a higher melting point. Dross must be periodically removed from the bottom of the galvanizing
bath to maintain operating depth.
Draining: All items to be galvanized must allow zinc to flow off or out of the items during galvanizing.
Duplex coating: When galvanized coatings are painted, duplex coating systems are formed which have durability
higher than that of the sum of the coatings used separately.
Electroplating: Thin zinc coating are applied by electroplating. Used for coating small parts and fasteners with
a smooth, bright coating but are unsuitable for exterior exposure.
Embrittlement: Embrittlement can be induced in some steel items during galvanizing due to excessive cold
working (strain ageing) or acid pickling (hydrogen embrittlement) of high strength steel.
24
GALVANIZING GLOSSAR
GALV Y (CONT
GLOSSARY .)
(CONT.)
25
GALVANIZING GLOSSAR
GALV Y (CONT
GLOSSARY .)
(CONT.)
26
EMBRITTLEMENT AND GALVANIZING
GALV
With mild steels that are produced by conventional The hot dip galvanizing processes throughout Australia
methods, hot dip galvanizing has no significant effect use hydrochloric acid at ambient temperature almost
on their properties or performance other than enhancing exclusively for pickling prior to galvanizing. Acid
the steel's durability and providing a low level of stress concentration is typically 10-15% HCl
relief from fabrication stresses through the item’s being
heated to the galvanizing temperature. The majority of steel hot dip galvanized is generally in
the range of 200-450 MPa so is not subject to hydrogen
With some types of steels and with some fabrication embrittlement problems. Higher strength steels such
techniques which involve severe cold working of the as the quenched and tempered Bisalloy steels are
steel prior to galvanizing, embrittlement problems can appearing in the structural area and special
arise that can result in the performance of the item in consideration must be given to these types of steels if
service being affected. they are required to be hot dip galvanized.
There are three significant types of steel embrittlement Avoiding hydrogen embrittlement
hydrogen
that can be associated with the hot dip galvanizing
process. These are: The requirement to galvanize high strength steels is a
very small one in comparison to the volume of lower
- liquid metal embrittlement strength product that is routinely processed through
galvanizing plants. High strength steels can be
- hydrogen embrittlement galvanized satisfactorily provided the necessary
precautions are taken in the galvanizing process.
- strain age embrittlement
The recommended method of processing high strength
Liquid metal embrittlement: Liquid metal steels for galvanizing is to eliminate the acid pickling
embrittlement is caused by the attack of the molten metal process and use mechanical cleaning methods for
(zinc in the case of galvanizing) on susceptible steels. preparation of the surface prior to hot dip galvanizing.
The most common liquid metal embrittlement problems Abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 1/2 immediately
associated with hot dip galvanizing are with stainless prior to galvanizing will ensure that the steel is
steel. Attaching stainless steel fittings to mild steel items adequately cleaned and that a satisfactory hot dip
prior to galvanizing should be avoided for this reason galvanized coating will be produced.
as the molten zinc may affect the mechanical properties
of the stainless steel. Australian Standard AS 1214-1973
1214-1973, Appendix C
states the following with respect to hydrogen
Hydr ogen embrittlement. When atomic hydrogen
Hydrogen embrittlement of high strength bolts, which are the most
diffuses into the structure of susceptible metal such as commonly encountered high strength steel requiring
high strength steel, some mechanical properties can be to be galvanized.
seriously impaired. Sustained tensile stress can thus
lead to failure. Dynamic and static laboratory testing Where additional sqfeguard is sought (eg. For bolts
can detect losses of tensile or torsional ductility. of Grade 10.9 or higher cleaned by acid pickling),
Fasteners should be baked at a temperature of 200
Hydrogen embrittlement is caused by the presence of degrees C + 10 degrees C C, for a time found on the
hydrogen atoms within the crystal lattice structure of a basis qf experience to be adequate (for guidance, a
metal or alloy. In the galvanizing process, hydrogen time of 30 minutes before galvanizing, or 4 hours
may be absorbed in the steel during the pickling process immediately after galvanizing, might prove
through contact with the hydrogen ions present in the satisfatory).
hydrochloric acid.
27
EMBRITTLEMENT AND GALVANIZING (CONT
GALV .)
(CONT.)
Strain ageing is associated with strain that results from embrittlement can be induced in any severely cold
plastic deformation which is more commonly known worked steel by heating and the tendency to
as cold working. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon embrittlement by strain ageing will always be present
and contains other alloying elements which provide it and its manifestation will simply be a matter of time.
with specific performance characteristics.
voiding strain age embrittlement
Avoiding
Severe cold working of steel causes the migration of
carbon atoms in the iron crystals and the segregation To avoid the risk of strain ege embrittlement, the
of these atoms at dislocations in the steel causes a following design criteria should be followed:
reduction in ductility of the steel.
- use bend radii at least 3 x section
The ageing process is a function of temperature and thickness; ·
time and occurs very slowly at ambient temperature
but very rapidly at the 450-460oC temperatures of the - hot bend if bend radii under 3 x
galvanizing process. Severe cold working of steel can section thickness is rrequir
equired;
equired;
be caused by hole punching in thicker sections, tight
radius bending or rebending. - anneal at 650-815°C prior to galvanizing;
It should be noted that it is not the hot dip galvanizing - ream punched holes to rremove
emove sever ely cold
severely
that is the cause of accelerating the strain ageing of the worked material from
from surface prior to
steel, but the heat of the process, so strain age galvanizing.
This information has been pr ovided to assist in the selection of zinc coated pr
provided oducts and materials for
products
use in conjunction with hot dip galvanized pr oducts.
products.
Most galvanized coatings involving the immersion of The free zinc is relatively soft (about 70 Diamond
steel in molten zinc are made up of a series of zinc-iron Pyramid Hardness
Hardness). The alloy layers range in
alloy layers that are formed through the reaction of the hardness up to 240 DPN in the thicker Delta layers
zinc with the steel at 450 degr ees centigrade.
degrees which contain 7 to 12% ir on
iron
on. This is considerably
harder than 250 Grade steel, which is typically 160
- The alloy layers are generally covered by a layer DPN.
of free zinc. The continuously galvanized coatings have very thin
- The alloy layers have a characteristic pale grey alloy layers and are thus capable of being heavily
appearance while the free zinc is shiny when first deformed without delamination of the coating but the
galvanized. coating is not nearly as abrasion resistant as hot dip
galvanizing.
Some galvanized coatings will have a spangled
appearance due to trace elements in the zinc coating. The general galvanized coatings, with their thicker alloy
layers, are not as flexible but have a much higher
The combination of alloy layers and free zinc and their abrasion resistance (5X 5X that of continuously
proportion in the coating are important in determining galvanized coatings) and are also typically 4-5 times
the flexibility and durability of the coating. as thick .
28
GALVANIZED COA
GALV TING METHODS
COATING
There are a number of methods of applying zinc coat- 2. MECHANICAL PLA TING involves tumbling the
PLATING
ings and each will determine the coating ‘s thickness items to be coated in zinc powder with glass beads and
and its ultimate durabilty in a specific environments special reducing agents to bond the zinc particles to the
steel surface.
The most commonly encountered types of zinc coat-
ings are: Coating characteristics: The mechanical plating
processis used to apply zinc or alloy coatings to fasteners
1. Zinc electroplating
electroplating and small parts. The zinc particles are in lamellar form
2. Mechanical plating and durability equivalent to hot dip coatings can be
3. Sherardising achieved in a uniform coating that is particularly suited
4. Continuously galvanized sheet to threaded fasteners and hardened TEK type screws
5. Continuously galvanized wir
wiree that are unsuitable for hot dip galvanizing. These
6. Galvanized pipe and tube coatings are typically 15 - 20 micr ons thick.
microns
7. General or hot dip galvanizing
8. Zinc metal spraying 3. SHERARDIZING involves heating the articles to
be coated in zinc powder to approximately 400oC at
A brief description of each application process and the which temperature diffusion bonding of the zinc with
characteristics of the coating formed is as follows: the steel occurs.
1. ZINC ELECTROPLA
ELECTROPLATING TING involves immersion Coating characteristics: Sherardised coatings are
of the items to be coated in a solution containing zinc diffusion coatings whose thickness can be varied
ions and applying an electric current to uniformly coat considerably up to over 300 micr ons and whose
microns
the surface. constituents can be modified by adding other metal or
inorganic compounds to the zinc powder. The
Coating characteristics: Zinc electroplated coatings sherardized coatings are almost entirely made up of iron-
are bright coatings that are thin - typically around 5-10 zinc alloy phases. The long cycle times for the process
micr ons and are not suitable for exterior use where
microns make application costly. It is now rarely used.
durability is required. Heavy chromate coatings are fre-
quently applied to zinc platings to improve their dura-
4. CONTINUOUS STRIP GAL GALV VANIZING involves
bility, especially for fastener applications. The coating
passing coil steel through a bath of molten zinc in a
is all pure zinc and lacks the hard alloy layers of the
controlled reducing atmosphere at high speed (180 m/
hot dipped coatings.
min)
min).
5. CONTINUOUSL
CONTINUOUSLY Y GAL
GALV VANIZED WIRE is
produced by passing cleaned steel wire through a lead/
zinc bath at high speed ( 180 m/min).
6. GAL
GALV VANIZED PIPE AND TUBE is produced by
two methods; one is semi-continuous where stock
lengths of tube are cleaned and passed continuously
through a bath of molten zinc at 450 degree
degree
ees centigrade.
The other method is continuous where strip is formed
into tube from coil and the tube then passed through a
bath of molten zinc at 450 degr ees centigrade. This
degrees
second method coats the exterior of the tube only.
30
FRICTION-GRIP BOLTING GAL
BOLTING VANIZED STEEL
GALV
Bolting of steel structures is well suited for use with Industrial Galvanizers has undertaken extensive test
hot dip galvanized coatings. Apart from the need to work in association with the University of Newcastle's
ensure that the bolts used are hot dip galvanized to the TUNRA research organisation to establish parameters
same standard as the structural steel, designers are for post treatment of hot dip galvanized structural
provided with various Australian standards associated steelwork that will ensure that the coefficient of friction
with bolting, including AS1214 - 'Hot dip galvanized will meet or exceed 0.35.
coatings on threaded fasteners', AS 1252 - `High
strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers.', Where friction grip bolting of structures is required,
AS 1559 - `Fasteners -bolts, nuts and washers for tower consultation with Industrial Galvanizers will allow the
construction.', AS 111
111 - 'ISO metric commercial bolts required quality assurance procedures to be
and screws' and AS 111 112 - `ISO metric hexagon nuts...' implemented to ensure that design requirements are
and AS4100 - `Steel structures'. satisfied.
Australian Standard 4100 - `Steel structures' assumes The test work undertaken by TUNRA established that
a slip factor of 0.35 for clean as-rolled steel surfaces two techniques will produce coefficients of friction on
with tightly adherent mill scale. In friction-type bolted hot dip galvanized surfaces exceeding the 0.35
joints, all loads in the plane of the joint are transferred minimum.
by friction between the mating surfaces. The load can
be transmitted by a friction type joint is dependent on These are:
the clamping force applied by the bolts and the slip
factor of the mating surfaces. 1. Buffing the connecting surfaces during final
inspection to roughen the surfaces.
AS 4100 permits the use of applied finishes to 2. Galvanizing at higher temperature or deferring
connecting surfaces of friction type joints provided that quenching to produce fully alloyed `grey' coatings.
the slip factor used in design calculations is based on Steel metallurgy and section thickness will impact
test evidence. on the effectiveness of this technique.
A large number of structures such as this have been been friction grip bolted satisfactorily after galvanizing.
Controlled galvanizing techniques combined with post galvanizing treatment of the connecting surfaces by
the galvanizer ensures that coefficients of friction in excess of 0.35 are obtained at the galvanized connections.
31
CORROSION RATES OF GAL
RATES VANIZED COA
GALV TINGS
COATINGS
In most environments, the corrosion rate of of In non-atmospheric exposures (contact with chemicals,
galvanized (and zinc) coatings is proportional to its buried in soil, immersion in potable and ground waters),
thickness. the corrosion rate of zinc will depend on the following
factors:
When selecting components to be used in conjunction
with hot dip galvanized coatings, it is essential to 1. pH of the liquid (galvanized/zinc coatings perform
ensure that their coating thickness is equivalent to that best in the pH range from 6-10
6-10)
of hot dip galvanizing. 2. Time of wetness ( prolonged periods of wetness with
All pre-galvanized products have much thinner zinc rainwater or condensation will increase
coatings than their hot dip galvanized equivalents. The corrosion rate by 2X or more).
following basic rules should be applied:
3. Contact with electrochemically incompatible metals
1. Do NOT use zinc plated fasteners for heavy duty (copper, brass, stainless steel) will result in very high
applications. zinc corrosion rates.
2 Specify hot dip galvanized purlins and girts in hot 4. Splash zone exposure in both marine and fresh water
dip galvanized structures. Z300 galvanized coatings
prevents the formation of stabilizing oxide films and
on roll-formed structural sections are typically only
will result in higher zinc corrosion rates.
20 microns in thickness and have exposed steel at
cut edges. Coating life is typically 20% that of NOTE: For any specific environment, the suitability
equivalent section hot dip galvanized products.
of hot dip galvanizing can be quickly determined through
3. Do NOT use continuously coated tube and sections
a site audit of environmental and chemical exposure
for heavy duty applications. These coatings are
conditions, and evaluation of process water quality.
typically 12 - 25 microns in thickness and the hollow
sections are not internally coated.
GALVANIZED COA
GALV TING CORROSION RA
COATING TES IN A
RATES TMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENTS
ATMOSPHERIC
32
SURFACE AREA T
SURFACE ABLES
TABLES
While hot dip galvanizing is usually priced in dollars per tonne, it is desirable to also convert this to
dollars per square metre to allow comparison with alternative coatings.
In addition, the conversion to square metres allows accurate estimation of weight increase through
the addition of the hot dip galvanized coating. The surface area per tonne can also be calculated
using the following formula:
Mass per square metre of steel can be calculated using the following formula:
* Hot rolled steel sections and heavier steel sections will generate galvanized coatings considerably
thicker than required by the AS 1650 Standard. To convert coating thickness in microns to equivalent
coating mass in grams per square metre (g/m2), use the following formula:
** Actual zinc pickup after galvanizing will depend on average coating thickness and section design.
Poor drainage, zinc entrapment and large horizontal surfaces will result in higher zinc pickup.
NOTE: Actual zinc usage in hot dip galvanizing is significantly higher than physical zinc pickup.
Zinc usage in hot dip galvanizing is typically 5-7% of the mass of steel dipped because of zinc consumed
on jigs and in generating zinc ash and zinc dross in the galvanizing process.
33
INSPECTION OF GALVANIZED PRODUCTS
GALV
Australian Standard AS1650, Section 1.6 - Appearance (Page 5) defines the requirement for hot dip galvanized
coatings as follows:
The galvanized coating shall be continuous, as smooth and evenly distributed as possible, and free from defects that are detrimental
to the stated use of the coated article. Methods recommended for the renovation of damaged galvanized coatings or uncoated
areas are given in Appendix F (of AS 1650).
Notes:
1. Defects cannot be completely quantified. When the presence, size or frequency of any defects in the coating are considered
manufacturer.This
to be of concern, appropriate arrangements should be made between the purchaser and the manufacturer .This may be
achieved by the provision of acceptable samples or methods of test.
Where defects are present and the product is submitted for acceptance, the manufacturer should be able to demonstrate
fitness for purpose.
2. thicker,, less smooth coating is obtained on job galvanized articles compared with continuously galvanized sheet or wire.
A thicker
3. (Not applicable to general hot dip galvanized products)
4. The finish of the coated object may be partly or wholly grey in colour for steels of certain composition or articles that are
slowly cooled after galvanizing. Provided that such a coating has adequate adhesion, the grey finish is not detrimental,
although premature staining may occur in service.
5. Advice on the transport and storage of galvanized articles is given in Appendix G (of AS 1650)
GALVANIZED COA
GALV TING APPEARANCE
COATING
AND DEFECTS
34
INSPECTION OF GALVANIZED PRODUCTS (CONT
GALV .)
(CONT.)
3. Dull gray or mottled coatings. Reactive steels will 6. Ash staining. Zinc ash is formed in the galvanizing
generate thicker galvanized coatings that are duller than process as the work is immersed in the zinc. The ash
standard coatings. These coatings have longer life formed is skimmed off the surface of the molten zinc
because of their greater thickness and their appearance prior to withdrawing the work from the galvanizing
is a function of steel metallurgy and generally beyond bath. Sometimes, ash is trapped inside inaccessible
the control of the galvanizer. areas and sticks to the outside of the coating as the
work exits the bath. Ash may leave a dull surface
4. Dr oss pimples/inclusions. Dross is formed in the
Dross appearance or a light brown stain after removal. It does
galvanizing process in the form or zinc-iron crystals not affect the performance of the galvanized coating.
(approx 95% zinc - 5% ir on
iron
on) with a higher melting
point that the metal in the zinc bath. Dross trapped in 7. Striations and general surface irr egularities.
irregularities.
the galvanized coating may give the coating a rough or Ridges and lines thicker than the adjacent galvanized
gritty appearance. The presence of dross inclusions in coating are caused by different rates of reaction of the
the coatings is not detrimetal to the coating's zinc with the steel surface due to stress areas on the
performance as the corrosion resistance of zinc dross steel surface or the presence of weld areas or weld metal
is identical to that of the galvanized coating with modified metallurgy to the parent metal. This
phenomenon is most commonly encounted on pipe and
5. White storage staining. After galvanizing, items
tube products.Coating performance is unaffected
stored or stacked in wet, poorly ventilated conditions
will react with atmospheric moisture to form bulky
8. Runs, drainage spikes and puddling. These defects
white zinc hydroxide deposits on the surface of the
are unavoidable in the hot dip galvanizing of general
galvanized coating.
items and are acceptable as long as they do not interfere
with the assembly of the function of the item or present
a safety hazard in handling or service.
9. Bar
Baree patches. Uncoated areas on the surface of
galvanized work are due to poor surface preparation;
inadequate pretreatment in degreasing, pickling and pre-
fluxing. These areas must be repaired using a
recommended repair method or the item regalvanized
if the defect is of sufficient size.
35
Galvanizing appearance and defects (cont) 11. Delamination. Very heavy galvanized
coatings (over 250 microns thick) may be brittle
10. Rust staining. Uncoated steel in contact and delaminate from the surface under impact and
with galvanized coatings will accelerate corrosion of require more careful handling in transport and eraction.
the coating and stain the coating brown in the area of Thin, cold rolled items with very smooth surface finish
contact. This can be removed by wire brushing. and manufactured from reactive steel may also give
rise to coating delamination.
36
INDUSTRIAL GALVANIZERS CAP
GALV ABILITIES
CAPABILITIES
The galvanizing plants within the Industrial Galvanizers
Group galvanizers a wide variety of fabricated
steelwork. These examples illustrate the capabilities
within the group.
37
GALVANIC CORROSION
GALV
While hot dip galvanized coatings provide envelope should be avoided where electolyte forming
protection for steel, the zinc in the coating will also moisture is likely to be present.
protect the steel cathodically if the coating is
damaged and the bare steel exposed.
Zinc Steel
38
PERTINENT GALVANIZING STANDARDS
* British Standards
A90 Test Methods for Weight of Coatings on Zinc Coated (Galvanized) Iron or
Steel Articles
A123 Zinc (Hot Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
A143 Recommended Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot Dip
Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting
Embrittlement
A153 Zinc Coating (Hot Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware
A325 High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints, including Suitable Nuts and
Plain Hardened Washers
A384 Recommended Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage and Distortion
During Hot Dip Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies
A385 Recommended Practice for Providing High Quality Zinc Coatings (Hot Dip)
on Assembled Products
A394 Galvanized Steel Transmission Tower Bolts and Nuts
A780 Practice for Repair of Damaged Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
B6 Zinc Metal (Slab Zinc)
E376 Recommended Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by Magnetic-Field
or Eddy-Current (Electromagnetic) Test Methods
39