1(a) The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor is shown in the below figure.

(b) The induction motor may be regarded as a Transformer with a primary coil and a
secondary coil loaded with a load that changes its impedance. The secondary coil is normally
a one turn coil. The impedance of the load at the rotor is made up of low resistance R and low
inductance L hence Z=(R+jwL) where w is the frequency which changes with the rotation of
the rotor till it becomes ZERO when the rotor reaches synchronous speed.

When the rotor of an induction motor is stationary the current in the shorted conductive loops
of the rotor is very high as the resistance and the inductance is low while the effective
frequency is that of the supply frequency. This high current in the rotor will create its own
magnetic field which opposes the main stator magnetic field, this weakens the stator magnetic
field so the back EMF in the stator will drop and the supply voltage will be much higher than
the stator back EMF and so the supply current increases to a high value.

(c) Single phase induction motor is not a self starting machine. For the sake of starting
purpose auxiliary winding on stator is added at the time of starting in order to create rotating
magnetic field in single phase induction motor and to make it a self starting machine.

(d) Shaded pole motor runs from unshaded region to shaded region.

(e) The speed control methods that can be done from stator side for a three phase induction
motor are

1. V/f control method

2. Change of poles

3. change of supply voltage

3.(a) Direct on Line Starting Method:

When full voltage is connected across the stator terminals of an induction motor, large
current is drawn by the windings. This is because, at starting (i.e, before the rotor starts
rotating) the induction motor behaves as a short circuited transformer. The short circuited,
i.e., secondary, i.e., the rotor is separated from the primary, i.e., the stator by a small air-gap.

At starting, when the rotor is at standstill, emf is induced in the rotor circuit exactly
similar to the emf induced in the secondary winding of a transformer. This induced emf of the
rotor will circulate a very large current through its windings. The primary will draw very
large current from the supply mains to balance the rotor ampere – turns. To limit the stator
and rotor currents at starting to a safe value, it may be necessary to reduce the stator supply
voltage to a lower value.

With full voltage applied across stator terminals, the starting current will be very high.
This current will however be gradually decreasing as the motor will pick up speed. The
current drawn by the motor during the time of starting with full-voltage connected across the
stator terminals is shown in figure 5.1.

Fig 5.1 Current drawn by an induction motor when started direct-on-line

If induction motors are started direct-on-line, such a heavy starting current of short
duration may not cause harm to the motor since the construction of induction motors are
rugged, i.e., not so delicate. Moreover, it takes time for intolerable temperature rise to
endanger the insulation of the motor windings. But this heavy inrush of current will cause a
large voltage drop in the lines leading to the motor. Other motors and equipment connected to
the supply lines will receive reduced voltage. The amount of voltage drop will not only be
dependent on the size of the motor but also on factors like the capacity of the power supply
system, the size and length of the line leading to the motors, etc.
 Fig 5.2 Push button operated direct – on- line starting of a three-phase induction motor
(a) Complete wiring diagram (b) schematic diagram of the control circuit

Direct-on-line starting of induction motors, applicable upto a rating of 5 hp is shown in

figure 5.2. In the circuit in addition to fuses, thermal overload relay has been used to protect
the motor windings against over-load. When the On push-button is pressed, the contactor coil
A becomes energized and its open contacts are closed. The motor gets connected across the
supply mains through the main contacts of the contactor. The motor continues to get supply
even when the pressure on the push-button is released, since the contactor coil will then get
supply through the contact ‘a’of the contactor. Contact ‘a’ of the contactor ‘A’ is therefore
called the hold-on contact. When the OFF push-button is pressed the coil gets de-energised;
the main contacts of the contactor opens and the motor stops. In case of over-load on the
motor, the contact e of the overload relay (OLR) will open, and subsequently the motor will
stop. Fuses are provided for short – circuit protection.
Now let us derive the expression for starting torque in terms of full load torque for the
direct online starter. We have various quantities that involved in the expression for the
starting torque are written below: We define Ts as starting torque, Tf as full load torque, If as
per phase rotor current at full load, Is as per phase rotor current at the time of starting, Sf as
full load slip, 1 as starting slip ,R2 as rotor resistance and Ws as synchronous speed of the
motor. Now we can directly write the expression for torque of induction motor as
1 2 r2
T∝ I
Ws 2 s
With the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque
as
 Ts Is 2
∝ ( ) × sf
Tf If
Ts
= 62 ∗ 0.04 = 1.44
Tf
In general starting current Is of induction motor will be 4 to 6 times the full load current If.
4(a)

Double revolving field theory:

Suppose the rotor is at rest and 1-phase supply is given to stator winding. The current
flowing in the stator winding gives rise to an mmf whose axis is along the winding and it is a
pulsating mmf, stationary in space and varying in magnitude, as a function of time, varying
from positive maximum to zero to negative maximum and this pulsating mmf induces
currents in the short-circuited rotor of the motor which gives rise to an mmf. The currents in
the rotor are induced due to transformer action and the direction of the currents is such that
the mmf so developed opposes the stator mmf. The axis of the rotor mmf is same as that of
the stator mmf. Since the torque developed is proportional to sine of the angle between the
two mmf and since the angle is zero, the net torque acting on the rotor is zero and hence the
rotor remains stationary.
For analytical purposes a pulsating field can be resolved into two revolving fields of
con- stant magnitude and rotating in opposite directions as shown in Fig. 6.3 and each field
has a magnitude equal to half the maximum length of the original pulsating phasor.

Fig. 6.3. Representation of the pulsating field by space phasors.

These component waves rotate in opposite direction at synchronous speed. The forward
(anticlockwise) and backward-rotating (clockwise) mmf waves f and b are shown in Fig. 9.3.
In case of 3-phase induction motor there is only one forward rotating magnetic field and
hence torque is developed and the motor is self-starting. However, in single phase induction
motor each of these component mmf waves produces induction motor action but the
corresponding torques are in opposite direction. With the rotor at rest the forward and
backward field produce equal torques but opposite in direction and hence no net torque is
developed on the motor and the motor remains stationary. If the forward and backward air
gap fields remained equal when the rotor is revolving, each of the component fields would
produce a torque-speed characteristic similar to that of a polyphase induction motor with
negligible leakage impedance as shown by the dashed curves f and b in Fig. 6.4.
The resultant torque-speed characteristic which is the algebraic sum of the two
component curves shows that if the motor were started by auxiliary means it would produce
torque in what- ever direction it was started.
Fig. 6.4. Torque-speed characteristic of a 1-phase induction motor based on constant forward
and backward flux waves
In reality the two fields, forward and backward do not remain constant in the air gap
and also the effect of stator leakage impedance can’t be ignored. In the above qualitative
analysis the effects of induced rotor currents have not been properly accounted for.
When single phase supply is connected to the stator and the rotor is given a push along
the forward rotating field, the relative speed between the rotor and the forward rotating
magnetic field goes on decreasing and hence the magnitude of induced currents also
decreases and hence the mmf due to the induced current in the rotor decreases and its
opposing effect to the forward rotating field decreases which means the forward rotating field
becomes stronger as the rotor speeds up. However for the backward rotating field the relative
speed between the rotor and the backward field increases as the rotor rotates and hence the
rotor emf increases and hence the mmf due to this component of current increases and its
opposing effect to the backward rotating field increases and the net backward rotating field
weakens as the rotor rotates along the forward rotating field. However, the sum of the two
fields remains constant since it must induce the stator counter emf which is approximately
constant if the stator leakage impedance drop is negligible. Hence, with the rotor in motion
the torque of the forward field is greater and that of the backward field is less than what is
shown in Fig. 6.4. The true situation being as is shown in Fig. 6.5.
Fig. 6.5. Torque-speed characteristic of a 1-phase induction motor taking into account
changes in the flux waves

In the normal running region at a few per cent slip the forward field is several times
stronger than the backward field and the flux wave does not differ materially from the
constant amplitude revolving field in the air gap of a balanced polyphase motor. Therefore, in
the normal running range of the motor, the torque-speed characteristic of a single phase
motor is not very much different from that of a polyphase motor having the same rotor and
operating with the same maximum air gap flux density.
In addition to the torque shown in Fig. 9.5, double-stator frequency torque pulsation are
produced by the interaction of the oppositely rotating flux and mmf waves which move past
each other at twice synchronous speed. These double frequency torques produce no average
torque as these pulsations are sinusoidal and over the complete cycle the average torque is
zero. However, sometimes these are additive to the main torque and for another half a cycle
these are subtractive and therefore a variable torque acts on the shaft of the motor which
makes the motor noisier as compared to a polyphase induction motor where the total torque is
constant. Such torque pulsations are unavoidable in single phase circuits. Mathematically
T ∝ I2 (1)
Let I = Im sin ωt
T = K Im 2 sin2 ωt (2)
So the expression for torque contains a constant term superimposed over by a pulsating
torque with pulsation frequency twice the supply frequency.
4(b) Permanent-split capacitor motor:
In this motor the auxiliary winding and capacitor are not disconnected from the motor
after starting, thus the construction is simplified by the omission of the switch as shown in
Fig. 6.8(a).
 Fig. 6.8. Permanent split capacitor motor (a) Connection (b) Torque-speed characteristic

Here the auxiliary winding and capacitor could be so designed that the motor works as
a perfect 2-phase motor at anyone desired load. With this the backward rotating magnetic
field would be completely eliminated. The double stator frequency torque pulsations would
also be eliminated, thereby the motor starts and runs as a noise free motor. With this there is
improvement in p.f. and efficiency of the motor. However, the starting torque must be
sacrificed as the capacitance is necessarily a compromise between the best starting and
running characteristics. The torque-speed characteristic of the motor is shown in Fig. 6.8 (b).

(d) Capacitor start capacitor run motor:

If two capacitors are used with the auxiliary winding as shown in Fig. 6.9 (a), one for
starting and other during the start and run, theoretically optimum starting and running
performance can both be achieved.

Fig. 6.9. (a) Capacitor start capacitor run motor (b) Torque-speed characteristic

The small value capacitor required for optimum running conditions is permanently
con- nected in series with the auxiliary winding and the much larger value required for
starting is obtained by a capacitor connected in parallel with the running capacitor. The
starting capacitor is disconnected after the motor starts.

The value of capacitor for a capacitor start motor is about 300 ∝ 𝐹 for 1 H.P motor. Since
this capacitor must carry current for a short starting period, the capacitor is a special compact
ac electrolytic type made for motor starting duty. However, the capacitor permanently
connected has a typical rating of 40 µF ; since it is connected permanently, the capacitor is an
ac paper, foil and oil type. The cost of the motor is related to the performance ; the permanent
capacitor motor is the lowest cost, the capacitor start motor next and the capacitor start
capacitor run has the highest cost.