FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 7-76

May 2008
Interim Revision April 2017
Page 1 of 48

PREVENTION AND MITIGATION OF COMBUSTIBLE DUST EXPLOSION AND FIRE

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE .................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Changes ........................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 3
2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Room/Building Explosion Hazards .................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Construction and Location ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Occupancy ............................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Protection ............................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.4 Operation and Maintenance ................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Equipment Explosion Hazards ....................................................................................................... 10
2.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 10
2.3.2 Explosion Hazard Elimination ............................................................................................... 10
2.3.3 Explosion-Hazard Mitigation ................................................................................................. 11
2.3.4 Ignition Source Control .......................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Dust Collectors and Cyclones ......................................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Construction and Location .................................................................................................... 19
2.4.2 Protection (3.1.21) ................................................................................................................. 19
2.4.3 Ignition Source Control .......................................................................................................... 20
2.4.4 Enclosureless dust collectors (3.1.24) .................................................................................. 20
2.5 Connecting Ducts (3.1.25) ............................................................................................................... 21
2.5.1 Occupancy ............................................................................................................................. 21
2.5.2 Protection .............................................................................................................................. 21
2.6 Silos (3.1.26) ................................................................................................................................... 22
2.6.1 Protection .............................................................................................................................. 22
2.6.2 Equipment and Processes ................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Bucket Elevators (3.1.27) ............................................................................................................... 23
2.7.1 Construction and Location .................................................................................................... 23
2.7.2 Protection .............................................................................................................................. 23
2.7.3 Ignition Source Control ......................................................................................................... 24
2.8 Spray Dryers ................................................................................................................................... 25
2.8.1 Protection .............................................................................................................................. 25
2.9 Bulk Raw-Grain Handling ............................................................................................................... 25
2.9.1 Equipment and Processes ................................................................................................... 25
2.10 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) (3.1.29) ............................................................................... 25
2.11 Dust Fire Hazards ......................................................................................................................... 26
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 27
3.1 Comments and Technical Support ................................................................................................. 27
3.1.1 Is There a Housekeeping Problem? (2.2.4.2) ....................................................................... 27
3.1.2 Relocating Explosion Hazards Outdoors (2.3.1.1) ................................................................ 27
3.1.3 Inerting (Phlegmatization) (2.3.2.3) ...................................................................................... 28
3.1.4 FM Global Explosion Effects Calculations – DustCalc (2.3.3.1) .......................................... 28
3.1.5 Flameless Venting Devices (2.3.3.1.2) ................................................................................. 29
3.1.6 Strength of Vessels (2.3.3.1.3) ............................................................................................. 30
3.1.7 Effects of Explosion Vent Mass (Inertia) (2.3.3.1.6) ............................................................. 30
3.1.8 Effect of Explosion Vent Ducts (2.3.3.1.7) .......................................................................... 31
3.1.9 Re-Closing Explosion Vents (2.2.3.4 and 2.3.3.1.9) ........................................................... 32

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

3.1.10 Pressure and Fireball Effects from an Explosion (2.3.3.1.11) ........................................... 32

3.1.11 Fixed Obstructions near the Face of Explosion Vents (2.3.3.1.12) ................................... 33
3.1.12 Distribution of Explosion Vents (2.3.3.1.15) ....................................................................... 33
3.1.13 Dust Collector Operating Pressures (2.3.3.1.17) ............................................................... 33
3.1.14 Explosion Isolation (2.3.3.2) .............................................................................................. 33
3.1.15 Isolation Systems (2.3.3.3) ................................................................................................. 34
3.1.16 Rapid-Action Float Valves (2.3.3.3.4) .................................................................................. 34
3.1.17 Vacuum Operation (2.3.3.6) ............................................................................................... 34
3.1.18 Spark Extinguishing Versus Explosion Suppression (2.3.4.1) ........................................... 35
3.1.19 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)(2.3.4.2) ............................................................................. 35
3.1.20 Foreign Material Separators, Magnetic or Other (2.3.4.3) ................................................. 36
3.1.21 Clean Versus Dirty Side of Dust Collectors (2.4.2) ............................................................ 36
3.1.22 Cyclone Explosion Venting (2.4.2.3) .................................................................................. 36
3.1.23 ‘‘Conductive’’ Dust Collector Bags (2.4.3.1) ....................................................................... 36
3.1.24 Enclosureless Dust Collectors (2.4.4) ................................................................................. 37
3.1.25 Connecting Ducts (2.5) ....................................................................................................... 37
3.1.26 Silos (2.6) ............................................................................................................................ 38
3.1.27 Bucket Elevators (2.7) ......................................................................................................... 39
3.1.28 Size-Reduction Equipment (Grinders, Pulverizers, Hammer Mills, etc.) ............................ 39
3.1.29 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) (2.10) ........................................................................ 39
4.0 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 43
4.1 FM Global ....................................................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Other ................................................................................................................................................ 43
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...................................................................................................... 44
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ...................................................................................... 46
APPENDIX C RESEARCH INFORMATION ON DUST EXPLOSION HAZARDS ...................................... 47
APPENDIX D BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 47

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Preferred locations for processes or equipment handling combustible dusts ................................... 6
Fig. 2. Schematic of rooftop explosion vents that project above the roof line ............................................. 8
Fig. 3. Rotary Air Lock ................................................................................................................................. 14
Fig. 4. Rapid-action valve (gate type) ......................................................................................................... 15
Fig. 5. Rapid action float valve (Ventix ESI ®) ............................................................................................ 15
Fig. 6. Explosion diverter .............................................................................................................................. 16
Fig. 7. Indoor installation of explosion diverter ............................................................................................ 16
Fig. 8. High-speed abort gate ...................................................................................................................... 16
Fig. 9. Example of duct explosion venting at an elbow .............................................................................. 22
Fig. 10. FM Approved flameless venting device (Photo courtesy of Rembe GmbH) ................................ 30
Fig. 11. Example of an enclosureless collector ........................................................................................... 37
Fig. 12. Powder bed processes ................................................................................................................... 40
Fig. 13. Material deposition processes ........................................................................................................ 40
Fig. 14. 3D printing and liquid processes .................................................................................................... 41
Fig. 15. SLS design concept (Chemical Engineering Progress, May 2014) ............................................... 41
Fig. 16. Industrial-scale 3D systems: ProX300 and Concept M2 Laser printers ........................................ 41

List of Tables
Table 1. Construction for Dust Handling Occupancies ................................................................................... 6
Table 2. Bucket Elevator Explosion Venting ................................................................................................. 24
Table 3. Typical Dust Bulk Density .............................................................................................................. 27

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 3

1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet describes recommended preventive measures to reduce the frequency of combustible dust
explosions, and protection features to minimize damage from a combustible dust explosion. The hazards
of dust fires can be found in other data sheets containing detailed occupancy specific recommendations.
However, an overview of loss history related to dust fires is included in this document.
This data sheet does not include dust explosion prevention and protection schemes unique to grain handling,
storage, and processing. Loss prevention recommendations for these occupancies are covered in Data Sheet
7-75, Grain Storage and Milling. However, recommendations in this data sheet do apply to hazards at grain
handling facilities that are not unique to those facilities.
The technology of dust explosion hazard evaluation is primarily discussed in metric (SI) units and those are
the units used in this data sheet.
This data sheet references software called DustCalc. DustCalc iproprietary software that has been developed
for use by FM Global engineers to size explosion vents for buildings and equipment where there is a
combustible dust explosion hazard. There are other vent sizing methodologies available but they are not used
by FM Global.

1.1 Changes
April 2017. Interim Revision. Recommendation 2.7.2.3 on protection of bucket elevators was modified for
clarity.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 General
2.1.1 Treat all equipment that handles combustible dusts, as well as any rooms or buildings where combustible
dusts can be present and might be put into suspension, as having a dust explosion hazard.
2.1.2 Implement a management-of-change process in all facilities handling combustible dusts to be certain
that no changes occur that could increase the severity or consequence of an existing dust hazard or introduce
a dust hazard where none previously existed. Examples of such changes include the following:
• Adding new equipment such as blenders, grinders, cutting tools, dust collectors, cyclones, etc.
• Increasing temperatures in the process that could result in drier material being handled
• Adding new materials
• Changing product formulation by adding combustible materials or reducing the proportion of inert materials
• Making process changes that reduce the particle size of in-process materials
2.1.3 Where process, equipment, raw material, or product changes are planned that could significantly change
the dust properties, retest the dust for its explosibility.
2.1.4. Ensure your management-of-change process has the following minimum characteristics:
a) Provides a method for identification of changes that should be subject to the management-of-change
process
b) Provides documentation of the proposed change
c) Provides a formal analysis of the loss prevention considerations involved in the proposed change
d) Identifies the need for updated personnel training
e) Provides for communication of the change and the loss prevention consequences to appropriate
personnel such as maintenance, operators, safety, and emergency responders
f) Establishes any administrative procedures needed (documentation, checklists that cover hazards,
training, etc.)
g) Identifies any required authorizations

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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2.1.5 Where potential for a dust explosion exists, eliminate the potential or minimize the consequences using
one of the following methods:
a) Control fugitive dust releases using enclosures, collection systems and equipment design.
b) Locate dust producing operations in areas separated from different hazard occupancies by construction
(dust-tight and explosion-resistant barriers) or distance.
c) Minimize chances for dust accumulation by arranging building elements and equipment to reduce the
likelihood of dust accumulations. Employ features such as smooth, easily cleaned walls, boxed in or
covered horizontal surfaces (beams, joists, etc.), and surfaces sloped a minimum of 60° from the
horizontal.
d) Where fugitive dust release and accumulation exist in buildings, design the structure to safely vent
the potential explosion using damage-limiting construction.
e) Locate dust collection and transfer equipment outside, away from important buildings and utilities.
f) Construct equipment that processes or transfers combustible particles to contain or safely vent a
potential explosion.
g) Where explosion venting or containment in equipment is not possible, eliminate the oxygen in the system
by inerting, or install an explosion-suppression system.
2.1.6 Practice effective maintenance of production and protection equipment. An effective maintenance
program will:
a) Identify and eliminate fugitive dust sources continually.
b) Inspect, test and maintain spark detection and extinguishing systems, explosion isolation devices, and
relief vents to ensure they are in working order per manufacturer’s guidelines, or at least monthly.
c) Test and maintain metal and non-metal detection and extraction equipment to ensure they are in working
order, at least quarterly.
d) Check belts and rotating equipment for alignment at least quarterly to prevent these becoming a source
of friction heating.
e) Lubricate bearings and rotating equipment (fans, blowers, size-reduction equipment) in accordance
with manufacturer’s guidelines, or at least quarterly
f) Remove accumulated dust on rotating equipment bearings and components to ensure free movement
and prevent friction heating, at least quarterly.
g) Assign accountability and keep accurate records.
2.1.7 Ensure a comprehensive dust fire and explosion awareness program exists at all sites where
combustible dust exists either within closed processing systems or as fugitive dust within buildings. Include
the following:
a) Basic education to promote awareness and understanding of the hazards of combustible dusts
b) Instruction of new employees on the particular hazards and on precautions relevant to their departments
c) A minimum of annual instruction, drill, and familiarization of the local public fire service and/or internal
firefighting teams
d) Periodic refresher training for all facility personnel
2.1.8 Strictly control potential dust ignition sources where combustible dusts may be present.
a) Ensure all electrical equipment is rated Class II, Division 1 or 2, or Zone 20, 21, or 22 per NFPA 70,
the National Electric Code, Articles 500, 502, and 506, as appropriate, or international equivalent. (Refer
to Data Sheet 5-1, Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Locations, for additional details regarding area
classification and equipment selection.)
b) Use a hot work permit system to manage all hot work operations. (See DS 10-3, Hot Work Management,
and Hot Work Management Kit, P9601)
c) Prohibit smoking and open flames.

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 5

d) Provide grounding and bonding of metal components with a resistance of less than 1 x 106 ohms to
ground. (See DS 5-8, Static Electricity.) At least annually, check for continuity of the metal components and
security of any bonding connections.
2.1.9 Prohibit recycling of air material separator exhaust to buildings or rooms, except where either “a” or
all of “b through h” apply:
a) The return air duct discharges into an area that does not contain fugitive dust, combustible equipment
or storage, combustible construction, high-value equipment, or equipment that is critical to production,
OR
b) Install a filter downstream of the dust air separators that prevents return of dust to the enclosure with
a minimum efficiency of 99.9% at 10 microns AND
c) Install a device to measure pressure-drop across the filter with an alarm to indicate when the filter needs
to be cleaned or replaced AND
d) Provide support for the filter with a wire mesh screen or other method that allows the filter to withstand
a pressure equal to or exceeding the value of Pred for the piece of equipment directly upstream from it
AND
e) Provide explosion isolation between the building and the last dust collector in the system (the one
furthest downstream) AND
f) On explosion-isolation system activation, shut down any connected dust- collection equipment AND
g) Flammable vapors, gases, or hybrid mixtures are not involved AND
h) The dust-collection system meets the protection requirements in other sections of this data sheet.
Where these features are present, the recycling of air material separator exhaust would not cause the
building/room to require explosion protection features such as venting, etc. (other factors present in the
building/room could create that need, however).

2.2 Room/Building Explosion Hazards

2.2.1 Construction and Location

Isolate areas handling combustible dusts from other less hazardous occupancies by separation with
construction or distance to minimize damage from the potential explosion or fire. Areas needing isolation
would be where fugitive dust is not readily controlled for example, grinding, sanding, sawing, open conveying,
filing open bins, etc. Excluded would be for example, rooms containing properly vented dust collectors, spray
dryers, fluid bed dryers, etc.
In new construction where some fugitive dust is likely, maximizing explosion venting beyond that calculated
by DustCalc, can provide future flexibility for process or material changes, and often can be done with little
additional cost.
2.2.1.1 Isolate areas handling combustible dusts using the methods listed below in order of preference (also
see Figure 1, Table 1):
a) Detached outside location at least 50 ft (15 m) away from an important building or facility (Fig. 1,
Location 1)
b) Along an exterior wall of an important building, preferably at a corner to limit exposure (Fig. 1, Location 2)
c) Inside an important building on the first floor, either at an exterior corner or along an exterior wall. Avoid
locations on upper floors of multistory buildings. Where above-grade locations are unavoidable, ensure
the floor and ceiling of the room have the same pressure resistance as the walls. (Fig. 1, Locations
3 and 4)
Where confirmed using DustCalc software, the spacing can be reduced to less than recommended in ″a″
above or Distance X in Table 1.
2.2.1.2 Avoid below-grade locations that cannot be equipped with adequate explosion venting.

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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Fig. 1. Preferred locations for processes or equipment handling combustible dusts

Table 1. Construction for Dust Handling Occupancies

Room/Building Construction Construction of Exposed Wall
Location Distance X, ft (m) A B Roof C
1 (note 3) > 50 (15) PV PV PV or LW Any
10 – 50 PR PV PV or LW Any
(3 – 15)
< 10 (3) PR PV PV or LW PR for 10 ft (3 m),
horizontally & vertically
beyond exposing structure
2 Abutting DNA B B* PV or LW PR for 10 ft (3 m),
PV PV horizontally & vertically
beyond abutting structure
Abutting DNA B B* PR PR for 10 ft (3 m),
PV PV horizontally beyond
abutting structure
Abutting DNA B B* PR PR for Abutting wall only
PV PR
3 (note 5) Inside PV PR PR DNA
4 (note 5) Inside PV PR PR DNA
1. This table addresses only protection against explosion hazard.
2. The types of construction are defined as follows:
PR = Pressure resistant
PV = Pressure venting
LW = Lightweight, noncombustible
3. Where confirmed with calculations by the DustCalc software, location 1 distance X may be less than those listed above.
4. PR construction is also needed for floors and ceilings that have spaces below or above that contain less-hazardous occupancies.
5. Where adequate venting can be provided using the walls alone, roofs (not ceilings) do not need to be pressure-venting.

2.2.1.3 Construct buildings in which a combustible dust hazard exists of noncombustible or FM Approved
Class 1 materials.
2.2.1.4 Ensure physical barriers that isolate dust hazard areas are sealed dust tight using noncombustible
materials. Where the barriers have a fire resistance, ensure the seals maintain that rating.
2.2.1.5 Use door seals, window seals, positive room pressurization, etc. to prevent dust from entering and
accumulating in adjacent areas that otherwise do not have their own sources of fugitive dust.
2.2.1.6 Ensure physical barriers that isolate dust hazard areas have explosion resistance sufficient to prevent
failure before the pressure can be safely vented.
2.2.1.7 Do not allow openings in explosion-resistant walls. Where openings cannot be avoided, keep all doors
in these walls normally closed and make sure they have the same explosion-resistance as the walls
themselves. (See DS 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction, for design and installation of explosion resistant
doors and windows.)
2.2.1.8 Provide pressure resistance and vent area in accordance with calculations conducted using FM Global
DustCalc software.

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 7

2.2.1.9 In buildings where some fugitive dust is likely despite process design and equipment upkeep, arrange
building elements and equipment to reduce the likelihood and amount of dust accumulation by any or all
of the following, as appropriate:
a) Provide smooth interior walls with minimal ledges.
b) To the extent practical, provide horizontal surfaces such as girders, beams, ledges, and equipment
tops with a sloped cover having a smooth finish, to shed dust settling out of the air.
c) Slope covers at an angle of 60° from horizontal, unless a lesser slope is known to be sufficient.
d) Box in overhead structural steel that is out of the reach of normal vacuuming or sweeping operations
and that has horizontal ledges (such as Ibeams or Ushaped channels in the up or sideways position)
with a noncombustible material to eliminate pockets for dust accumulation.

2.2.2 Occupancy
2.2.2.1 Buildings can be considered as not having a combustible dust hazard if they contain combustible
dust-handling equipment that is designed and protected to control or safely vent an internal explosion, in
accordance with the pertinent sections of this data sheet.
2.2.2.2 Take any or all of the following steps, as needed, where quantities of fugitive dust could be expected
in new operations or are excessive in existing operations:
a) Survey process equipment to identify the sources of dust release.
b) Modify, repair, or replace equipment to eliminate or at least reduce dust escape.
c) Provide permanent vacuum pickup points at the locations that release dust, such as grinding, buffing,
bag dumping, open transfer points in conveying systems, and other equipment/locations where large
quantities of dust are liberated frequently. In some cases this may require construction of a ventilated hood
or containment enclosure for existing equipment.
d) Operate closed dust-handling systems under a slight negative pressure to reduce dust escape.
e) Conduct extra housekeeping in existing operations while equipment is being modified (see Section
2.2.4).
2.2.2.3 Existing buildings containing small, localized amounts (less than 5% of the building area and in no
case exceeding 1,000 ft2 [93 m2]) of fugitive combustible dust can be considered tolerable without explosion
damage-limiting construction, if the following conditions exist:
a) The fugitive dust escape and accumulation rate is very low, i.e., less than 1⁄16 in. (2 mm) for a dust
with an approximate bulk density of about 36 lb/ft3 (580 kg/m3) per three month period AND
b) The cleaning frequency is high enough to permit one scheduled cleaning to be missed without allowing
dust accumulations to reach the unacceptable level of 1⁄16 in. (2 mm) noted above.

2.2.3 Protection
2.2.3.1 Construct pressure-relieving and resistant walls in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting
Construction.
a) Design the explosion vent relief pressure (Pstat) as low as the wind-resistance design will permit. In a
low-wind area, Pstat can be as low as 20 psf (0.01 bar), whereas in higher wind areas 30 to 40 psf (0.015
bar) is more typical.
b) Provide pressure resistance and vent area in accordance with calculations conducted using FM Global
DustCalc software.
2.2.3.2 Do not use explosion vents in the roof to provide explosion relief.
2.2.3.3 Where a thorough engineering study shows that explosion-venting walls alone cannot provide the
needed explosion venting area, roof vents may be used to provide a portion of the needed vent area if snow
and ice are not allowed to build up on the vent. Any of the following are acceptable methods:

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
Page 8 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

a) Position the explosion vents at a minimum 60° angle, either on a roof pitched at that angle or as a
projection above the roof line (see Figure 2). For vents projected above the roof line, the effective vent
relief area to be used in vent sizing calculations is the smallest cross sectional area the combustion gases
would have to flow through.
b) Provide heat tracing along the perimeter and across the surface area of the explosion vent.
1. Leave heat tracing on permanently, or automatically actuate the system whenever the outside
temperature drops to 0°C (32°F) or lower.
2. Ensure the wiring for the heat trace cabling incorporates enough slack to allow the explosion vent
to deploy as intended.
3. Use FM Approved heat-tracing equipment.
c) Provide explosion venting panels without insulation to allow building heat to melt away snow or ice.
Expect condensation under the explosion vent and take measures to ensure condensation does not cause
problems.

Fig. 2. Schematic of rooftop explosion vents that project above the roof line

2.2.3.4 Where explosion venting devices swing out of the way rather than rupture, use gravity or mechanical
devices to ensure they cannot reclose. (3.1.9)
2.2.3.5 To prevent uncontrolled release of explosion vent panels where they could become missile hazards,
take the following steps:
a) Provide tethering cables to limit the vent movement.
b) Attach tethering cables to no more than two corners, making sure the tethered corners are adjacent.
c) To prevent the tethered panels from swinging back into the vent opening after the explosion, make
connections at the side or bottom of the panel rather than the top. This allows the panels to completely
swing out of the way of the vent opening, leaving an unobstructed path for the combustion gases to flow
along during the explosion, and for fresh air to flow into the protected enclosure after the explosion.
d) Set minimum tether length to that determined by the following equation:
l≥ axb
2 x (a+b)

where
l = length of tethering cables
a, b = side dimensions of explosion vent

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 9

e) Where the tether length is less than that determined above, consider the explosion vent as a hinged
panel when performing calculations to determine the vent area and vented explosion pressure (Pred). This
will account for the hindrance to the venting process created by the short tethers.
f) Where tethers are located at all four corners, this can be considered tolerable where the cable length
exceeds the minimum set in d, above. Any less and the vent area is restricted to the annular space
determined by the cable length and the dimensions of the panel, rather than on the size of the panel itself.
2.2.3.6 Do not attach sprinkler system piping to any wall, ceiling, or roof that could be displaced by the
pressure of a room or building explosion.

2.2.4 Operation and Maintenance

2.2.4.1 In buildings where fugitive dust is released despite process design and equipment upkeep, incorporate
the following actions into a fugitive-dust-control program:
a) Assign accountability and keep records.
b) Commit time and resources regularly.
c) Create a maintenance schedule and review it periodically to ensure it is adequate.
d) Pay particular attention to eliminating accumulations above floor level, such as equipment tops and
building structural members because this dust is more likely to become suspended (airborne) and create
an explosible cloud if it is disturbed.
e) Use vacuum removal wherever possible using a central, portable, or truckmounted vacuum system
as appropriate.
f) Where vacuuming is impractical, sweeping or water wash-down are other acceptable options.
g) Where compressed air blow-down is the only practical method for cleanup, use the following
precautions:
1. Perform air blown-down frequently enough to prevent hazardous accumulations of dust.
2. Limit the extent of blow-down to small areas at a time with as low a volume and pressure of air as
possible.
3. Shut down electrical equipment not suitable for Class II, Division 2 hazardous locations.
4. Prohibit open flames and hot work, and ensure no hot surfaces exist.
2.2.4.2 Any accumulations of fugitive dust present a potential for a secondary explosion and must be
eliminated in buildings without damage-limiting construction (DLC), and controlled in those with DLC (3.1.1).
a) Base dust-cleaning frequency on preventing accumulations of more than 1⁄16 in. (2 mm) thickness over
more than 5% of the room floor area.
b) Use fugitive dust exceeding the above, either in thickness or area, as a trigger to initiate cleanup.
c) Ensure the total area of accumulation does not exceed 1,000 ft2 (93 m2).
d) The thickness of 1⁄16 in. (2 mm) is based on a typical wood or agricultural dust with a bulk density of
about 36 lbs/ft3 (580 kg/m3). The thickness of dust of different density can be based on a ratio of the bulk
densities.
2.2.4.3 Inspect explosion venting devices periodically to prevent their condition or mobility from being
impaired. Possible impairments include the following:
a) Corrosion
b) Improper painting of movable parts or rupture membranes
c) Icing
d) Snow accumulation on or in front of vents
e) Obstruction by pipes, wires, or other utilities
f) Permanent or temporary equipment located next to the venting device

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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Any of these can increase effective vent-relief pressure (Pstat) and cause explosion-resisting walls to fail
and/or damage the building structure during an explosion.

2.3 Equipment Explosion Hazards

2.3.1 General
2.3.1.1 Locate all equipment having an explosion hazard outdoors whenever practical (3.1.2).
2.3.1.2 Where equipment has an explosion hazard, take one of the following steps:
a) Eliminate the explosion hazard using any of the techniques detailed in Section 2.3.2,
OR
b) Mitigate the explosion hazard using explosion venting, suppression, containment, or vacuum operation,
or a suitable combination of these, as detailed in Section 2.3.3.

2.3.2 Explosion Hazard Elimination

2.3.2.1 Where equipment handles coarse material, prevent dust from being generated during material
handling by suitable methods or preclean the coarse material to remove all fines from most of the process
equipment.
2.3.2.2 Where equipment handles coarse material, prevent dust from being generated during material
handling by eliminating airborne dust inside the processing equipment using a liquid mist (water or other
compatible liquid) as follows:
a) Apply the liquid suppressant at a point in the process that involves substantial turbulence, e.g., at a
discharge spout, to ensure the suppressant is thoroughly mixed in with the material stream.
b) Install an interlock that will shut down the solid process stream on suppressant spray-system malfunction
if this system is being relied upon as the sole means of hazard control.
c) Confirm the effectiveness of the system to eliminate dust in the equipment by visually checking
equipment while it is running, for example, by opening access or inspection ports.
d) Develop a maintenance and inspection program with written procedures and records of completion to
ensure the dust-suppressant spray system is functioning properly whenever the solid process stream is
being handled.
2.3.2.3 Inert the combustible dust by mixing it with a noncombustible dust (known as ‘‘phlegmatization’’)
on the following basis (3.1.3):
a) Perform a test to determine the mixture is non-explosible per ASTM E1226, EN 14034-1 and 2 or other
international equivalent.
b) Ensure the noncombustible dust does not separate from the combustible dust during further material
handling.
2.3.2.4 Reduce the oxygen level in the process with an inert gas in accordance with recommendations in
Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Equipment.
2.3.2.4.1 If values of the Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC) are not available from Data Sheet 7-59 for
the particular material being handled, arrange for laboratory testing of materials to determine the LOC.
2.3.2.4.2 Where an inert atmosphere is to be used to safeguard pneumatic conveying of freshly ground or
freshly manufactured light metal powder (aluminum, magnesium, titanium, zirconium):
a) Provide a minimum oxygen concentration of at least 1% to ensure a stable oxide layer can be formed
to passivate the dust.
b) Where the metal powder is not to be exposed to air, or where testing has shown a lower oxygen level
is acceptable, concentrations lower than 1% are acceptable.
2.3.2.4.3 The metal powders titanium, magnesium, zirconium, uranium, and thorium, will ignite in pure carbon
dioxide. Use argon, helium, or nitrogen (except for titanium, which can be ignited in pure nitrogen) for inerting
processes handling these materials.

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 11

2.3.2.5 As an alternative to an inert atmosphere for handling freshly manufactured light metal powder
(aluminum, magnesium, titanium, zirconium) take the following steps:
a) Use wet collectors (water wash) rather than dry type.
b) Remove the accumulated sludge and dispose of it in a safe manner before shutting down the collection
system.
c) Continue collector ventilation at all times until the metal/water sludge is removed from the collector.
Aluminum particularly has a very low MIE (as low as 0.1 mJ) making it easily ignitable and metal powders
in general can have high Kst and be very difficult to provide adequate explosion venting. Aluminum powder
when damp with water can form small amounts of hydrogen so it needs to be kept wet at all times.

2.3.3 Explosion-Hazard Mitigation

2.3.3.1 Venting
2.3.3.1.1 Provide a vent area in accordance with calculations conducted using FM Global DustCalc software
(3.1.4).
2.3.3.1.2 Where indoor equipment with an explosion hazard cannot be relocated outside, provide explosion
venting in one of the following ways:
a) Locate the vessel next to an exterior wall and vent the explosion to the outdoors via a short vent duct.
b) Vent the explosion to the surrounding area through an FM Approved flameless venting device into an
area without fugitive dust (3.1.5).
1. A vent area increase (compared to an open or unobstructed vent) will be needed to accommodate
reduced venting efficiency caused by the flameless venting device.
2. Use the venting efficiency for FM Approved flameless venting device as listed in the Approval Guide,
a publication of FM Approvals.
Where the above is not practical, implement other explosion hazard mitigation methods described in 2.3.1.2.b.
2.3.3.1.3 For calculations of vent area where equipment design strength data is not available, use the
following values of Pred (maximum allowable pressure) for normally constructed equipment with an
assumption that some vessel deformation may occur in a safely vented explosion:
a) Weak rectangular vessels (e.g., bag-type dust collector): 0.2 barg (2.9 psig)
b) Cylindrical vessels (e.g., cyclone) or strong (reinforced) rectangular vessels: 0.3 barg (4.4 psig) (3.1.6)
2.3.3.1.3.1 For vessels where deformation is not acceptable, obtain the design strength of the equipment
or assume 1⁄2 the values given above for Pred.
2.3.3.1.4 Set the explosion vent relief pressure (Pstat) as low as possible in accordance with the following
criteria:
a) Not exceeding 0.05 barg (0.7 psig) when vessel operates below this pressure, OR
b) At least 0.1 barg (1.4 psig) below the assumed Pred for higher operating pressure
2.3.3.1.5 For calculations of vent area where equipment design strength data is available, set the value of
Pred according to the following criteria:
a) Where vessel deformation is acceptable, use a value equal to twice the design strength.
b) Where vessel deformation is to be prevented, use a value equal to the design strength (3.1.6).
2.3.3.1.6 Construct explosion vents of material that is as light in weight (mass per unit area) as possible to
minimize the vent area required. Explosion vents that are rupture membranes (e.g., prefabricated rupture
disks, aluminum foil, etc.) have virtually no inertia, and require no adjustment to the required explosion vent
area (3.1.7).
2.3.3.1.6.1 Where venting devices are heavier than light-weight membranes, calculate the effect on the vent
area using FM Global DustCalc software.

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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2.3.3.1.7 Install vent ducts that redirect the combustion products from the vent to a safe area in accordance
with the following:
a) Route the vent to a safe outdoor area.
b) Permit no bends in the duct.
c) Limit the length to diameter ratio (L/D*) of the duct to 1.
d) Ensure the vent duct is at least as strong as the Pred design of the vessel.
e) Permit no closures on the discharge end of the duct that obstruct the free venting of the discharged
material.
f) When the above conditions cannot be met, quantify the effect on the vent area using FM Global DustCalc
software (3.1.8).
* calculate the equivalent diameter (Deff) of a non-circular duct as follows:

√
4Ad
Deff =
π

where Ad is the cross sectional area of the duct (m2 or ft2)

2.3.3.1.8 Where a wire mesh screen or other obstruction is to be provided between an explosion vent and
the free atmosphere, adjust the effective area of the explosion vent for the reduction in venting efficiency
as follows:
a) If the screen or obstruction is less than 15% of the explosion vent area, no adjustment is required.
b) If the screen or obstruction is between 15% and 40% of the explosion vent area, calculate the effective
explosion venting area using:

Av,eff = Av,actual X 115-% blockage

100
c) If the screen or obstruction exceeds 40% of the explosion vent area, blockage is excessive. Replace
the screen or obstruction with something that causes a smaller blockage.
2.3.3.1.9 Where explosion venting devices swing out of the way rather than rupture, use gravity or mechanical
devices to ensure they cannot reclose and create vacuum conditions that can collapse/implode the protected
equipment (3.1.9).
2.3.3.1.9.1 Where explosion vents can reclose and there are no other openings that could draw in air, provide
vacuum breakers. (See German engineering standard VDI 3673 for sizing information.)
2.3.3.1.10 To prevent the free release of explosion vent panels where they could become missile hazards,
provide tethers in accordance with 2.2.3.5.
2.3.3.1.11 Do not locate objects subject to fire or pressure damage in the path of explosion vents (3.1.10.1
and 3.1.10.2).
2.3.3.1.12 For new installations, provide a distance of at least two explosion vent diameters between an
explosion vent outlet (face of explosion vent or vent duct) and any large, fixed, flat obstruction (e.g., a wall).
For explosion vent outlets having cross sections other than circular, use the hydraulic diameter as calculated
below (3.1.11).
Hydraulic diameter = 4A/p, where
A = cross-sectional area of vent
p = perimeter of the cross-section
2.3.3.1.13 Where a weather protection cover (‘‘rain hat’’) is provided over the end of an explosion vent duct,
estimate the effect on the venting efficiency as follows:

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 13

a) If there is a distance of at least one explosion vent diameter between the end of the duct and the weather
cover, there is no effect on efficiency.
b) If the distance is between 1⁄4 and 1 explosion vent diameter, consider the weather cover as a 90° bend
in the vented flow when calculating the effect of the vent duct.
c) A distance of less than 1⁄4 explosion vent diameter away from the vent duct is unacceptable unless it
is designed to fly off in the event of an explosion.
For non-circular ducts, use the hydraulic diameter for these calculations (2.3.3.1.12).
2.3.3.1.14 Do not provide explosion venting if the dust or its combustion products are poisonous, radioactive,
corrosive to nearby equipment or structures, or for any other reason should not be released from an otherwise
closed system. Use alternatives to venting, such as explosion hazard elimination, explosion suppression,
explosion containment, or high vacuum operation.
2.3.3.1.15 Where a vessel requiring explosion venting contains significant obstructions to the free flow of
gases, provide several distributed vents at different places on the vessel rather than one large vent of the
same area (3.1.12).
2.3.3.1.16 Where a vessel contains both suspended combustible dust and ignitable liquid vapors or flammable
gases (a hybrid mixture), the reactivity of the mixture will require larger vent areas than the combustible dust
on its own.
a) The presence of a flammable vapor or gas can be ignored if the concentration is at or below 5% of
its Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
b) Where the gas concentration exceeds 5% of its LEL, determine the reactivity of the mixture by testing.
2.3.3.1.17 The required explosion venting area for a vessel with a dust explosion hazard operating at
pressures exceeding 0.1 barg (1.5 psig) requires special consideration and needs to be carefully analyzed.
FM Global DustCalc software can handle initial pressure up to 4 barg (58 psig) for full-volume explosions.
a) Set the vent-relief pressure, Pstat above the normal maximum operating pressure by at least 0.1 barg
(1.5 psig) (3.1.13).
b) Obtain vent sizing criteria from experts familiar with high initial pressure venting.
2.3.3.1.18 Recoil forces from the venting of an explosion can dislodge even large vessels that are not properly
anchored. Implement one of the following to control recoil forces:
a) Provide equal-sized vents at opposite sides of the vessel.
b) Calculate the magnitude and duration of the dynamic recoil force (or an equivalent static force) from
a vent, and provide anchorage to resist those forces (3.1.10.3).

2.3.3.2 Isolation
Avoid multiple pieces of interconnected equipment containing a dust explosion hazard. Properly protected
equipment can fail when an explosion propagates from another piece of equipment. Isolation systems can
prevent that condition (3.1.14).
2.3.3.2.1 Provide explosion isolation on all connections of vessels (or vessel groups) designed to contain
the explosion pressure (explosion-resistant design).
2.3.3.2.2 Provide explosion isolation on all connections between vessels (or vessel groups) individually
protected by explosion venting (or other mitigation method) but subject to unacceptable property damage
or business interruption by a propagating event.
2.3.3.2.3 Design mechanical isolation devices on equipment designed to contain the explosion based on
the vessel design pressure and isolation devices on equipment protected by explosion venting to resist the
design reduced pressure (Pred). This includes rotary air locks, rapid action valves, flame front/explosion
diverters, high speed abort gates, double-dump valves and back-blast dampers
2.3.3.2.4 Ensure active isolation devices requiring detection for mechanically activating the device are
sufficiently separated that the device will close before the flame arrival.

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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2.3.3.2.5 Piping used for dense phase pneumatic conveying of combustible dusts usually presents no hazard
of explosion propagation. Piping can be installed without explosion isolation devices if the conveyed material
is not metal dust or a hybrid mixture.

2.3.3.3 Isolation Systems

This section includes acceptable forms of explosion isolation and the features needed to ensure the systems
serve as effective flame barriers (3.1.15).
2.3.3.3.1 Chemical Explosion Blocking Systems
a) Install the system in accordance with Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protection Systems.
b) Install FM Approved equipment.
c) These systems may be inappropriate under the following conditions:
1. Process flow rates are high.
2. The primary explosion is in a very large vessel.
3. The primary explosion is in a vessel protected by explosion containment.
2.3.3.3.2 Rotary Air Locks
Install devices as follows:
a) Ensure the angle between adjacent vanes and the shape of the housing allows two vanes per side
to be engaged (near the housing wall) at all times.
b) Ensure the vanes (including the tips) are made of metal and have a thickness of at least 1⁄8 in. (3 mm).
c) Ensure the gap between the tips of the vanes and the housing between 0.2 and 0.25 mm (less or equal
to 0.1 mm for aluminum dust). Consult reference 17 in Appendix D if additional information on the
allowable gap is required.
d) Interlock the rotary air lock to automatically stop in the event of an explosion, to prevent the passing
of burning matter. An interlock is not required if burning matter would not cause a second fire or explosion
of any significance.

Fig. 3. Rotary Air Lock

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 15

2.3.3.3.3 Rapid Action Valves, Gate- Or Butterfly-Type

Ensure the distance between the explosion detection device and the rapid action valve is sufficiently long
to allow the valve to fully close before the arrival of the dust flame front.

Fig. 4. Rapid-action valve (gate type)

2.3.3.3.4 RapidAction Valve (Float Type) (3.1.16)

An example of this type of valve is the Ventex ESI (Figure 5).
a) Locate the valve at least 5 m (16 ft) and no more than 12.5 m (41 ft) from the equipment where the
explosion initiates.
b) Ensure the value of Pstat (the vent opening pressure) for explosion vented equipment upstream or
downstream of the float-type valve exceeds the differential pressure required to shut the valve, typically
about 0.1 barg (1.5 psig).
c) Where the value of Pstat must be below the required differential pressure, arrange an alternate closing
mechanism by installing an optical detection system at the explosion source that will trigger the high-speed
release of compressed gas near the float valve to force it to close.
d) Do not locate a float-type valve in an air stream that has a significant loading of abrasive dust that
would prematurely wear down the surfaces of the moving float.

Fig. 5. Rapid action float valve (Ventix ESI ®)

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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2.3.3.3.5 Flame Front Diverter or Explosion Diverter

a) Do not install this device upstream of an air-moving device because an explosion originating upstream
of the diverter will propagate past the diverter.
b) Do not use explosion diverters in air streams that have a significant loading of abrasive dust that would
eventually erode through the pressure-relieving diverter cover.
c) Do not use explosion diverters for hybrid mixtures where the flammable vapors exceed the LEL.

Fig. 6. Explosion diverter Fig. 7. Indoor installation of explosion diverter

2.3.3.3.6 High Speed Abort Gate

a) Actuate the high-speed abort gate by either pressure detection or infrared explosion detection in the
upstream vessel expected to experience the explosion.
b) Ensure the detection system and abort-gate responses are fast enough to completely close the abort
gate before the dust flame front reaches it.
c) Ensure the abort-gate reset is manual. Automatic reset is not acceptable.

Fig. 8. High-speed abort gate

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 17

2.3.3.3.7 Double-Dump Valve

Provide an interlock to ensure both valves do not open simultaneously.
2.3.3.3.8 Back-Blast Damper
This is essentially a check valve that is effective in stopping explosion propagation in the opposite direction
of normal flow. Ensure the device is provided with an explosion vent downstream from the normal flow in
the system.

2.3.3.4 Suppression
2.3.3.4.1 Where explosion suppression is the chosen explosion hazard mitigation method:
a) Install explosion suppression systems in accordance with Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protection
Systems.
b) Install FM Approved equipment in accordance with its listed limits of application.

2.3.3.5 Containment
2.3.3.5.1 Where explosion containment is the chosen explosion hazard mitigation method, use the explosion-
resistant-design method. Existing, shock-resistant vessels are tolerable for providing explosion containment.
a) Explosion-resistant design is any vessel with a design pressure of 6 barg (87 psig) or more that would
not be deformed by a dust explosion that occurs at an initial (pre-explosion) pressure of less than 0.1
barg (1.5 psig).
b) Shock-resistant design is any vessel having 3 barg (43 psig) design pressure or more when designed
in accordance with ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, or yield strength of 6 barg (87
psig) or more according to other codes. With this design, the vessel may deform but not rupture in the
event of a dust explosion that occurs at an initial (pre-explosion) pressure of less than 0.1 barg (1.5 psig).
c) To prevent damage to other equipment connected upstream and downstream of the vessels protected
by explosion containment, provide explosion isolation.

2.3.3.6 High Vacuum (3.1.17)

2.3.3.6.1 Where high vacuum is the chosen explosion hazard mitigation method, use the following criteria:
a) Operate the dust-handling system at a sub-atmospheric pressure of less than 0.1 bar absolute (1.5
psi absolute)
b) Provide an interlock to automatically inert or shut down the process upon a loss of vacuum.

2.3.4 Ignition Source Control

2.3.4.1 Where a process or system has a high frequency of dust explosions implement the following:
a) Operate the equipment that is the source of sparks or hot/glowing particles in an inert atmosphere,
OR
b) Install a spark-detection system combined with either a spark-extinguishing system or a high-speed
abort gate, AND
c) Locate the spark-extinguishing system or high-speed abort gate upstream of the first piece of equipment
having an equipment explosion hazard, AND
d) On activation of the spark-detection system shut down any connected dust collection equipment.
Installation of spark control as above doesn’t eliminate the need for explosion hazard mitigation features
(3.1.18).
2.3.4.1.1 The following are considered to have a high frequency of dust explosions:
a) Woodworking industry: rotary dryers, flash dryers, sanding equipment, particleboard milling equipment
(see Data Sheet 7-10, Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities, for additional fire and explosion
protection requirements related to this industry)

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b) Any mechanical milling equipment with connected equipment such as a downstream cyclone
(exceptions: coal pulverizers and human food-product milling are not considered to have a high frequency
of explosions for the purposes of this recommendation.)
c) Processes that routinely produce sparks or glowing embers (e.g., due to grinding or friction) that can
enter a dust-collection system
d) Any process or system that has experienced two or more explosions within a 10 year period
2.3.4.2 To minimize dust-cloud ignition due to static electricity accumulation and discharge, implement the
following:
a) Apply all applicable recommendations in Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity, to minimize the probability
of ignition.
b) If possible, use metal piping and ductwork, properly grounded and bonded, to transfer combustible
dust.
c) If plastic piping or ductwork is used to transfer material, grounding and bonding is ineffective because
of the insulating properties of plastic. However, if conductive or metal components are present in such
systems, for example plastic pipe or hose connected to metal piping, these conductive components do
need to be provided with proper grounding and bonding.
d) If materials are very easily ignitable (minimum ignition energy less than 10 mJ), consider the following
options to reduce the chance of static ignition:
1. Operate any equipment that presents an explosion hazard under an inert environment (see 2.3.2.4)
(3.1.19).
2. Operate at a pressure of less than 0.1 bara (1.5 psia).
3. Eliminate the ignitable mixture by operating at no more than 50% of the MEC.
4. Reduce charge generation or accumulation with process changes such as reducing the flow rate
of the transferred material.
5. Provide static eliminators or neutralizers. Ensure they are firmly fixed, well grounded, properly
adjusted, and kept clean of foreign accumulations.
6. Have someone with special expertise evaluate the situation and develop an appropriate course of
action.
2.3.4.3 Provide magnetic separators upstream of all size-reduction equipment e.g., grinders, pulverizers,
hammer mills, or other equipment involving mechanical impact with the process material (3.1.20).
2.3.4.3.1 Separators other than magnetic (e.g., air separators, grates, coarse screens) may be used if
nonferrous metal or other objects (e.g., rocks) could enter the product stream and cause an ignition hazard.
2.3.4.4 Fans and blowers in the fugitive dust-air stream can become an ignition source. Install these devices
as recommended below:
2.3.4.4.1 In negative pressure systems, locate the fan on the discharge side (i.e., clean side) of the dust
collector.
2.3.4.4.2 In positive pressure systems, locate the blower upstream of the dust injection point.
2.3.4.4.3 Where, for design reasons, the fan must be located in the dirty air stream, and the dust/air stream
concentration is higher than the 25% of the MEC:
a) install fans and blowers of Type A or B spark-resistant construction per AMCA 99-0401-86,
Classifications for Spark Resistant Construction
b) Ordinary fans and blowers may be used in a dust-air stream of unlimited concentration if the dust has
been shown by test to be hard-to-ignite.
2.3.4.4.4 Ordinary fans and blowers may be used in a dust-air stream of unlimited concentration if the dust
has been shown by test to be hard-to-ignite.

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 19

2.3.4.4.5 Systems handling wood dust can use ordinary fans upstream of bagtype dust collectors if a cyclone
collector (primary dust collector) is upstream of the fan.
2.3.4.4.6 Ordinary fans and blowers may be used if a high-speed abort gate or FM Approved spark-
extinguishing system is provided between the fan and any important or valuable downstream equipment.
2.3.4.5 Prevent materials subject to spontaneous heating from becoming an explosion initiation source by
implementing the following:
a) Prevent accumulation in ductwork by maintaining sufficient transport velocity.
b) Prevent accumulation in equipment by performing frequent cleaning.
c) Do not allow moisture to contact such material; however, automatic sprinklers or spark-extinguishing
systems can be used in ducts, when needed.
d) Clean collectors handling residues subject to spontaneous heating daily or as needed to prevent heating
and hazardous accumulations.
2.3.4.6 Avoid using mechanical drives with high rpm or power as they can cause dust ignition due to heat
generated by friction or sparks.
2.3.4.6.1 Use the following guidelines to determine the potential for hazardous conditions based on the
tangential velocity (v) of the rotating component:
a) When v < 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s): there is no danger for ignition.
b) When 1 < v < 10 m/s, (3.3 < v < 33 ft/s): judge each case separately considering the product and material
specific characteristics such as MIE and particle size (for each, the lower value will tend to be more
susceptible to ignition).
c) When v > 10 m/s (33 ft/s): there is always an ignition potential.
Note: To convert rpm to tangential velocity, use v = rpm x 2πr x 1/60, where
v = length (same units as r) per second
r = length of the rotating part, from shaft center to outer tip
2.3.4.6.2 Where low-velocity, high-power equipment is used, usually in grinding operations or screw
conveyors and blenders, the potential for uncontrolled heating due to excessive residence time,
accumulations at bearings, foreign objects, etc., needs to be considered and protected against by using shear
pins, overload detection and alarm, proper maintenance and cleaning, and screens and separators.

2.4 Dust Collectors and Cyclones

In addition to the requirements presented above and in DS 7-73, Dust Collectors, the following are some
specific requirements for dust collectors and cyclones.

2.4.1 Construction and Location

2.4.1.1 For new installations, use separate dust-collection systems for each process area to minimize the
chance of one dust explosion involving many operations. For example, for an operation involving sawing rough
lumber in one area and sanding finished lumber in another, each involving multiple saws and sanding
stations, two separate dust collectors could reduce downtime from a single event. This will be more reliable
than using explosion-isolation devices throughout a manifolded system.

2.4.2 Protection (3.1.21)

2.4.2.1 When determining the explosion venting area for a mediatype dust collector, (e.g., cloth bags, paper
filter sheets or cartridges) include both the clean and dirty air side to calculate the volume of the collector.
2.4.2.2 For mediatype dust collectors, locate explosion vents entirely on the dirty side of the collector volume.
2.4.2.2.1 Where it is necessary to install some venting on the clean side, use the following equation to
calculate the minimum amount of the total explosion venting area that must be provided on the dirty side:
Av,dirty,min ≥ (Vdirty/Vtotal)2/3 × Av,total

where:

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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Av,total is the total vent area required

Av,dirty,min is the minimum explosion venting area that should be on the dirty side of the dust collector
Vdirty is the volume of the dirty side of the dust collector
Vtotal is the total volume of the dust collector
2.4.2.3 Cyclone dust collectors can be considered to have adequate explosion relief without any additional
explosion vents if they meet ALL of the following criteria:
a) The dust being processed has a Kst of 80 bar m/s or less, and
b) The exhaust goes directly to atmosphere via the gas outlet at the top of the cyclone, and
c) The gas outlet diameter is at least 45% of the diameter of the cyclone itself, and
d) The free outflow of gases is not obstructed by screening.
1. A ‘‘rainhat’’ located above the gas outlet hole does not violate this criteria as long as its distance
above the gas outlet is not less than one half the diameter of the gas outlet (3.1.22).
2.4.2.3.1 Calculate explosion vent sizing for all other situations (higher Kst, a smaller gas outlet, gas outlets
with a duct attached exceeding L/D = 1, a duct with a bend, etc.) using FM Global’s DustCalc software.

2.4.3 Ignition Source Control

2.4.3.1 Bag-type collectors do not need any type of special ‘‘conductive’’ bag material to dissipate static
electric charges.
a) Where these special ‘‘conductive’’ bags have been provided, initiate a schedule of inspection and
maintenance to ensure the straps used to ground the bags are always well-attached to the dust collector
structure.
b) Regardless of the type of bags used, provide a reliable grounding connection for the bag cages (metal
wire supports) (3.1.23).

2.4.4 Enclosureless dust collectors (3.1.24)

Enclosureless dust collectors are typically located in the same room as the equipment they serve
2.4.4.1 Enclosureless dust collectors may be used if they meet all the following criteria:
a) They are not used with equipment producing sparks, hot or glowing particles such as metal grinders,
sanding operations, abrasive planners or hot work processes
b) They are not used for metal dusts
c) The room in which they are used is equipped with automatic sprinklers designed to protect the
predominant occupancy
d) Each collector system has a maximum air handling capacity of 5000 cfm (140 m3/min)
e) Operation of the collector system is in irregular or occasional use, not used with continuous or frequent
production process.
f) The filter medium is not shaken or pressure-pulsed to dislodge dust during operation.
g) The minimum ignition energy (MIE) of the collected materials is greater than 500 mJ.
h) Collected dust is removed daily or at a frequency sufficient to limit the collected dust to less than 20
lb (9 kg).
i) Fugitive dust is well controlled and limited to no more than 1/16 in. (2 mm) depth and limited to within
10 ft (3 m) of the system
j) Multiple collector systems in the same room are separated from each other by at least 20 ft (6 m).
k) Collector systems are separated from combustible storage or any type by at least 20 ft (6 m).
l) The filter media is not located within 35 ft (11 m) of any open flame or hot surface capable of igniting
a dust cloud of the material it contains.

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
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m) Fans or blowers located in the dirty air stream are installed per Section 2.3.4.4
n) Ordinary electrical equipment is not present within 10 ft (3 m) of the collector system
o) The fan or blower motor, not located in the dirty air stream, is suitable for Class II, Division 2, or Class
III, (Zone 22) as appropriate.

2.5 Connecting Ducts (3.1.25)

Ducts connecting pieces of a process or collection system can provide a route for spreading an initial
explosion and may contain enough dust to propagate an explosion of their own. This section does not apply
to clean air ducts downstream of air-material separators or pneumatic transfer of process materials at rates
well in excess of the MEC (dense phase transfer).

2.5.1 Occupancy
2.5.1.1 Control the dust concentration in a fugitive-dustcollection system to prevent a continuous, explosible
atmosphere from developing in the duct using the following methods:
a) When the dust-generation rate is variable, keep the dust below an average concentration of 25% of
the minimum explosible concentration (MEC). Limit peak dust-emission rates above 100% of the MEC for
only a few seconds at any time.
b) When the dust-generation rate is steady without significant peaks, keep the dust concentration to no
more than 90% of the MEC.
2.5.1.2 Where the concentration in a duct regularly exceeds the MEC, provide protection for the additional
in-duct explosion hazard (2.5.2.3).
2.5.1.3 In ducts transporting combustible dusts, maintain an air velocity that exceeds the settling velocity
for the material being transported.
Note: The velocity for typical industrial dusts (e.g., saw dust) can be from 3500 to 4000 ft/min (1070 to 1220
m/min). Where the settling velocity of a material is unknown, consult Data sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust
Systems, for generic transport velocity recommendations.

2.5.2 Protection
2.5.2.1 On ducts containing combustible dust in concentrations that are always less than the MEC and that
carry dust at velocities where dust settling out is unlikely, provide explosion-isolation devices as follows:
a) On connections to important pieces of equipment
b) On duct running back to buildings that contain expensive equipment or important processes that could
be damaged, that might contain fugitive dust.
If the value of MEC is not available, an estimate of 30 grams/m3 (0.03 oz/ft3) can be used.
2.5.2.2 Arrange ducts containing combustible dust in concentrations that always or frequently exceed the
MEC, or that carry dust at velocities where dust settling out might be expected, as follows:
a) Route the ducts outside.
b) Provide an explosion-isolation device at each point of connection between the duct and a piece of
equipment.
c) Protect the duct from an explosion propagating in the explosible mixture by one of the following:
1. Provide venting for the duct in accordance with 2.5.2.3.
2. Design the duct to fail at pressures as low as practical but not more than 0.3 barg (4.4 psig).
2.5.2.2.1 Where the duct containing dust above the MEC or conveyed at less than the dust-settling velocity
must be located indoors, take the following precautions:
a) Provide an explosion-isolation device at each point of connection between the duct and a piece of
equipment, AND
b) design the duct to contain the explosion (shock resistant), OR

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c) provide venting for the duct in accordance with 2.5.2.3 but route the vents outdoors.
2.5.2.3 Provide explosion venting along the length of a duct on the following basis:
a) Compute the maximum distance between explosion vents (Lmax) as follows:

Lmax = 7.5 D1/3, D and L in meters, OR

Lmax = 16.5 D1/3, D and L in feet.
For noncircular ducts, calculate the effective diameter for the above equation by:

√
4Ad
Deff =
π

where: Ad = cross sectional area of the duct (m2 or ft2)

b) Provide the vent area at each location at least equal to the cross sectional area of the duct.
c) Provide a full-size vent no more than 2 diameters away from the point of duct connection to a piece
of equipment.
d) Set the explosion vent relief pressures (Pstat) as low as possible, with a maximum value of 0.1 barg
(1.5 psig).
e) Provide an explosion vent at all elbows and end flanges (see Figure 10).
f) When located inside, route the explosion products outside via a short duct (L/D less or equal to 1).

Fig. 9. Example of duct explosion venting at an elbow

2.6 Silos (3.1.26)

2.6.1 Protection
2.6.1.1 When a dust storage silo has a dust collector (other than a simple vent sock) on the breather vent,
provide explosion protection as follows:
a) Treat the collector/silo combination as a single unit if either of the following conditions exist:
1. The duct connecting the silo to the dust collector has an L/D ratio less than 2, OR
2. The cross-sectional area of the connecting duct is at least as large as the explosion-venting area
needed to protect the volume of the dust collector alone.
b) Provide explosion venting for the silo/collector combination based on the total volume of the two units.
c) Install part of the explosion venting on the dust collector if possible, not to exceed the cross sectional
area of the connecting pipe, although all of the explosion venting can be on the silo.
2.6.1.2 Where the dust collector/silo combination does not meet the criteria of a single unit:

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a) Provide explosion venting for each component based on their individual volumes.
b) Provide explosion venting for the connecting duct itself in accordance with 2.5.2.3.
2.6.1.3 Ensure the explosion venting area provided for a silo does not exceed its cross- sectional area (Ax-sect).
Any explosion venting in excess of this value will not help to decrease the explosion pressure.
2.6.1.3.1 If calculations show the explosion venting area required is more than the cross-sectional area, use
an explosion-suppression system or reinforce the silo so it can withstand the value of Pred corresponding
to Av = Ax-sect.

2.6.2 Equipment and Processes

2.6.2.1 Do not use air cannons to break bridges in silos handling combustible materials if there are particles
smaller than approximately 500 microns within the material.

2.7 Bucket Elevators (3.1.27)

2.7.1 Construction and Location

2.7.1.1 Enclosed bucket elevators handling combustible dusts present an explosion hazard and need to
be installed in accordance with one of the following:
a) Locate bucket elevators outdoors.
b) Locate indoor bucket elevators adjacent to an exterior wall so explosion venting can be directed to
the outside via short ducts.
c) Provide the indoor bucket elevator with either explosion suppression or explosion venting through
FM Approved quench pipes.
2.7.1.2 Where linings are added to the interior of a bucket elevator to address localized erosion issues, use
noncombustible materials.

2.7.2 Protection
2.7.2.1 For enclosed bucket elevators handling dusts with a Kst of less than 200, provide explosion venting
based on the following:
A. Locate explosion vents along the height of the bucket elevator at a center to center spacing in
accordance with Table 2 based on the elevator type, Kst and the Pred of the enclosure.
B. Route explosion venting for indoor elevators to the outside by short (less than 3 ft [1 m]) straight ducts
or provide FM approved flameless vents.
C. Explosion vents can be installed on the sides or face of the casing.
D. Install explosion venting in the head section (top) equivalent to the cross sectional area of the casing
leg
E. Install the first casing vent as close as practical to the boot (bottom) of the bucket elevator but not to
exceed the spacing specified in Table 2.
F. Size explosion vent equivalent to the cross sectional area of the elevator leg enclosure. The vent area
can be installed as separate half-sized vents located on opposite sides of the enclosure.
G. Install explosion venting for the up and downside leg on double casing designs.
H. Set the explosion vent relief pressure (Pstat) to 0.1 barg (1.5 psig) or less and construct vents of
lightweight material.

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Table 2. Bucket Elevator Explosion Venting

Spacing, m (ft)
Bucket Elevator Type Kst (bar-m/s) Pred ≤0.2 bar 0.2 <Pred ≤0.5 bar <0.5 Pred ≤1.0 bar
Double casing <100 6 (20) None required None required
100-150 3 (10) 10 (33) 19 (62)
151-175 N/A 4 (13) 8 (26)
176-200 N/A 3 (10) 4 (13)

Single casing <100 N/A None required None required

100-150 N/A 7 (23) 14 (46)
151-175 N/A 4 (13) 5 (16)
176-200 N/A 3 (10) 4 (13)
Note: N/A = Not allowed
Unless specially designed, assume Pred = 0.2 bar.

2.7.2.2 Where the elevator head or boot feeds into equipment or areas that have an explosion hazard, provide
an explosion-blocking system using explosion-suppression devices or other types of physical barriers, such
as a rotary air lock between the head or boot and adjacent areas or equipment.
2.7.2.3 Protect bucket elevators using automatic sprinklers as follows:
a) At the top of the vertical bucket elevator shaft where the enclosure is noncombustible. If the enclosure
is constructed from combustible materials, provide additional automatic sprinkler protection along the shaft
(i.e., treat it as a vertical shaft with combustible sides), spaced every 10 to 12 ft (3 to 3.7 m).
b) Design the automatic sprinkler to deliver a minimum flow of 25 gpm (95 L/min) from the most remote
sprinkler.
c) Where sprinklers are in areas subject to freezing, be sure the installation is suitable for the temperatures
expected.

2.7.3 Ignition Source Control

2.7.3.1 To help prevent bucket-elevator explosions from occurring:
a) Provide belt driven elevators with a mechanical or electromechanical device to cut the power to the
drive motor and sound an alarm if the belt slows downs more than 20%.
b) Do not locate or expose bearings within the elevator casing.
c) Provide belt-alignment interlocks to shut down the elevator if the belt misaligns.
2.7.3.2 Use the following preventive measures where practical:
a) Use antifriction bearings on all elevator legs.
b) Maintain all bearings per manufacturer’s recommendations and keep them free of dust, product, and
excessive lubrication.
c) Limit the use of combustible linings (e.g., plastic, rubber, wood) to impact points, wear surfaces, and
connected hoppers.
d) Install drive belts (e.g., Vbelts, timing belts, and flat belts) that are electrically conductive at 1 megaohm
or less, as well being as fire and oil resistant.
e) Design the drive train with a 1.5 service factor to stall the drive without slipping.
f) Install belts in elevator legs that have a surface resistivity of less than 100 megaohm per square, and
are fire and oil resistant (oil resistance is not needed in flour mills).
g) For elevator legs inside a building whose belt speeds exceed 500 ft/min (2.6 m/sec) provide bearing-
temperature monitoring or vibration detection.

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2.8 Spray Dryers

2.8.1 Protection
2.8.1.1 Spray dryers often operate with much of the dryer at less than the MEC. Provide explosion protection
in accordance with the following:
a) Obtain accurate calculations to confirm the average dust concentration within the cylindrically shaped
portion is below the MEC of the material being handled. On this basis, only the conical section at the
bottom of the dryer and any downstream equipment (e.g., cyclones, bag collectors) have an explosible
mixture.
b) Use FM Global’s DustCalc software for determining the explosion venting area required where a
combustible cloud exists in only a fraction of the total vessel volume.
c) Distribute explosion vents uniformly throughout the dryer surface although vents only near the conical
section are recommended.
2.8.1.2 For protection against fire, see DS 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers, in the section “spray dryers
handling dust.”

2.9 Bulk Raw-Grain Handling

2.9.1 Equipment and Processes

2.9.1.1 Bulk grain handling presents a dust explosion hazard that can be controlled or eliminated if the
following are implemented:
a) Use oil mist (or other liquid) dust suppression to reduce the dust explosion hazard in rooms or buildings
and equipment used to handle bulk raw grain.
1. The explosion hazard can be considered eliminated in rooms if the oil mist can successfully reduce
fugitive dust emissions low enough to allow normal housekeeping to keep accumulations below
dangerous levels. (See 2.2.4.2 to determine when dust accumulations are at hazardous levels.)
2. The explosion hazard can be considered eliminated from equipment if the oil mist can successfully
prevent any dust from becoming airborne inside the equipment. Confirm this by visually observing
equipment while it is running (i.e., by opening access or inspection ports). Completely eliminating
airborne dust inside the processing equipment can only be done by very thoroughly applying mist to
all of the material being handled.
b) Apply the oil or other liquid suppressant to the grain at a point in the process that includes substantial
turbulence, e.g., at a discharge spout, to ensure the suppressant is thoroughly mixed in with the grain.
1. Do not apply suppressant in bucket elevators as this could lead to slipping of the rubber belts and
possible friction heating.
c) Develop a maintenance and inspection program to guarantee the dust suppressant spray system is
functioning properly whenever grain is being handled.
d) Install an interlock that will shut down grain handling on suppressant spray system malfunction where
this system is being relied upon as the sole means of explosion protection.

2.10 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) (3.1.29)

Most additive manufacturing (AM) processes use very fine powders of materials such as metal, plastic,
ceramic, or glass. Fine powders can be easily dispersed into the air and combustible metal powders can
have a low-ignition energy. The equipment is often expensive and requires dedicated utilities so may be
located in dedicated areas, rooms, or buildings. The following guidance is provided for AM processes using
combustible dusts.
2.10.1 Implement basic safeguards related to the handling and storage of combustible dusts.
2.10.1.1 In particular, ground and bond all equipment processing fine combustible powders as these could
be especially susceptible to static ignition.

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2.10.2 Locate additive manufacturing equipment in areas segregated from other manufacturing or storage
by either a clear space, walls, or in a separate building.
2.10.3 Store, handle, and transport powders in closed, conductive containers.
2.10.4 Where powders with an MIE of less than 10 mJ are stored or handled in nonconductive containers,
use static-dissipative containers. Materials considered to be static dissipative have a surface resistance
between 105 and 109 ohms/square (NFPA 77).
2.10.5 Where powders are handled or transferred, control the unintended release of powders, the formation
of suspended clouds, and maintain a high level of housekeeping.
2.10.6 Where piping systems are used to transfer powder, control static accumulation using grounding and
bonding to a ground connection with a maximum resistance of 1 megohm.
2.10.7 If operating AM equipment under an inert atmosphere, do the following:
A. Operate at less than the LOC of the powder measured with the gas being used.
1. Where the LOC is greater than or equal to 5%, maintain a safety margin of at least 2 volume percent
below the LOC.
2. Where the LOC is less than 5%, operate the equipment at no more than 60% of the LOC.
B. Monitor the inert gas or oxygen concentration.
C. Interlock to system to prevent startup without an acceptable level of inerting.
D. Shut down the system when safe inert gas or oxygen levels are exceeded.
2.10.8 Process the completed product (harvesting) in a manner that minimizes or controls the release of
the entrained powders as follows:
A. Ensure operators are properly grounded prior to opening the print enclosure.
B. Conduct cleaning of excess dust from the product in a suitably ventilated hood or enclosure with a
properly designed dust collection system.
2.10.9 Ensure portable vacuums used for cleanup of excess powder are rated for use in a Class II, Division
2 or Zone 22 area, and components located within enclosures containing collected combustible dust are
rated for Class II, Division 1 or Zone 20.
2.10.9.1 Use portable vacuums that are certified by a reliable third-party agency.
2.10.10 For manufacturing and storage areas containing combustible construction or occupancy, provide
automatic sprinkler protection designed for a metal-working occupancy, HC2.
2.10.11 Where combustible metal dusts are handled or stored, install Class D portable extinguishers and
train personnel in their proper use.

2.11 Dust Fire Hazards

In addition to the explosion hazard addressed by this document, combustible dusts can present a fire hazard
that must be controlled. The following data sheets cover protection and prevention of dust fires in various
equipment or processes:
a) Inside spray dryers: Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers
b) Wood processing and wood working facilities: Data Sheet 7-10, Wood Processing and Woodworking
Facilities
c) Dust collectors: Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors and Collection Systems
d) Grain handling facilities: Data Sheet 7-75, Grain Storage and Milling
e) Ducts: Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems
f) Wood dust storage: Data Sheet 8-27, Storage of Wood Chips

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
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3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Comments and Technical Support

3.1.1 Is There a Housekeeping Problem? (2.2.4.2)

The fundamental rule is that any dust accumulations outside of equipment presents a potential for a secondary
explosion and should be removed and the source of the release eliminated. Provide DLC for areas that are
subject to such uncontrolled releases that can’t be resolved.
As a rule of thumb, 1⁄16 in. (2 mm) of dust is a cause for cleanup. (This assumes wood dust with approximate
bulk density of about 36 lb/ft3 [580 kg/m3]). This is about the thickness of a US quarter.
Where dusts of different bulk density are used, the thickness of the equivalent mass of 1⁄16 in. (2 mm) wood
dust would be inversely proportional to their bulk densities. For example, for a dust with a bulk density of
about 60 lb/ft3 (950 kg/m3), a layer of about 0.04 in. (1 mm) thick would be equivalent.
Equivalent thickness = 2 mm x (580 kg/m3/950 kg/m3) or 1 mm
Any dust accumulations in a small room (200 ft2, 19 m2) would present a severe secondary explosion hazard.
In a larger room, for example 20,000 ft2 (1860 m2), dust covering an area of 200 ft2 (19 m2) would be a
less-severe event.
For practical purposes, some dust accumulations in small parts of large areas without DLC can be considered
tolerable with frequent cleanup and actions to remove the source of the dust. Consider 5% of the area with
1⁄16 in. (2 mm) dust capable of being thrown into suspension as the limit of ‘‘tolerable.’’ In any building of

ordinary construction, any area of dust accumulations exceeding about 1,000 ft2 (93 m2) is considered
unacceptable.
Any dust that is elevated above floor level in joists, beams, equipment tops, etc., should be considered as
being capable of being thrown into suspension. Dust that has agglomerated by age, heat, moisture, etc.,
should not be considered as capable of being thrown into suspension but may suggest an ongoing
housekeeping problem or source of uncontrolled release. Dust on the floor could be suspended but is less
of a risk than elevated accumulations.
Pay close attention to dust adhering to walls since this is easily dislodged. Also consider other projections,
such as light fixtures, that can provide surfaces for dust accumulation.
The available surface area for dust deposits on bar joists or steel beams can be roughly estimated at 5%
of floor area. However, some steel beams might have an equivalent surface area as high as 10% of floor area,
such as when spans between columns are longer than average for a given geographical area, or when a
large building elevation difference requires a stronger roof structure due to anticipated snow drift loadings.
For reference, the following represents typical bulk density data.

Table 3. Typical Dust Bulk Density

Material lb/ft3 kg/m3
Coal, bituminous, smaller than 420 microns 50 800
Flour, wheat 35-40 560-640
Starch 25-50 400-800
Sulfur, powdered 50-60 800-960
Wood flour 16-36 260-580
Source: Appendix D, Reference 15

3.1.2 Relocating Explosion Hazards Outdoors (2.3.1.1)

A frequent objection to locating dust handling equipment outdoors is that condensation will form on the inside
walls of the vessel during cold weather and introduce moisture into the dust stream. Moisture may be a
process problem if it causes particle agglomeration or offspec product. It can be a hazard with some material
subject to spontaneous heating. Moisture can be eliminated by providing insulation on the dust handling
equipment. However, explosion vents must properly deploy without being affected by the insulating cover.
Prefabricated rupture-type explosion vents are available that have a foam-insulated core to prevent

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condensation on the inside of the vent. Additional insulation does not have to be applied over such a vent,
thus ensuring insulation does not hinder vent deployment.

3.1.3 Inerting (Phlegmatization) (2.3.2.3)

Combustible and noncombustible dusts must be intimately mixed to truly create a safe non-explosible product.
Typically, inert dust ranging from 50% to 75% by weight of the total is required.
Carbonates, phosphates, and salts are sometimes used for inerting. In the coal-mining industry, rock dust
is used because it is in abundant supply. Unfortunately, no mathematical correlations can predict the required
limiting inert powder concentration. All mixtures must be tested to establish the inertness of the mixture.

3.1.4 FM Global Explosion Effects Calculations – DustCalc (2.3.3.1)

Many recommendations suggest using FM Global’s DustCalc software for any calculations involving
predicting explosion pressures based on the specifics of a given situation. This is a proprietary expert system
developed by FM Global and considers the variables listed below to calculate various explosion effects.
The mathematical models are based on years of research by FM Global and others on dust explosions. Some
of the relations have been shared with NFPA and have been adopted in part in NFPA 68 starting with the
2002 edition. To get the full advantage of FM Global’s methods, the DustCalc software must be used.
The vessel variables that will have an impact on explosion effects are as follows:
• Vessel volume (V)
• Dust explosibility constant (Kst) and maximum unvented pressure (Pmax)
• Explosion-vent area (Av)
• Explosion-vent relief pressure (Pstat)
• Explosion-vent panel mass and orientation
• Explosion-vent duct length (Ld) and area (Ad), if present
• Fraction of vessel volume containing an explosible mixture
• Pre-explosion equipment pressure (Po)
This data sheet does not include any explosion vent sizing equations, nor does it have any dust-testing results
to characterize previously tested materials. First, the mathematical correlations developed by FM Global
to predict the outcome of explosions are complex and would be difficult to apply using only a calculator. This
could easily cause computational errors. Generic data could be useful for preliminary evaluation of existing
venting systems, but data for the specific dust being processed may be different and only specifically
developed test data should be used in design.
DustCalc software is available in all FM Global offices worldwide, but is limited to personnel who have been
trained in the details of its basis and use. This will ensure the results are developed recognizing all the factors
that are important in the design.
A detailed description of the analytical and experimental work leading to the FM Global methodology has
been published in an article in a special dust explosion issue of the Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries (Spring 1996). See Appendix C for a detailed reference to that article.
FM Global has not adopted the German VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) calculation methods (VDI 3673).
Since much of the data used to develop the VDI guideline was used in developing the FM Global guidance,
in many cases DustCalc and VDI answers are similar. However, due to improvements made to VDI’s
methods by FM Global, in addition to other calculation tools developed or improved by FM Global, the
DustCalc software expands on the capabilities of VDI.
For the 2002 version of NFPA 68, FM Global submitted, and the NFPA committee accepted, much but not
all of the FM Global equations and methods. The implementation is with numerous equations and
nomographs. The 2007 edition maintains much of the same methods, but with some additional adjustments.
The other major difference with NFPA 68-2007 was changing from a Guideline to a Standard. This is now
in language that can be adopted as legally binding by local authorities having jurisdiction. As a Guideline, no
AHJ could implement the requirements as binding.

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The DustCalc software program can also provide solutions based on the NFPA or VDI methods and will
indicate where, and often why, there are differences with the FM Global method.

3.1.5 Flameless Venting Devices (2.3.3.1.2)

A flameless venting device (quench tube, quench pipe) (Fig. 10) is like a flame arrester fitted onto a rupture
disk explosion vent. It is also called a “flameless explosion vent” or a “flame arresting and particulate retention
device” (NFPA). Because of the flame arresting component there is a reduction in the effective vent area
compared to an open vent.
When using flameless venting devices there are a number of factors that need to be considered: dust Kst,
Pmax and the dust concentration (cst) where they are measured, type of dust, efficiency factor (ηtotal), and
maximum protected volume (MPV).
Kst and Pmax (ST-1, 2) are the only factors that are used to determine vent area for the protected vessel.
The type of dust (non-melting, melting, or fibrous) has an effect on the efficiency factor of the flameless venting
device. Currently there are no devices FM Approved for use with metal dusts.
The efficiency factor (ηtotal) is the numerical fraction (0.99 or less) that represents the effective value of the
vent area after accounting for the impact of the flame arresting components of the device. In Approval Guide
listings it is mainly represented by the “Effective Vent Area.” In EN standards it is reported as “Efficiency (Ef).”
Their methodology for calculating the efficiency is different from that used in FM Approvals testing.
The effective vent area (EVA) is the useable vent area after accounting for the efficiency factor. The EVA
can only be determined by testing.
The maximum protected volume (MPV) is limited by the dust loading on the device, m″st,max, the dust loading
per nominal vent area (lb/in2, g/cm2). This loading is directly related to the nominal dust concentration used
in Approval testing (lb/ft3, g/m3). These are just two different ways of representing the amount of dust entering
the flameless venting device.
The mass of dust being sent to the flameless venting device is related to the dust concentration and the
test (or protected) vessel volume.
If more dust is in the vessel, it would impact the quench matrix, reducing the efficiency. If the loading is high
enough it could cause failure of the flameless venting device. The MPV is based on the dust loading used
in the Approval testing.
For actual applications, the design loading is based on the cst of the dust used in the vent sizing design.
The cst is the concentration, determined by testing, where Kst and Pmax occur. In practice the MPV may need
to be adjusted if the cst is different from the dust loading used for testing. The adjustment factor is:
Vmax2 = Vmax1 (cst1 / cst2)
Where:
Vmax1= is the MPV listed.
Vmax2 = is the volume corrected for cst.
cst1 = is the concentration used in the Approvals testing.
cst2 = is the concentration of the design dust determined by testing.
In choosing the proper flameless venting device, calculate the required vent area for the application and
then use the “Effective Vent Area” in the Approval Guide listing to select the device that would provide at least
the required vent area. This may require one or more devices.
In addition, the selected device(s) should not exceed the MPV. Where multiple devices are used to provide
the required venting, the MPV of each device may be added to determine the total MPV. For example, if
two devices each having an MPV of 110 ft3 (3.1 m3) are used, the vessel volume to be protected would be
limited to 220 ft3 (6.2 m3).
As the explosion is vented through the flameless venting device, any burned or unburned dust is retained,
combustion gases are cooled, and no trace of flame exits the quench pipe. In addition, the nearfield blast
(pressure) effects outside the vent are greatly reduced. Thus, the flameless venting device can safely vent

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an explosion to the indoors without the fear of igniting nearby combustibles or creating damaging pressure
in the room. However, the exit gases are hot (approximately 212°F [100°C]).
The actual pressure effect of the released gases can be conservatively estimated based on an approximate
gas-exit temperature of 212°F (100°C) and the following equation:

∆p = 1.74 p0 V1
V0
where:
V0 is the building volume (m3 or ft3)
V1 is the vented equipment volume (m3 or ft3)
p0 is the absolute ambient pressure (14.7 psia or 1.01 bara)
∆p is the pressure increase created by the vented gases (psi or bar)
For example, where the equipment volume is 1/100 of the building volume, V1/V0 is 1/100, the pressure
increase is about 0.26 psi (18 mbar, 1.8 kPa). This would not cause any significant building damage.
The listing of all FM Approved devices includes their vent efficiency, which is the factor by which the effective
vent area of the device is reduced. This is different than the pressure effect calculation above.

Fig. 10. FM Approved flameless venting device (Photo courtesy of Rembe GmbH)

3.1.6 Strength of Vessels (2.3.3.1.3)

When the explosion vent design is based on Pred values that allow for vessel deformation, this will prevent
catastrophic vessel failure and allow the forces and products of an explosion to move safely through the
explosion vent. However, this could make the vessel unfit for future use.
If data on vessel strength is unavailable and the assumed values 3 to 4.4 psig (0.2 to 0.3 barg) of Pred are
used for explosion vent sizing, then the vessels will likely not be deformed in the event of an explosion, if
they are of typical design. However, the possibility of deformation does exist. The innumerable variations in
equipment design can make a vessel weaker than other seemingly comparable vessels. In most cases, the
assumed values will be sufficiently conservative to prevent vessel rupture. Estimates of the pressure that a
generic type of vessel can withstand involve uncertainties. It is always best to try to get actual design
information for any vessel whose protection is being evaluated or planned.

3.1.7 Effects of Explosion Vent Mass (Inertia) (2.3.3.1.6)

A heavy explosion vent relief panel takes longer to move out of the way than a similarly sized lightweight
panel and can produce higher pressures inside the vented enclosure. Because the delay is a continuous
function of the panel’s weight, its effect needs to be evaluated whenever a panel’s inertia is greater than zero.
Rupture membranes, which are typically very thin sheets of metal or plastic film, are zero-inertia devices.
However, the effect of any other type of vent panel cannot be neglected and should be calculated.

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An extensive review of experimental data generated by numerous organizations worldwide has allowed
FM Global to correlate the data along a theoretical framework to produce an effective predictive tool.

3.1.7.1 Typical Vent Panel Mass (Inertia)

The following are examples of materials that might be used as venting panels or wall construction and their
mass:
• Single-layer metal panels: 10 kg/m2 (2 lb/ft2)
• Insulated metal sandwich panels: 15 to 20 kg/m2 (3 to 4 lb/ft2)
• FM Approved Explovent: 12 kg/m2 (2.5 lbs/ft2)
• FM Approved Kalwall panel: 12 kg/m2 (2.5 lbs/ft2)
Note: the following materials have an additional dimension of inch (cm) of thickness.
• Gypsum board: 8 kg/m2/cm (4 lb/ft2/in. )
• Steel: 77 kg/m2/cm (40 lb/ft2/ in.)
• Aluminum: 27 kg/m2/cm (14 lb/ft2/in.)
• Glass: 29 kg/m2/cm (15 lb/ft2/in.)
• Concrete: 23 kg/m2/cm (12 lb/ft2/in.)

3.1.8 Effect of Explosion Vent Ducts (2.3.3.1.7)

The effect of the vent duct must be anticipated in the sizing of explosion vents. Placing a duct at the discharge
of an explosion vent can significantly affect the pressure inside the enclosure. Depending on the length and
diameter of the vent duct, the value of Pred can be increased by as much as an order of magnitude (10 times),
which is usually enough to completely destroy the protected vessel.
Two factors are most important when considering the effect of vent ducts on the venting process: (a)
combustion of dust within the duct during the explosion, and (b) the inertia of the air mass inside the duct
before the explosion.
During the early part of the venting process, unburned dust is ejected into the duct ahead of the flame front
from the vessel. When the flame front moves into the duct, dust starts to burn within the duct and generate
additional combustion products. Those combustion products expand in ALL directions, thus slowing down
or even reversing the flow out of the vessel and the pressure builds up within the vessel.
Inertia of the air within the duct also increases explosion pressure within the protected vessel. When the
explosion vent opens and combustion gases first start flowing into the duct, those gases must push all of
the air out of the duct. During the time required to eject the air, the pressure continues to grow within the vessel
because the combustion gases are obstructed from reaching the open atmosphere. In a long duct, that mass
of air can delay the venting of combustion gases enough to significantly increase the pressure in the vessel.
Friction effects from gas flowing through the duct generally have little effect on the explosion, except possibly
from bends or other geometric discontinuities, compared to the previously noted effects of in-duct combustion
and air inertia.
Because Pred sharply rises as vent duct length increases, vessels with a low strength generally cannot be
protected by venting through ducts if the L/D of the vent duct exceeds a value of 1 to 2 unless the vent size
is proportionately increased.
Although fitting an explosion vent duct having a cross-section smaller than the explosion vent will increase
the value of Pred (i.e., create a worse situation), using an explosion vent duct with a cross section larger than
the explosion vent area will not lower the Pred.
FM Global’s DustCalc software readily calculates the effects caused by vent ducts.

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3.1.9 Re-Closing Explosion Vents (2.2.3.4 and 2.3.3.1.9)

After the combustion of dust inside of a room or vessel has ended and gases are no longer being produced
to generate pressure, explosion vents that can reclose by gravity will do so. The very hot combustion gases
trapped within the room or vessel begin to cool and, unless fresh air moves into the enclosure fast enough
(e.g., via an appropriately-sized vacuum breaker), this will produce a vacuum. This vacuum can result in
vessel damage or equipment implosion. In rooms or buildings, vacuum damage is less severe, but is still
possible.

3.1.10 Pressure and Fireball Effects from an Explosion (2.3.3.1.11)

A dust explosion results in short duration pressure and fireball effects outside of the enclosure. There are
limited studies that allow these effects to be estimated, and suggested equations are shown below:
Estimate the pressure effects close to, and in a direction normal to, the vent using the following equations:
Step 1: Calculate the maximum overpressure (Pblast,max) generated by the explosion outside of the vented
enclosure using the following equation:
Pblast,max (barg) = 0.2 Av0.1 V0.18 Pred
Where
Av is the explosion vent area, m2
V is the volume of vented enclosure, m3
Pred is the reduced pressure in the enclosure during venting, barg
Step 2: Calculate the perpendicular distance (Rmax) from the vent opening to Pblast,max using the following
equation:
Rmax (meters) = 0.25 Lf,max
Where
Lf,max = maximum flame jet length, m
Step 3: For distances R larger than Rmax, calculate the distance-specific blast pressure by the following
equation:
Pblast (barg) = (Rmax/R)1.5 Pblast,max
Note 1: These calculated pressures are very localized near the fireball ejected from a vented explosion.
This is not the same as the overall explosion pressure (Pred) created throughout the enclosing room or
building. In a large building, this shock pressure might be the largest pressure that the walls located close
to exploding equipment will feel, but, usually, the pressure on the walls of a room enclosing the vented
equipment depends on the quantity of combustion gases produced by the explosion and vented into the
room. Such pressure is essentially uniform throughout the room, regardless of distance of the walls from the
vented vessel.
Note 2: The equations for predicting pressure effects are valid only for a single explosion vent. For multiple
vents that open in the same direction, calculate Pblast,max for each vent, then add the values to estimate
the combined, conservative pressure effect.
3.1.10.2 Estimate the maximum flame jet length in a direction normal to the vent using the following equation:
Lf,max = 8 V(1/3)
where
Lf,max = maximum flame jet length, m
V = Volume of vented enclosure, m3
This equation is valid only for ST1 dusts (i.e., Kst ≤ 200) with Pred ≤ 1 barg (14.5 psig) and Pstat ≤ 0.1 barg
(1.5 psig). There are no published correlations for situations outside the stated limits. It is believed that
changes in Pstat will change the size of the predicted fireball; however, current estimation methods have not
quantified that effect.
3.1.10.3 Estimate the recoil force from an explosion using the following equations (2.3.3.1.18):

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a) For dynamic recoil force, use the following formula:

FR = 119 Av Pred
Units: FR (kN), Av (m2), Pred (barg)

FR = 1.2 Av Pred
Units: FR (lb), Av (in2), Pred (psig)
b) For duration of this recoil force, use the following formula (applies only to enclosures without vent ducts):

tf = 10-4 Kst V/(Pred Av)

Units: Kst (bar m/s), V (m3), Pred (barg), Av (m2), 10-4 (s2m-2) a constant
c) As an alternative to dynamic force anchoring design, use an equivalent static force (Fs) as calculated
using the following formula:

Fs = 0.52 FR
Units: kN or lb as in the original equation
FM Global’s DustCalc software readily calculates the effects caused by pressure and fireballs.

3.1.11 Fixed Obstructions near the Face of Explosion Vents (2.3.3.1.12)

A fixed obstruction located too close to an equipment explosion vent opening creates significant resistance
to the free outflow of combustion products from the vented equipment. This is believed to be mainly due
to dust burning after being ejected from the protected equipment. Since the combustion occurs in the
semiconfined area between the vessel and the obstruction, a condition similar to a secondary explosion
occurs. This has significant backpressure effects on the equipment explosion. The state of knowledge
regarding this phenomenon is limited, and it is impossible to quantify the effect. It is also not possible to provide
any guidance on safe distances to nonflat obstructions, due to the complexity of the effects of different
geometries producing partial confinement. The only safe course of action is to locate and orient explosion
vents so they do not point to nearby surfaces.

3.1.12 Distribution of Explosion Vents (2.3.3.1.15)

If a protected vessel has significant obstructions within it, there are two principles of explosion that make it
important to provide well-distributed explosion venting.
First, if the gases heading toward an explosion vent at one end of the vessel have to flow through obstructed
areas, the gases will not flow out as fast as they would if the volume was unobstructed. Because of this,
the vented explosion pressure Pred can rise above the expected level.
Second, if the gases heading toward the explosion vent flow over any significant obstructions, turbulence
will increase substantially within the vessel. Because the rate of pressure rise of an explosion increases with
increasing turbulence, the obstacles can worsen the explosion.
Vents distributed throughout an entire enclosure will help ensure the gases vented during the explosion take
the shortest path out of the enclosure.

3.1.13 Dust Collector Operating Pressures (2.3.3.1.17)

The normal operating pressure range for dust-collecting and dust-handling systems is +40 to 40 mbar (+16
in. H2O to 16 in. H2O). In this pressure range, no adjustments to the standard explosion venting guidelines
are necessary.

3.1.14 Explosion Isolation (2.3.3.2)

When an explosion occurs in an enclosure protected by pressure containment, both pressure and flame
(i.e., burning dust) propagate down any open, connected ductwork to another enclosure. If that second vessel
also has a pressure-resisting design, it is likely to be insufficient due to an effect often referred to as ‘‘pressure
piling.’’ The pressure in the second vessel will increase before the source of ignition (i.e., burning material)
arrives, as the pressure disturbance travels from the first vessel to the second at the speed of sound, which

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is generally greater than the speed of the flame front. Therefore, at the moment when a dust explosion is
ignited within the second vessel, the initial pressure will be well above the normal (ambient) pressure.
For a given fuel-to-air ratio, the final, unvented pressure of an explosion is directly proportional to the initial
pressure. For example, if the first explosion prepressurizes the second vessel to 3 bar (44 psi) absolute,
then the final pressure of the explosion in the second vessel would increase by a factor of 3. For a dust with
a Pmax value of 9 bara, the final unvented pressure in this example would be 27 bara, well above the strength
of even the most sturdy vessel designed for dust explosion pressure containment. Thus, where explosion
containment is used as a protection method, it is important to provide explosion isolation to prevent
pre-pressurizing a vessel by another explosion.
When one vessel protected by explosion containment is connected to a second vessel protected with
explosion venting, a protection problem exists that is not related to pre-pressurization, but rather to the
turbulence created by the pressure front and a very strong ignition source from the flame front. The result
is a more rapid explosion in the second vessel, unaccounted for in the vent design, with failure of the second
vessel likely.
These effects occur to a lesser extent if the connected vessels are both protected with explosion venting.
Thus, where explosion venting is used as a protection method, it is important to provide explosion isolation
to separate the vented vessel from any connected vessels protected by explosion containment.
Dense phase pneumatic conveying systems operate at comparatively low transport velocity (200 to 1,000
fpm; 1 to 5 m/s), high solids loading rate, and high pressure (up to 125 psig; 8.6 barg). Because of the high
dust loading (well above the MEC), they are unlikely to be able to propagate the flame front from an explosion.
Dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems operate at high velocity (3,000 to 8,000 fpm; 25 to 40 m/s), low
solids loading rate, and low pressure (less then 15 psig; 1 barg).

3.1.15 Isolation Systems (2.3.3.3)

When using active (as opposed to passive) devices for explosion isolation, the maximum speed the explosion
flame front travels from the point of detection to the isolation device is an important consideration. The science
of estimating flame propagation from dust explosions has resulted in many papers but no simple solution.
The isolation device manufacturer will have to provide the appropriate separation for that device.

3.1.16 Rapid-Action Float Valves (2.3.3.3.4)

These devices actuate either on a differential pressure caused by the approaching flame front or the gas
velocity in the duct. As a result, the vent relief pressure (Pstat ) of the equipment experiencing the explosion
must be high enough, about 0.2 barg (3 psig), to ensure the valve will shut. Where a lower Pstat is needed
to protect the equipment, an additional explosion sensor and helper gas are needed to actuate the valve.
Data on the Ventex device indicate that specified minimum and maximum separation distances are needed
to ensure the device closes properly and no transition to detonation has occurred. These distances are
determined by test but are approximately valid for a broad range of operating conditions. If hybrid mixtures
are involved, both distances will be reduced and the exact figure depends on the valve/pipe size.
Manufacturer’s data would supersede this general guidance.
Ventex valves are either uni- or bi-directional, i.e., will actuate from a pressure event coming from one direction
only or from either direction. Once closed, they lock in that position and need to be manually reset.

3.1.17 Vacuum Operation (2.3.3.6)

Because the final pressure after an explosion is proportional to the initial (pre-explosion) pressure, a dust
explosion occurring in an environment that is at less than 0.1 bara (1.5 psia) will produce an absolute
explosion pressure of less than 1 bara (14.5 psia). Thus, damage potential from that explosion does not exist.
In addition, if a process operates at a pressure of less than 50 mbar (0.73 psi) (absolute), usually, an
explosion could not be ignited.

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3.1.18 Spark Extinguishing Versus Explosion Suppression (2.3.4.1)

Losses have revealed that a misconception might exist as to the capabilities of a spark-extinguishing system.
Spark-extinguishing systems are very effective in reducing the frequency of combustible dust explosions.
However, they do not affect the severity of an explosion, and are not an alternative to explosion venting,
explosion-blocking systems, or explosion-suppression systems.
A spark-extinguishing system, also known as a spark-suppression system, detects and extinguishes sparks
or glowing embers upstream of dust-collection equipment, to prevent these ignition sources from traveling
to the dust collector(s) and initiating an explosion. The detection system uses an infrared sensor to look for
particles passing by at elevated temperatures. The extinguisher is a water spray located downstream from
the detector.
The detector is expected to function regardless of the size of the hot particles passing by. It detects hot
particles as small as sparks or as large as a piece of broken sander belt. However, the extinguisher might
not work if the particles are large. Sparks should all be extinguished, but a large burning or smoldering piece
of material might not be, in which case an explosion could occur if there is an ignitable dust cloud in the
downstream dust-collection equipment.
The spark-extinguishing system will not decrease the severity of the resulting explosion, so the same level
of explosion protection or mitigation needs to be provided for the equipment with the dust explosion hazard.
A spark-extinguishing system extinguishes an ignition source but cannot suppress an explosion once it has
begun. By preventing an explosible cloud from ever igniting, spark-extinguishing prevents the explosion
altogether.
An explosion-suppression system detects the early phases of an explosion and quenches the explosion to
prevent pressure from rising to a level at which equipment may be damaged or destroyed.
The explosion-suppression system reduces the severity of an explosion, whereas the spark-extinguishing
system only reduces the frequency.
A spark-extinguishing system is only intended to eliminate one ignition scenario: small, hot particles conveyed
to a dust collector where a combustible dust cloud can be ignited. There are other ignition scenarios which
the spark-extinguishing system cannot influence. For example:
• Tramp metal (e.g., a screw or nail) aspirated into the dust collection system. The metal creates sparks
as it impacts against ductwork or metal equipment downstream of the spark-extinguishing system.
• Ignition sources produced downstream of the spark-extinguishing system; for example, hot surfaces,
cutting and welding on/around dust collection equipment.
For most processes, conveying small, hot particles from the dust-producing process to the dust-collection
system is by far the most common potential dust-explosion ignition source. Installed spark-extinguishing
systems can actuate weekly or more often without incident. This attests to the system’s ability to consistently
detect and extinguish even the smallest hot particles.
There are losses where burning material passed through the spark-suppression zone into the dust collection
equipment and triggered an explosion. The burning material possibly got through because of its size or form
or because of a defect in the spark-extinguishing equipment or its installation. Because other damage-
limiting features, such as explosion venting or blocking systems may have been lacking or were not fully
adequate, the ensuing explosions damaged the collection equipment. In addition, burning material was forced
(ejected) into the work area either forwards through a warm air return or backwards to the dust pickup points.
Adequate explosion venting combined with safeguards on the warm-air return (recommended here and in
Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors and Collection Systems) could have prevented any burning material from
being ejected into the facility.

3.1.19 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)(2.3.4.2)

The vast majority of dusts have MIE values above 10 mJ, so it is not necessary to routinely have dusts tested
for MIE. Such testing is normally pursued only when there are reasons to suspect a dust might be particularly
susceptible to ignition from static. Test standards for MIE include ASTM E2019 and EN 13821, and other
international equivalents. Any test result reporting an MIE of 10 mJ or less should be interpreted as proving
static ignitability.

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Incendive electrostatic charges can be developed when insulative powders are transferred into silos or bins,
or where insulating linings (e.g., plastic) cover metal surfaces (lined metal ductwork). Charges on the surface
of an insulative powder pile can create brush discharges that are usually limited to 20 mJ and not likely to
ignite typical combustible dusts. Charges developed on lined surfaces can result in propagating brush
discharges that can release sufficient energy (hundreds of mJ) to ignite combustible dusts. If these
conditions exist, an evaluation should be performed by an expert in electrostatics.

3.1.20 Foreign Material Separators, Magnetic or Other (2.3.4.3)

Using separators upstream of all equipment that mechanically impacts with the process material prevents
metal and other foreign objects from entering the equipment. Without the separators, tramp metal or other
material entering the equipment can create impact or friction sparks capable of igniting a dust cloud.

3.1.21 Clean Versus Dirty Side of Dust Collectors (2.4.2)

The distinction between the clean and dirty air sides is not important when considering explosion scenarios.
The pressures generated in an explosion frequently rupture the filter media as the explosion propagates
throughout the clean and dirty sides. In addition, there may be a breach of the filter media even before an
explosion (e.g., a bag break), thus allowing dust to enter the clean side.
The issue of where to locate vents relative to the clean and dirty side is both theoretical and practical. Most
testing is based on an enclosure with no internal obstructions and with the vent remote from the ignition.
Bags or other obstructions can change the explosion and the venting process. Bags generally fail early in
the explosion and have a minor effect on the venting process, but the tube sheet dividing the clean and dirty
sides can be more of an impediment. The equation specifying the minimum amount of explosion venting
that must be on the dirty side is based on providing fully adequate explosion venting for a dirty-side explosion
if the bags do not get damaged and do not allow any gases to vent out through the clean side of the collector.

3.1.22 Cyclone Explosion Venting (2.4.2.3)

Calculations for explosion venting a cyclone based on typical design proportions show that the typical gas
outlet whose diameter is one half the diameter of a cyclone provides an adequate explosion venting area for
dusts with Kst values up to 80, based on the assumption of a pressure resistance of about 0.3 barg (4.4 psig).
Dusts with Kst values as low as 80 are typically rather coarse (e.g., sawdust, corn meal), have a very low
volatiles content (e.g., charcoal), or have very low combustion energy (e.g., iron dust, FRP with high inert
fibers content).
The adequacy of explosion venting cannot be assumed if the cyclone has a duct with L/D>1 extending above
the gas outlet. As with any vessel provided with a duct on the explosion vent, explosion pressure calculations
will be needed to quantify the effect.
Due to significant backpressure effects produced by bends in vent ducts, any gas outlet provided with a 180°
duct (gooseneck) will not likely have adequate explosion venting. If practical, replace the gooseneck with
a rainhat over an open gas outlet.
Typical cyclone proportions include a diameter D, cylinder height and cone height each 2D and gas outlet
diameter of 1⁄2 D.

3.1.23 ‘‘Conductive’’ Dust Collector Bags (2.4.3.1)

‘‘Conductive’’ bags typically have fine wire woven or fastened into their cloth. The grid of conductive wires
is connected to one or more grounding straps/wires, which must be attached to the dust-collector structure.
Because there is no dependable mechanism to migrate charges from the surface of the nonconductive bag
material to the nearest grounded wire, measurable (and sometimes substantial) potential differences
between the bag surface and wires can exist.
The need for any kind of special bag to prevent dust ignition due to static has never been established. With
ordinary, nonconductive bags, static electricity may build up over the entire surface of a bag, but a static
discharge can only release the energy built up over a very small area. This energy release is not likely to
be enough to ignite even the most ignition sensitive dusts.
There is another concern related to ‘‘conductive’’ bags. There is the possibility of the grounding straps
detaching and turning the bag into a giant capacitor. All the embedded wires collecting charges from the bag

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surface could suddenly release enough static electricity to ignite a dust cloud. The repeated shaking or air
blasts to clean the bags could cause one or more ground straps to break or disconnect. Maintenance and
inspection activities are needed to prevent this from happening.

3.1.24 Enclosureless Dust Collectors (2.4.4)

Enclosureless collectors discharge the dirty air inside fabric bags where the fugitive dust is collected and
the ‘clean’ air escapes into the surroundings which increases the possibility of fugitive dust accumulations
in the surroundings thus the limitation to irregular or occasional use systems. (See Figure 11)
Enclosureless dust collectors are not meant for use with most dusts collected from process equipment or
other aerated dust sources. Fine dust will rapidly blind the filter, which results in reduced performance and
could result in the release of fugitive dust to the surroundings.
Because only the bag normally prevents the release of combustible dust, anything within 10 ft (3 m) could
be considered a Class II, Division 2 (Zone 22) area requiring rated electrical equipment. A better solution is
to limit ordinary electrical equipment in the restricted area [see NFPA 499-2013 Figure 6.10(c)]
Many enclosureless dust collectors are manifolded into multiple bags with containers as in Figure 11. The
5000 cfm (140 m3/min) limit refers to the overall airflow through the assembly and not just to a single bag with
collected material container.
The inside of the bag could be considered a potential dust explosion hazard however the bags would fail
readily should the contained cloud be ignited and the result would generally be a flash fire with a limited
fireball. No explosion venting is warranted or practical. Similarly the open construction would allow ceiling
sprinklers, where present, to control a fire that could develop.

Fig. 11. Example of an enclosureless collector

3.1.25 Connecting Ducts (2.5)

Dusts are transferred in ducts either as part of a fugitive-dust-control system or to move the product from
one part of the process to another. Fugitive-dust transfer is almost always at much less than the MEC, while
process transfer may be at much greater than the MEC. Process transfer might be referred to as dense phase
transfer.
To properly understand the hazard, the transfer conditions need to be known. This can be determined by
knowing the amount processed/collected over some period of time, or measured by sampling or monitoring
the actual flow in the duct. Sometimes this data can be obtained by occupational safety and health
professionals on staff.
The hazard in the duct can be affected by the actual transfer rates or by dust that settles out and accumulates
from insufficient flow velocity in the duct. It is important that this not occur; it can be controlled by maintaining

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sufficient airflow typically on the order of 3500–4000 ft/min (1070–1220 m/min). Dust that has accumulated
can be re-entrained by the pressure wave from an explosion and create localized combustible concentrations,
moving with the pressure wave and ignited by the trailing flame front. After considerable propagation, this
turbulent jet flame becomes a very strong ignition source that destroys seemingly properly protected
equipment.
A remarkably small amount of deposited dust can propagate an explosion. For a circular duct of diameter
“D” with a dust layer of thickness “h” settled on 1⁄4 of its inner circumference (i.e., at the bottom), the
concentration of dust dispersed homogeneously throughout the cross section of the duct would be C = ρbulk
h/D. As an example, a dust with a bulk density of 31 lb/ft3 (500 kg/m3), a layer thickness of only 1/125 in.
(0.2 mm), and a duct of 8 in. (0.2 m) diameter, could generate a dust concentration of 500 g/m3. This
concentration is well above the MEC of virtually any dust, and therefore can propagate an explosion.
The settled dust is most likely not homogenously dispersed throughout the duct, but research by the US
Bureau of Mines has shown that explosions can propagate through ducts even at average dust concentrations
that are as little as half the MEC. All that is required for propagation is a continuous path of mixture that is
above the MEC. This condition can be satisfied even though there is not enough dust to fill the entire volume
of the duct with a mixture above the MEC. Thus, even very small amounts of dust can be sufficient to create
a propagating explosion so the air velocity through the duct should be sufficient to prevent any settling of
the transferred dust.
Explosion venting in duct work is not provided to save the duct, usually of low value and easily replaced,
but to reduce the violence of a potential explosion propagating down its length. This would not stop the
explosion propagation but would expose connected equipment containing suspended dust to a less energetic
ignition source. Designing the duct to fail at low pressure rather than installing explosion vents could be an
acceptable alternative approach where there is no exposure to equipment.
Explosion isolation systems may be needed for connecting ducts where the consequence of an unprotected
event in equipment or flash-back to a building is unacceptable. For example, a large panel sander might
have six dust pickup points, three on the top and three on the bottom, all joining into a common duct. Each
pickup pipe would not need an isolation device. Explosion isolation would best be provided on the main duct
after it leaves the building to prevent an explosion in the dust collector from propagating back towards the
sander.

3.1.26 Silos (2.6)

Silos can also have a dust explosion hazard, even when they are used with granular material having a very
small portion of fines. As the coarse material continually transfers into the silo, it will fall to the bottom of
the silo, but the finest, most explosible material will remain in suspension. If transfer operations continue long
enough, the airborne combustible dust concentration will exceed the MEC and create an explosion hazard.
When a dust collector is mounted directly onto a silo (i.e., with a short connecting pipe of sufficiently large
diameter), any explosion igniting in the dust collector will create the same silo explosion effects as if the
explosion had originated within the silo, so the dust collector can be considered part of the silo. As long as
any explosion venting provided on the silo and dust collector assembly are sized on the basis of the sum of
both volumes, explosion venting should be adequate, regardless of whether the explosion originates in the
silo or the attached dust collector.
When the dust collector is separated from the silo via a small or elongated pipe, the silo and dust collector
no longer act as a single volume during an explosion. If an explosion originates in a dust collector that has
no explosion venting of its own, the jet flame will propagate down the connecting pipe, igniting any combustible
dust cloud within the silo. This would cause a much more violent explosion in the silo than if the silo explosion
was ignited by a conventional (weaker) ignition source.
Air cannons used to break up bridging material can disperse fines in the bulk material into the silo headspace.
Even if the percentage of fines is very small (e.g., 1%-2%), repeated air blasts will concentrate the fines
at the top of the bed. Repeated air-cannon operation creates more fines at the top of the bed and a higher
concentration of dust in the head space at every air cannon firing. Only an ignition source is needed for a
potentially severe dust explosion.
Additionally, certain combustible materials such as coal, grain, and wood are susceptible to spontaneous
heating, and introducing air over an extended period of time can increase the probability of such spontaneous
heating. Air introduced to glowing combustion could fan it into flame or ignite a dust explosion.

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Alternative solutions to air cannons include using vibratory wands inserted temporarily or permanently into
the bottom portion of the silo or using acoustic horns and lances.

3.1.27 Bucket Elevators (2.7)

There are two configurations of bucket elevators, single or double casing (single and twin leg): (1) In a single
casing, buckets move upward and downward in the same casing (enclosure) with a common head (top) and
boot (bottom), and (2) in a double casing there is a separate casing for the up and downward moving
buckets, but still a common head and boot.
Even though bulk combustible material may have a very small percentage of fines mixed in with material
too coarse to constitute a dust explosion hazard, handling that bulk material will likely create an explosion
hazard in a bucket elevator enclosure. Because of the high degree of turbulence within the bucket elevator
enclosure, any fines will be easily picked up into suspension. Because more fines are continuously added
to the air space in the elevator with very little are falling out, the concentration can exceed the MEC and create
a dust explosion hazard.
An example of this involves unground soybean extraction grouts, which are not explosible. Most of this product
is very coarse material (median particle size approx. 1000 microns) but about 3% of fines are smaller than
75 microns. In one instance, after conveying this product in a bucket elevator for several minutes, the fines
were liberated and an ignition and explosion occurred.

3.1.28 Size-Reduction Equipment (Grinders, Pulverizers, Hammer Mills, etc.)

Size-reduction equipment presents the inherent hazard of mechanical impact in the presence of combustible
dusts. The mechanical impact can create frictional and impact heating. Sparks may occur if unintended metal
enters the machine. The result can either be glowing particles leaving the equipment to become an ignition
source in downstream equipment or actual ignition of the dust cloud in the equipment. These machines are
most frequently of substantial construction and able to withstand an internal explosion without damage.
Explosion venting is usually not needed, but explosion propagation to other parts of the installation should
be considered and explosion isolation techniques may be needed.
Maintain these devices regularly to ensure adequate lubrication is provided, proper clearances are
maintained, and dust and debris don’t accumulate and become ignited or impair proper operation.

3.1.29 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) (2.10)

Additive manufacturing (AM), more commonly known as 3D printing, is growing in importance in the
manufacture of intricate parts. Components are being produced for diverse services from toys to aerospace.
Figures 12, 13, and 14 show schematic representations of the main technology categories and their
characteristics. The 3D printing referred to in Figure 14 is more representative of personal-scale printers than
the industrial-scale types.
Powder bed fusion seems to be the most common method used with metal powders. It involves using digital
design data to build up a component layer-by-layer, alternately depositing a layer of material 20 to 100
microns thick (0.02 to 0.1 mm, 0.0008 to 0.004 in.) and then fusing the component pattern into the layer and
repeating the sequence until the “build,” the part being created, is complete. With metal powders, the fusing
is done with a laser or electron beam while polymers/plastics may be fused with a laser or a binding liquid
sprayed onto the powder layer.
Figure 15 is a schematic representing the selective laser sintering (SLS) fusion bed technology that produces
the actual product. The powder layer distribution is by a spreader bar just barely above the surface of the
build platform or the prior layer.
Material deposition processes use powders or extrusion methods to build the design layer-by-layer. One
technique uses selective dispersion of a powder through an aerosol jet followed by fusing with heat or an
electron beam (material jetting). These processes use small individual “shots” of material and typically don’t
create clouds of dust in the equipment.
Finally, there is the use of liquid plastic resins in a pool, where the shaping mechanism uses light beams
(laser, UV) to fuse the polymer into the form needed (stereolithography). One method uses high flash point
liquid resins (over 212°F, 100°C) and moderate flash point cleaning fluids (185°F, 85°C).

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Powder
AM Category bed
processes

Laser Laser Electron

Process Type sintering melting beam
(LS) (LM) melting
(EBM)

Thermoplastics Ferrous/non Non ferrous

Material Type ferrous alloys alloys
Elastomer

Fig. 12. Powder bed processes

Material
AM Category deposition
processes

Blown Wire Extrusion

Process Type powder extrusion processes
processes processes

Ferrous/non Ferrous/non Thermoplastics

Material Type ferrous alloys ferrous alloys
Graphite

Fig. 13. Material deposition processes

The build material can be fine powdered metal, plastic, ceramic, or glass. Metal alloy powders in common
use include cobalt-chromium, aluminum-titanium, magnesium, stainless steel (iron and chromium plus other,
lesser additives) and Inconel (nickel and chromium with iron and other metals as lesser additives). Material
explosibility (Kst) varies with the particular metal or alloy and should generally be considered combustible
dust until proven otherwise by test.
Figure 16 shows examples of typical industrial printers. The ProX 300 and the Concept M2 have a build
envelope (chamber for the printing part) of about 250 x 250 x 300 mm (10 x 10 x 12 in.). The industrial-scale
printer can be US$0.5 million or more per machine.

3.1.29.1 Potential Hazards

From a personal safety perspective, issues include fumes and fine particulates requiring proper ventilation;
corrosive and irritant materials requiring personal protective equipment (gloves, goggles, etc.); hot surfaces;
laser or UV light; and high voltages.

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3D Printing Liquid
AM Category

Sterolitho
Process Type graphy (SL)

Material Type Wax Thermosets

Thermosets

Elastomer

Graphite

Fig. 14. 3D printing and liquid processes

Lenses
Scanning mirror
Laser beam
Leveling roller
Sintered part
Powder
feed supply Powder bed

Powder feed piston Powder feed piston

Build chamber Powder feed supply
Build piston

Fig. 15. SLS design concept (Chemical Engineering Progress, May 2014)

Fig. 16. Industrial-scale 3D systems: ProX300 and Concept M2 Laser printers (Source: manufacturers’ brochures)

The primary property hazards involve combustible dust handled in fine powder form (often 50 microns or
less), and ignitable liquid used by some systems. Only hazards associated with powder operations are
addressed here, with a focus on metal powders.
The metal-based processes run under low oxygen atmosphere (less than 1% oxygen) for product-quality
purposes and therefore don’t present an explosion hazard in the build chamber or the inert atmosphere

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recirculation system. This system can include cartridge or panel filters that are primarily or completely
combustible construction. Most filters are used for two or three build cycles and then replaced. Some systems
identify the fumes from the laser process as a “highly flammable metal condensate,” requiring special
handling and precautions to prevent ignition, which could result in spontaneous smoldering events in the filters
as they are removed and exposed to air.
Since most current industrial machines only require small amounts of material (up to several hundred
pounds/kilograms in the largest) the process powders are handled in heavy fiberboard containers or plastic
bottles of no more than about 2 gal (7.6 L) in size. Static accumulation when transferring these powders
is possible and manufacturers typically recommend bonding and grounding of personnel, the containers, and
the machines during these operations. On the material handling side, given the current scale at which these
systems are used, controlling ignition sources by grounding, bonding, etc. is more practical than inerting
the operation.
Production-scale equipment will likely require other material-handling methods and will need to be evaluated
based on the properties of the powders involved, as with other combustible dusts.
The cleanup process for the build chamber would typically use portable vacuums, which need to be rated
for hazardous operations involving combustible metal or plastic dusts.
The completed parts are taken outside the equipment and excess powder is manually or mechanically shaken
off, or blown off using plant air, and then moved to other finishing processes. Some plastics are cleaned
using high-pressure water jets in a glove box enclosure. The air blowdown could create a small local dust
flash fire hazard, or an associated dust collection system could present a dust explosion hazard.

3.1.29.2 Protection
As noted previously, the machines handling combustible metal powders operate under inert atmospheres
and present no dust explosion hazard. Machines using other combustible powders would need to be
evaluated to understand how the process is operated and if significant clouds of combustible dust could be
created.
Machine enclosures completely contain the combustible powders and therefore create no need for hazardous
location electrical equipment for the surroundings.
If powder recovery operations are conducted using sieving or other methods, they should be conducted in
properly ventilated hoods. Similarly, cleanup of the product to remove powder from the interior spaces also
should be conducted within proper hoods or enclosures.
Conduct powder cleanup using portable vacuums properly designed for the service. There are no clear
standards for certification of vacuums for collecting metal or any other combustible dust. It appears that most
are rated for use in dust hazardous areas the same as other electrical equipment.
There is a standard, EN 60335 Part 2-69, Particular Requirements for Wet and Dry Vacuum Cleaners, that
broadly addresses the issue of certification of equipment for operation in zone 22 areas. Annex CC of that
document specifically addresses modifications to the main standard needed to qualify for use in zone 22.
Clause 24.1 of Annex CC states that “Components located within enclosures containing collected combustible
dust shall be suitable for zone 20.”

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4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-44, Damage Limiting Construction
Data Sheet 5-1, Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Locations
Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers
Data Sheet 7-10, Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities
Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protection Systems
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process Vessels and Equipment
Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors and Collection Systems
Data Sheet 7-75, Grain Storage and Milling
Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems
Data Sheet 10-3, Hot Work Management
Hot Work Management Kit (P9601)

4.2 Other
Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA). Classifications for Spark Resistant Construction. AMCA
99040186, latest edition.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Method for Limiting Oxygen (Oxidant)
Concentration of Combustible Dust Clouds. E2931.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Method for Minimum Explosible
Concentration of Combustible Dusts. Standard E1515, latest edition.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Method for Minimum Ignition Energy of
a Dust Cloud in Air. ASTM E2019, latest edition.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard Test Method for Pressure and Rate of Pressure
Rise of Combustible Dusts. Standard E1226, latest edition.
Bhatia, S. K. and S. Sharma. “3D Printed Prosthetics Roll off the Presses.” Chemical Engineering Progress,
May 2014.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Determination of Explosion Characteristics of Dust Clouds
- Part 1: Determination of the Maximum Explosion Pressure Pmax of Dust Clouds. EN 14034-1.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Determination of Explosion Characteristics of Dust Clouds
- Part 2: Determination of the Maximum Rate of Explosion Pressure Rise (dP/dt)max) of Dust Clouds. EN
14034-2.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Determination of Explosion Characteristics of Dust Clouds.
Part 3: Determination of the Lower Explosion Limit (LEL) of Dust Clouds. (Also called minimum explosible
concentration, MEC). EN 14034-3.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Determination of Explosion Characteristics of Dust Clouds.
Part 4: Determination of the Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC) of Dust Clouds. EN 14034-4.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Fire and Explosion Prevention and Protection for Bucket
Elevators. TR16829 (preliminary).
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Household and Similar Electrical Appliances - Safety, Part
2-69: Particular Requirements for Wet and Dry Vacuum Cleaners, Including Power Brush for Commercial
Use. EN 60335-2-69.
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Potentially Explosive Atmospheres - Explosion Prevention
and Protection - Determination of Minimum Ignition Energy of Dust/Air Mixtures. EN 13821.
Holbrow, P., G. A. Lunn, and A. Tyldesley. “Explosion Venting of Bucket Elevators.” Journal of Loss Prevention
in the Process Industries. Vol. 15, No. 5, 2002.

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7-76 Combustible Dust Explosion
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International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Explosion Protection Systems – Part 1: Determination
of Explosion Indices of Combustible Dusts in Air. ISO 6184/1, latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Recommended Practice for the Classification of Combustible
Dusts and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installation in Chemical Process Areas. NFPA
499, latest edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Recommended Practice on Static Electricity. NFPA 77, latest
edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems. NFPA 69, latest
edition.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting. NFPA
68, latest edition.
University of Exeter, Centre for Additive Layer Manufacturing. What is additive layer manufacturing?
http://emps.exeter.ac.uk/engineering/research/calm/whatis. Accessed October 16, 2016.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI). VDI Guideline 2263 Part 8.1, Dust Fires and Dust Explosions; Hazards,
Assessment, Protective Measures; Fire and Explosion Protection on Elevators. 2011.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI). VDI Guideline 3673, Part 1, ‘‘Pressure Venting of Dust Explosions.” Latest
edition.

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Av: Explosion venting area
Air material separator: A broad term for a device designed to separate powders from the air in which it is
transported. Most commonly, this would be a cyclone or dust collector.
Bara: bar, absolute (unit of pressure).
Barg: bar, gauge (unit of pressure)
Bonding: Electrical connection between two electrically-conductive objects that minimizes any difference in
electrical potential between them.
Damage-limiting construction (DLC): Construction designed to minimize the damage from a deflagration
(explosion) in equipment or building. This can be pressure resistive, pressure relieving, or some combination
of the two. Most commonly this would be vent panels on enclosures (buildings or equipment) releasing at
a pressure below the strength of the enclosure.
Design strength: Pressure to which a vessel can be exposed without any risk of damage (because a safety
factor has been applied to the yield strength).
Double dump valve: An arrangement of two gate or butterfly valves in series. Only one is open at a time.
This valve is often used where material discharged from one vessel is gravity fed to another vessel (i.e., not
pneumatically conveyed) such as a dust collector discharging into a hopper below it or a material blender
or grinder discharging into a pneumatic conveying system.
Dust: Small solid particles capable of being suspended in air by pouring, blowing, grinding, etc. For the
purposes of this data sheet, it refers only to combustible dusts.
Dust, combustible: Any organic material (agricultural, plastic, chemical, coal, etc), unoxidized metal particles,
or other oxidizable materials (e.g., zinc stearate) should be considered combustible.Tests involving the
application of a spark, match flame, Bunsen or Meker burner flame to small layers or piles of material may
help in identifying such materials, but can result in false negatives.
Dust, explosible: Established by ASTM E1226, Standard Test Method for the Explosibility of Dust Clouds,
or international equivalent (e.g., EN 14034-1, Determination of Explosion Characteristics of Dust Clouds - Part
1: Determination ENof the Maximum Explosion Pressure Pmax of Dust Clouds, and EN 14034-2,
Determination of Explosion Characteristics of Dust Clouds - Part 2: Determination of the Maximum Rate of
Explosion Pressure Rise [dP/dt]max) of Dust Clouds). A dust that does not ignite and burn in layer or pile
testing could be determined to be explosible in an E1226-type test.

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Enclosureless Dust Collector: A device designed and used to remove dust from the transport air where the
filter media is not enclosed or in a container.
Explosion isolation: System or single device that prevents the propagation of explosion effects from one
volume to an adjacent volume.
Explosion mitigation: Methods used to reduce damage from the explosion after the explosion has started.
Explosion prevention: Methods used to prevent an explosion by controlling either the air, fuel, ignition source,
or a combination of these.
FM Approved: References to ’’FM Approved‘‘ in this data sheet mean the product or service has satisfied
the criteria for FM Approval. Refer to the Approval Guide for a complete listing of products and services that
are FM Approved.
Grounding: Electrical connection between a conductive object and the ground that minimizes the difference
in the electrical potential between the object and ground.
Ignitable Liquid: Any liquid or liquid mixture that is capable of fueling a fire, including flammable liquids,
combustible liquids, inflammable liquids, or any other reference to a liquid that will burn. An ignitable liquid
must have a fire point.
Kst: The dust explosibility constant, defined as the maximum rate of pressure rise of a dust explosion in a
1 cubic meter vessel. The units are bar meter per second (bar m/s). The test method used to obtain this
constant is standardized worldwide. This value (Kst) is used in all modern dust explosion vent sizing to
characterize the reactivity (i.e., explosibility) of a particular dust. Only metric units are used for this constant.
MEC: Minimum explosible concentration, the lowest concentration of dust that can support a self-propagating
explosion. (The terms LEL [lower explosible limit] or LFL [lower flammable limit] mean the same, but are
not often used in the context of dust explosions.)
Media type collector: A device (enclosure) that separates dry, solid material from air by passing the air through
a dry filtering medium. Examples are enclosures with bag-type filters, cartridge-type filters (normally a pleated
filter arranged in a cylindrical shape, similar to automobile air filters), rotary drum filters, and panel filters.
(See Data Sheet 1-45, Air Conditioning and Ventilating Systems, and Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors and
Collection Systems, for information on filter types.)
MIE (minimum ignition energy): The minimum amount of thermal energy released at a point in a combustible
mixture to cause indefinite flame propagation under specified test conditions. The lowest value of MIE, known
as LMIE, is found at a certain optimum mixture. It is this value that is usually reported as the MIE.
Phlegmatization: The process of mixing inert dusts with combustible dusts to reduce or eliminate the explosion
hazard.
Pblast, : The localized pressure as a result of the fireball and pressure from a vented explosion.
max

Pmax: The maximum pressure developed in the 20-liter sphere when testing dust for explosibility
characteristics by ASTM E1226 method. It is factor used to help size explosion vents.
Pred: Highest explosion pressure in a vessel protected with explosion vents; usual units are barg or psig.
Pstat: Explosion vent relief pressure; usual units are barg or psig.
Psia: Pounds per square inch, absolute (unit of pressure).
Psig: Pounds per square inch, gauge (unit of pressure).
Strong ignition source: A strong ignition can provide more than approximately 100 Joules of energy.
a) Examples of a strong ignition source include open flame, welding arc, gas or dust explosion, and electric
arc/short.
b) Conversely, examples that would not be considered a strong ignition source include frictional sparks,
mechanical impact sparks, static sparks, cigarettes, hot surfaces, overheated electrical components.
Strong vessel: A vessel that can withstand explosion pressures in excess of 0.2 barg (3 psig) without being
damaged or destroyed. This includes most process vessels constructed or used in Europe.
Tube sheet: The mounting plate for cartridge-type filters or bag-type filter tubes and cages.

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Ultimate strength: Pressure at which an enclosure will be torn open (i.e., ruptured).
Weak vessel or enclosure: A structure that cannot withstand explosion pressures in excess of 0.2 barg
(3 psig) without being damaged or destroyed. This includes most rooms, buildings, and many North American
process vessels.
Yield strength: Pressure at which an enclosure will be deformed without rupturing.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

April 2017. Interim Revision. Recommendation 2.7.2.3 on protection of bucket elevators was modified for
clarity.
January 2017. Interim Revision. The following changes were made:
A. Added new material on additive manufacturing (3D printing).
B. Expanded explosion venting design criteria and added fire protection criteria for bucket elevators.
C. Added new material on enclosureless dust collectors.
D. Expanded information on the proper application of flameless venting devices (quench tubes, quench
pipes).
E. Made editorial changes.
October 2014. Interim revision. The defnition of an explosible dust was modified to align with industry practice
by removing the specific particle size limit.
January 2014. Minor editorial changes were made.
April 2013. Minor editorial changes were made.
January 2012. Terminology related to ignitable liquids has been revised to provide increased clarity and
consistency with regard to FM Global’s loss prevention recommendations for ignitable liquid hazards.
March 2009. Minor editorial changes were made for this revision.
January 2009. Correction to the equation in Section 2.4.2.2.1 was made.
May 2008. Reformatted the document for clarity and ease of use, especially the recommendations.
Added more construction and location guidance on preferred locations for dust hazard occupancies.
Emphasized explosion-hazard elimination and mitigation features.
Added chokes as an isolation method.
Refined the criteria on fans and blowers located in fugitive dust – air streams where they can become an
ignition source in an atmosphere that may exceed the MEC.
Simplified the criteria for protection of vessels of unknown strength.
Resolved inconsistencies with other data sheets, especially Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors.
Simplified the Support for Recommendations section.
May 2006. Minor editorial changes were done for this revision.
New section 3.2.3.9.1, Typical Vent Panel Mass (inertia) was added.
May 2005. Added recommendations to implement a management of change program.
January 2005. Minor editorial changes
May 2004. Minor editorial changes
May 2003. Minor editorial changes
January 2001. The document was reorganized to provide a consistent format.
August 1995. Major revisions implementing Kst based vent sizing technology and abandoning the prior method
of vent area to protected volume method.

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Combustible Dust Explosion 7-76
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This data sheet includes many new recommendations which were not in the 1976 edition but many locations
will require less protection than the previous version required. The following exceptions have been made
to the general explosion protection requirements:
• Explosion venting is not needed for cyclones handling dusts with a Kst less than 80 (weakly explosible)
and having an open gas outlet on top whose diameter equals or exceeds 45% of the cyclone diameter.
• Systems operating at a pressure below 0.1 bara (1.5 psia) require no protection.
• Spray dryers require a reduced amount of explosion venting compared to other equipment with the same
volume. Note: the explosion venting area for spray dryers and for other equipment is now calculated using
the FM Global Research DustCalc software.

APPENDIX C RESEARCH INFORMATION ON DUST EXPLOSION HAZARDS

Refer to the following article:
Tamanini, F. and Valiulis, J.V. “Improved guidelines for the sizing or vents in dust explosions”, Journal of
Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (Vol. 9. No. 1. 1996), 105-118

APPENDIX D BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bartknecht, W. Dust Explosions: Course, Prevention, Protection. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1989.
2. Alfert, F., and K. Fuhre. Flame and Dust Free Venting of Dust Explosions by Means of a Quenching Pipe.
CMI-Report No. 89-25820-1. Chr. Michelsen Institute (Norway), 1989.
3. Eckoff, R. K. Dust Explosions in the Process Industries. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1991.
4. van Wingerden, K. “Prediction of pressure and flame effects in the direct surroundings of installations
protected by dust explosion venting.” Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries (Vol. 6, No. 4,
1993): 241–249.
5. WirknerBott, I., et. al. ’’Dust Explosion Venting: Investigation of the Secondary Explosion.‘‘ Paper presented
at the Seventh International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries,
Taormina, Italy, 1992.
6. Lunn, G. A. Dust Explosion Prevention and Protection Part 3 — Venting of Weak Explosions and the Effect
of Vent Ducts. Rugby: Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1988.
7. Cooper, M. G., et. al. ’’On the Mechanisms of Pressure Generation in Vented Explosions.‘‘ Combustion
and Flame (1986) 65: 1–14.
8. Cubbage, P. A., and W. A. Simmonds. ’’An Investigation of Explosion Reliefs for Industrial Drying Ovens.
I-Top Reliefs in Box Ovens.‘‘ Transactions of the Institute of Gas Engineers (1955) 105: 470-526.
9. Siwek, R., and O. Skov. ’’Modellberechnung zur Dimensionierung von Explosionsklappen auf der Basis
von praxisnahen Explosionsversuchen.‘‘ VDI Berichte (1988) 701: 569-616.
10. Pineau, J. P. ’’Protection Against Fire and Explosion in Milk Powder Plants.‘‘ Europex First International
Symposium, Antwerp, Belgium, April 16–19, 1984.
11.Hurlimann, H. ’’Results from Real Scale Explosion Tests.‘‘ Third International Symposium on Loss
Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries, Basel, Switzerland, 1980.
12. van Wingerden, C. J. M., and H. J. Pasman. ’’Explosion Venting of Partially Filled Enclosures.‘‘ Conference
on Flammable Dust Explosions, St. Louis, Missouri, USA, November 2–4, 1988.
13. Zeeuwen, J. P., and G. G. M. van Laar. ’’Explosion Venting of Enclosures Partially Filled with Flammable
DustAir Mixtures.‘‘ International Symposium on Control of Risks in Handling and Storage of Granular Foods,
Paris, France, April 2426, 1985.
14. Siwek, R. ’’New Knowledge About Rotary Air Locks in Preventing Dust Ignition Breakthrough.‘‘ Plant
Operations Progress (July 1989) Vol. 8, No. 3: 165-176.
15. Green, D. W., and R. H. Perry. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, Eighth Edition (Chemical
Engineers Handbook). New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

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16. DeGood, R. ’’Isolation: Another Way to Take the Bang out of Explosions.‘‘ CPI Equipment Reporter
(Jan-Feb 1988).
17. Siwek, R. ’’A Review of Explosion Isolating Techniques.‘‘ Europex International Seminar, March 1996.

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