Chapter 2

Theorem 2-1

If a – b > 0, then a > b

Theorem 2 – 2

If a = b + c and c > 0, then a > b.

Existence of Square Roots

Every positive number has exactly one positive square root.

Postulate 1. The Distance Postulate

To every pair of different points there corresponds a unique positive number.

Definition

The distance between two points is the number given by the Distance Postulate. If the points are P and Q, then the
distance is denoted by PQ.

Postulate 2. The Ruler Postulate

The points on a line can be placed in correspondence with the real numbers in such a way that

1) To every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number;
2) To every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the line; and
3) The distance between any two points is the absolute value of the difference of the corresponding numbers

Definition

A correspondence of the sort described in the Ruler Postulate is called a coordinate system. The number corresponding
to a give point is called the coordinate of the point.

Postulate 3. The Ruler Placement Postulate

Given two points P and Q of a line, the coordinate system can be chosen in such a way that the coordinate of P is zero
and the coordinate of Q is positive.

Theorem 2-3

Let A, B, and C be points of a line, with coordinates x, y, and z respectively. If x < y < z, then A-B-C.

Example: Given a coordinate system on a line containing R, S, and T. If the coordinates of R, S, and T are 5, -7, and 9
respectively, then we can conclude that S-R-T because -7<5<9.

Theorem 2-4

If A, B, and C are three different points of the same line, then exactly one of them is between the other two.

Example: If we know A-B-C, then we can conclude that it is not possible for B-A-C or A-C-B
Postulate 4. The Line Postulate

For every two different points there is exactly one line that contains both points.

Definitions

For any two points A and B, the segment AB is the union of A and B and all points that are between A and B. The points A
and B are called the end points of segment AB.

Definition

The number AB is called the length of the segment AB.

Definition

Let A and B be points. The ray AB is the union of (1)AB and (2) the set of all points C for which A-B-C. The point A is called
the endpoint of ray AB.

Definition

If A is between B and C, then ray AB and AC are called opposite rays.

Theorem 2-5 The Point-Plotting Theorem

Let ray AB be a ray, and let x be a positive number. Then there is exactly one point P of ray AB such that AP = x.

Definition

A point B is called a midpoint of a segment AC if B is between A and C and AB = AC.

Theorem 2-6. The Midpoint Theorem

Every segment has exactly one midpoint.

Chapter 3

Definition – A set of points is collinear if there is a line which contains all the points of the set.

Definition – A set of points is coplanar if there is a plane which contains all points of the set.

Postulate 4. The Line Postulate

For every two different points there is exactly one line that contains both points.

Theorem 3-1

If two different lines intersect, their intersection contains only one point.

Postulate 5. The Plane-Space Postulate

a) Every plane contains at least three different noncollinear points.

b) Space contains at least four different noncoplanar points.
Postulate 6. The Flat Plane Postulate

If two points of a line lie in a plane, then the line lies in the same plane.

Theorem 3-2

If a line intersects a plane not containing it, then the intersection contains only one point.

Postulate 7. The Plane Postulate

Any three points lie in at least one plane, and any three noncollinear points lie in exactly one plane.

Theorem 3-3

Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one plane containing both.

Theorem 3-4

Given two intersecting lines, there is exactly one plane containing both.

Postulate 8. Intersection of Plane Postulate

If two different planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

Definition

A set M is called convex if for every two points P and Q of the set, the entire segment PQ lies in M.

Postulate 9. The Plane Separation Postulate

Given a line and a plane containing it. The points of the plane that do not lie on the line form two sets such that

1) Each of the sets is convex, and

2) If P is in one of the sets and Q is on the other, then the segment PQ intersects the line.

Definitions

Give a line L and a plane E containing it, the two sets described in the Plane Separation Postulate are called half-planes
or sides of L, and L is called the edge of each of them. If P lies in one of the half-planes and Q lies in the other, then we
say that P and Q lie on opposite sides of L.

Postulate 10. The Space Separation Postulate

The points of space that do not lie in a given plane form two sets, such that

1) Each of the sets is convex, and

2) If P is in one of the sets and Q in in the other, then the segment PQ intersects the plane.

Definitions

The two sets described in the Space Separation Postulate are called half-spaces, and the given plane is called the face of
each of them.

Exercises
Discuss the following questions

1. Is a line a convex set?

2. Is a set consisting of only two points convex?
3. Is a circle a convex set?
4. Is the region enclosed by a circle a convex set?
5. Does a point separate a plane? A space? A line?
6. Is a sphere a convex set?

Angles

Definitions

If two rays have the same end point, but do not lie on the same line, then their union is an angle. The two rays are called
its sides, and their common endpoint is called its vertex. If the rays are 𝐴𝐵 and AC, then the angle is denoted as <BAC or
<CAB.

Definitions

The interior if <BAC is the set of all points P in the plane of <BAC such that

1) P and B are on the same side of AC, and

2) P and C are on the same side of AB.

The exterior of <BAC is the set of all points of the plane of <BAC that lie neither on the angle nor in its interior.

Exercises

1. Complete the following definitions.

An angle is the _____ of two __________ which have the same __________, but which are not __________.
2. Are GF and HG the sides of <FGH? Explain
3. Is the vertex of an angle in the interior of the angle? In the exterior?

Measuring Angles

Postulate 11. The Angle Measurement Postulate

To every angle <BAC there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180.

Definition – The number give by the Angle Measurement Postulate is called the measure of <BAC, and is written as
m<BAC.

Postulate 12. The Angle Construction Postulate

Let AB be a ray on the edge of the half-plane H. For every number r between 0 and 180 there is exactly one ray AP, with
P in H, such that m<PAB = r.

Postulate 13. The Angle Addition Postulate

If D is in the interior of <BAC, then

m<BAC = m<BAD + m<DAC

Definition

If AB and AD are opposite rays, and AC is any other ray, then <BAC and <CAD form a linear pair.
Definition

If the sum of the measures of two angles is 180, then the angles are called supplementary, and each is called a
supplement of the other.

Postulate 14. The Supplement Postulate

If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.

Perpendiculars, Right Angles and Related Angles, Congruent Angles

Definitions

A right angle is an angle having measure 90. An angle with measure less than 90 is called acute. An angle with measure
greater than 90 is called obtuse.

Definition

If the sum of the measures of two angles is 90, then they are called complementary, and each of them is called a
complement of the other.

Definition

Two angles with the same measure are called congruent.

Definition

Two rays are perpendicular if they are the sides of a right angle. Two lines are perpendicular if they contain a pair of
perpendicular rays.

Definition – “Perpendiculars form right angles.”

Two sets are perpendicular if

1) Each of them is a line, a ray, or a segment,

2) They intersect
3) The lines containing them are perpendicular.

Theorem 4-1

Congruence between angles is an equivalence relation.

*an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Question: Is the relation “<” for numbers and equivalence relation? Why?

Theorem 4-2

If the angles in a linear pair are congruent, then each of them is a right angle.

Theorem 4-3

If two angles are complementary, then both are acute.

Theorem 4-4

Any two right angles are congruent.

Theorem 4-5

If two angles are both congruent and supplementary, then each is a right angle.

Theorem 4-6. The Supplement Theorem

Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.

Theorem 4-7. The Complement Theorem

Complements of congruent angles are congruent.

Exercises

1. Give the Proof of Theorem 4-7.

2. If <1 is congruent to <2 and <1 is supplementary to <2. What conclusion follows? What postulate, definition, or
theorem supports this conclusion?
3. Prove Theorem 4-4.

Theorems in form of Hypothesis and Conclusion

Every theorem is a statement that if a certain thing is true, then something else is also true.

We can re-state Theorem 4-3 the following way.

Theorem 4-3

Hypothesis: two angles are complementary

Conclusion: they are both acute.

Similarly, we can write Theorem 4-4 as follows.

Theorem 4-4

Hypothesis: two angles are right angles

Conclusion: they are congruent.

Postulates are like theorems, except that they will not be proved. They can also be put in the form of hypothesis and
conclusion.

For example, the Angle Addition Postulate can be written as follows

Postulate 13. The Angle Addition Postulate

Hypothesis: D is in the interior of <BAC.

Conclusion: m<BAC = m<BAD + m<DAC

In some cases, the hypothesis-conclusion form is not natural or useful, as, for example, in the Ruler Postulate.

Exercises

1. Write each of the following statements as an “If…Then” statement..

a. Any three non-collinear points lie in exactly one plane
b. Two angles which form a linear pair are supplementary
c. Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
Writing Up Proofs

Examples 1:

Write a two-column proof for the following

Answer

Always start with drawing a picture of what you are given.

Plot the points in the order A, B, C, D on a line.

Draw the two-column proof and start with the given information.

Problem Set

1. If all points of a set lie on one line, the set is called a __________ set.
2. If all points of a set lie in one plane, the set is called a __________ set.
3. Every plane contains __________ points
4. Space is a set of ____________________.
5. Space contains ____________________ points.
6. A line contains at least ______ points.
7. A plane contains at least ______ points not all on the same line.
8. Space contains at least ______ points not all in one plane.
9. Through any two points there is exactly one _____.
10. Through any three points there is at least one ______.
11. Through any three _______ points there is exactly one plane.
12. If two points are in a plane, then the _____ that contains the points is also in that plane.
13. If two planes intersect, then their _______ is a line.
14. If two lines intersect, then they intersect in exactly ________.
15. Through a line and a point not in the line, there is ________ plane.
16. If two lines ______, then exactly one plane contains the lines.