HORTSCIENCE 40(6):1806–1809. 2005.

has been little, if any, research conducted to

quantitatively demonstrate the use of growing
Effects of Growing Media Containing media containing DE for control of soilborne
insect pests such as fungus gnats, Bradysia

Diatomaceous Earth on the Fungus spp. As a result, the purpose of this study was
to determine if growing media containing dif-
ferent concentrations of DE negatively affect
Gnat Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila the fungus gnat Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila
(Lintner).
(Lintner) (Diptera: Sciaridae) Materials and Methods
Raymond A. Cloyd1 and Amy Dickinson2
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of This study, which consisted of two
similar experiments, was conducted in the
Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801 National Soybean Research Laboratory at the
Additional index words. fungus gnats, soil amendments, integrated pest management, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
diatomaceous earth, growing media Growing media were acquired from Sun Gro
Horticulture (Marysville, Ohio) on 14 Feb.
Abstract. Fungus gnats (Bradysia spp.) are major insect pests in greenhouses. The adult stage 2004. The growing media used in the study
is primarily a nuisance whereas the larval stage is directly responsible for plant injury by were Sunshine LC1 Mix, SB300 Universal,
feeding on plant roots or tunneling into stems. Insecticides are used to deal with fungus gnat and Teufel Mix. Sunshine LC1 Mix was
larvae in growing medium, although sometimes with limited success. This study evaluated the base-growing medium in which DE was
the potential of using a soil amendment—diatomaceous earth (DE) incorporated into grow- added to obtain the desired formulations. The
ing media—for controlling the fungus gnat Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila. Two experiments components of this growing medium include
were conducted by testing a series of growing media containing various concentrations of peat moss, perlite, lime, a fertilizer charge, and
diatomaceous earth, and several without diatomaceous earth. The effects of the growing a wetting agent. The growing media SB300
media containing diatomaceous earth on both the 2nd and 3rd instars of fungus gnat larvae Universal and Teufel Mix, in addition to the
were determined by recording the number of adults captured on yellow sticky cards (2.5 × components found in Sunshine LC1 Mix,
2.5 cm). Based on the results obtained from both experiments, the addition of DE to growing also contain bark and vermiculite. Both these
medium, at the concentrations tested, did not negatively affect or increase efficacy against growing media did not contain DE. The DE
both the 2nd and 3rd instars. This suggests that incorporating DE into commercially avail- formulations used in the study were Diafil
able growing medium may not be beneficial to greenhouse producers. However, further (World Minerals, Inc., Santa Barbara, Calif.),
research is needed to assess whether differential larval susceptibility and moisture content Dicalite (Grefco, Lompoc, Calif.), and Fine
influence the ability of DE to control soil-dwelling arthropods. Perlite (Seba Beach, Canada).
Fungus gnats. Fungus gnats used in this
Fungus gnats (Bradysia spp.) (Diptera: reliance on insecticides (Lacey and Mulla study were obtained from a laboratory colony
Sciaridae) are common insect pests in green- 1977; Nedstam and Burman, 1990) greenhouse of Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila (Lintner)
house production systems (Dennis, 1978; producers are seeking more long-term alterna- maintained in moist soilless growing medium
Hamlen and Mead, 1979), particularly during tive management strategies that will alleviate supplemented with shredded potato and oat-
propagation, which provides an ideal environ- problems with fungus gnats. meal (Cloyd and Zaborski, 2004).
ment for population growth (Cloyd, 2000). The An alternative management strategy may Experimental procedures. Fungus gnat
primary damaging stage is the larva, which feed be the use of growing media that contain larvae were reared to a known age using the
on plant roots disrupting their ability to uptake amendments such as diatomaceous earth. Dia- following procedure. A standard glass petri
water and nutrients (Hungerford, 1916; Leath tomaceous earth (DE) is composed of the sili- dish (100 × 20-mm) was lined with moistened
and Newton, 1969; Wilkinson and Daugherty, caceous skeletons of diatoms (Ebeling, 1971). 90-mm Whatman No. 1 filter paper (Whatman,
1970). In addition, larva can vector soilborne Diatomaceous earth acts by removing the Maidstone, U.K.). The petri dish was filled with
pathogens directly through feeding or creating insect’s cuticular waxes and by absorbing oils a mixture of sterilized Universal Mix (pine bark
wounds that allow entry for soilborne patho- and waxes in the outer cuticle (Ebeling, 1971). compost, Canadian sphagnum peat, horticultural
gens (Gardiner et al., 1990; Jarvis et al., 1993; Another way in which DE may kill insects is vermiculite, perlite, and a wetting agent) and
Gillespie and Menzies, 1993). through desiccation—that is by rupturing or pureed potatoes at a ratio of 6 parts growing
Greenhouse producers traditionally use abrading the insect cuticle causing extensive medium to 1-part potatoes. About 0.85 g of rolled
insecticides to control fungus gnat larvae (Ham- water loss (Korunic, 1998). Insects pick up oatmeal was sprinkled onto the surface and then
len and Mead, 1979; Lindquist et al., 1985). A DE particles on their cuticle as they move (Le the growing medium was moistened with 35-mL
conventional larvicide or insect growth regula- Patourel et al. 1989). However, the origin of of deionized water using a 946-mL spray bottle.
tor, applied as a drench, is generally success- the material and physical characteristics can The petri dish was enclosed in a 739-mL Ziploc
ful in controlling the larval stage (Lindquist, affect insecticidal properties (Korunic, 1998). container with ventilation holes. About 30 to
1994). However, due to regulatory restrictions The primary use of DE in pest management 40 fungus gnat adults (mixture of female and
on the use of insecticides (Sray, 1997) and the programs has been for control of stored product male) were collected from a laboratory colony
potential for resistance as a result of continual pests (Arthur, 2000a, 2000b; Quarles and Winn, into a 9-dram plastic vial (BioQuip Products,
1996). Diatomaceous earth has been shown Rancho Dominguez, Calif.) secured with a
Received for publication 15 Mar. 2005. Accepted to be an effective alternative to pesticides for cap, and then the vial (with the cap removed)
for publication 27 Apr. 2005. The authors wish control of several stored product pests such was enclosed inside a Ziploc container, which
to thank Erick Caamano, Claudia Kuniyoshi, and as Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Rigaux et al., was then placed into an environmental growth
Khalid Ibrahim for providing technical support. We 2001), Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val, chamber (model CEL-36-10; Warren/Sherer
also thank Richard P. Vetanovetz and Nancy Morgan Tenebrio molitor L., Sitophilus granarius L., Division of Kysor Industrial Corp., Marshall,
of SunGro Horticulture, Inc., Bellevue, Wash., for
providing funding for this research.
and Plodia interpunctella Hübner (Mewis and Mich.) at a temperature of 24 ± 3 °C. The petri
1
Assistant Professor, To whom correspondence Ulrichs, 2001), and Cryptolestes ferrugineous dish (with the cap removed) remained in the
should be addressed; e-mail [email protected]. Stephens (Korunic et al., 1996). chamber for 48 h to allow the female to mate,
2
Research technician. Current address; National It has been hypothesized that incorporating and then lay eggs. After 48 h, the petri dish was
Soybean Research Laboratory, University of Il- DE into soil will control insects emerging from removed from the Ziploc container and 1.0 mL
linois, Urbana. pupal stages (Quarles, 1992). However, there of deionized water was applied to the growing

1806 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 40(6) OCTOBER 2005

medium surface. A glass lid was placed on the of the growing medium every week. Each weight (g) (petri dish + moist growing me-
petri dish, which was then returned to the growth deli container had a yellow sticky card (2.5 × dium), and C = final weight (g) (petri dish +
chamber. The petri dish was checked daily and 2.5 cm) attached to the underside of the lid to dry growing medium).
0.5 mL of deionized water was applied to the capture adults that emerged from the growing
surface to prevent the growing medium from medium. Both experiments were set-up as a Results
drying out. Under the environmental conditions completely randomized design.
of the growth chamber, fungus gnat larvae were Data for the number of adults captured on Experiment 1. Percent moisture content
2nd instars after 7 to 8 d, and 3rd instars after 10 the yellow sticky cards as well as the number before the experiment ranged from 24% to
to 11 d using size to differentiate between the of adults that were flying around within the deli 66% (Table 1). Percent moisture content after
larval instars (Zaborski and Cloyd, 2004). container for each experiment were analyzed the experiment ranged from 49% to 82% for
The petri dish surface was carefully evalu- using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) the growing media inoculated with 2nd instars
ated using a dissecting microscope, to assess the (SAS Institute, 2001) with growing medium and 53% to 76% for growing media inoculated
fungus gnat larval population. A small sample as the main effect. The data were normally with 3rd instars. The moisture content for the
of growing medium (0.85 to 1.4 g) containing distributed for the adult counts. The means for SB300 Universal was always much lower than
larvae was removed, using a laboratory spoon, the number of fungus gnat adults recovered the other growing media (24%, 49%, and 53%,
from the original petri dish and placed into from both 2nd and 3rd instar samples for the respectively) (Table 1). Growing medium effect
another glass petri dish (100 × 20 mm). The different growing media were separated using was significant for the number of fungus gnat
sample was carefully washed with deionized a Fisher’s protected least significant difference adults recovered from samples inoculated with
water and then the petri dish was filled with (LSD) test at P ≤ 0.05. 2nd instar larvae (F = 2.57; df = 11, 83; P =
water. The petri dish was examined using a Gravimetric moisture content of each grow- 0.0083) with the growing medium containing
dissecting microscope and any floating larvae ing medium sample was determined both before the highest concentration of DE in the Dicalite
were collected with a micropipette. The larvae and after conducting the experiments based on formulation (30 lb DE/yard3) having the lowest
were placed into a small glass petri dish (60 five samples placed in petri dishes (100 × 20 mm) adult emergence (5.4 ± 0.5; mean ± SE) (Table
× 15 mm) and covered with deionized water. and then drying 100 mL of growing medium to 2). This growing medium was significantly dif-
Larvae remained in the water for up to 30 a constant mass in a forced-air drying oven at ferent from all the other growing media tested
min or until they were applied to the samples. 60 ± 1 °C. This established the mean moisture with the exception of the Sunshine LC1 Mix
Before inoculating the samples, 2nd and 3rd content for each growing medium expressed as (6.0 ± 0.8; mean ± SE), SB300 Universal (8.4 ±
instars were counted again using a dissecting a percentage. The formula used to obtain the 1.6; mean ± SE), and the lowest concentration
microscope to double check counts. percent moisture content was of DE in the formulation Diafil (10 lb DE/yard3)
The growing media tested and used for (B – A) – (C – A) × 100 = % moisture content (6.5 ± 1.4; mean ± SE). Growing medium was
the samples were placed into a dishpan and B– A not significant for the number of fungus gnat
moistened with deionized water. Each growing where A = weight (g) of petri dish, B = initial adults recovered from samples inoculated with
medium sample was thoroughly mixed 48 h
before adding fungus gnat larvae. The sample Table 1. Percent moisture content of final material (growing media) containing diatomaceous earth (DE)
consisted of 300 mL of growing medium. The tested before and after the first experiment.
growing medium was measured into a 600-mL Moisture content (%)
glass beaker and compressed (to remove air Concn Before After
space) to the 300-mL mark. In total, 1.4 g of Formulation name (lb DE/yard3) n 2nd and 3rd Instar 2nd Instar 3rd Instar
rolled oatmeal was applied to the sample and Diafil 10 5 53 78 75
100 mL of deionized water was added, except Diafil 20 5 52 76 71
for the Teufel mix in which 85 mL of deion- Diafil 30 5 53 76 68
ized water was added. The sample was mixed Dicalite 10 5 53 76 69
and then placed into a 473-mL polypropylene Dicalite 20 5 52 80 71
deli container (Fabri-Kal Corp.; Kalamazoo, Dicalite 30 5 53 74 65
Fine Perlite 10 5 61 78 75
Mich.) and compressed again. Ten to twelve Fine Perlite 20 5 56 77 73
small holes (about 2 mm) were punctured on the Fine Perlite 30 5 53 76 65
bottom using a dissecting probe. The samples Teufel Mix --- 5 50 62 57
were placed into the growth chamber for 48 h, Sunshine LC1 Mix --- 5 66 82 76
which allowed time for fungal growth, before SB300 Universal --- 5 24 49 53
inoculating with larvae. Both 2nd and 3rd Mean (± SE) 52.1 ± 2.9 73.6 ± 2.6 68.1 ± 2.1
instars were used. Seven-day-old 2nd instars Range 24–66 49–82 53–76
and 11-d-old 3rd instars were applied to the
growing medium samples. Twenty larvae (2nd Table 2. Mean adult fungus gnat (Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila) emergence based on yellow sticky card (2.5
or 3rd instar depending on the sample) from × 2.5 cm) counts from growing medium samples initially inoculated with 2nd and 3rd instar fungus
the petri dish (described above) were poured gnat larvae for final material (growing media) containing diatomaceous earth (DE) and other growing
onto each sample and then the petri dish was media tested for the first experiment. There were about 20 fungus gnat larvae used per replication.
rinsed with 50 mL of deionized water to ensure Concn 2nd Instar 3rd Instar
that all larvae had been placed onto the grow- Formulation name n (lb DE/yard3) (mean ± SE) (mean ± SE)
ing medium. There were seven replications Diafil 7 10 6.5 ± 1.4 bcdz 11.5 ± 1.4 a
per sample (n = 12) for each larval instar (n = Diafil 7 20 10.0 ± 1.2 a 10.7 ± 1.7 a
2) for a total of 168 samples. The inoculated Diafil 7 30 9.0 ± 1.0 abc 11.3 ± 0.8 a
Dicalite 7 10 10.8 ± 0.8 a 11.6 ± 1.2 a
samples were then returned to the growth Dicalite 7 20 10.0 ± 0.5 a 12.6 ± 0.8 a
chamber. Each deli container was placed onto Dicalite 7 30 5.4 ± 0.5 d 8.4 ± 1.0 a
the lid of a petri dish (100 × 20 mm) containing Fine Perlite 7 10 9.5 ± 0.8 ab 12.3 ± 1.2 a
water, which could be taken up through the Fine Perlite 7 20 9.4 ± 1.6 ab 11.1 ± 0.4 a
holes on the bottom of the deli containers. This Fine Perlite 7 30 9.4 ± 0.6 ab 12.6 ± 1.1 a
prevented the growing medium from drying Teufel Mix 7 --- 9.7 ± 0.9 a 7.8 ± 1.1 a
out. Every week, 50 mL of deionized water Sunshine LC1 Mix 7 --- 6.0 ± 0.8 cd 11.4 ± 0.9 a
was added to the petri dish lids to maintain a SB300 Universal 7 --- 8.4 ± 1.6 abcd 11.3 ± 1.3 a
consistent moisture level. In addition, 4.0 mL z
Means not followed by a common letter are significantly different (P = 0.05) as determined by Fisher’s
of deionized water was applied to the surface protected least significant difference (LSD) test.

HORTSCIENCE VOL. 40(6) OCTOBER 2005 1807

3rd instar larvae (F = 1.63; df = 11, 83; P = in relation to volume of body, rough or hairy adult emergence, for 2nd instars compared to
0.109) (Table 2). body surface, and thin cuticle thickness are 3rd instars as more adults (on average) tended
Experiment 2. Percent moisture content more sensitive to DE, which may be related to to emerge from growing media inoculated
before the experiment ranged from 43% to larval instar stage or adult (Carlson and Ball, with 3rd instars than 2nd instars (Table 2). It
66% (Table 3). After the experiment, percent 1962). In fact, there may be a wide variation is possible this is due to the 3rd instars having
moisture content ranged from 71% to 85% in insect susceptibility to DE (Rigaux et al., a thicker cuticle, which could decrease their
for the growing media inoculated with 2nd 2001). susceptibility to injury from either DE or other
instars and 75% to 85% for growing media Any variation in larval susceptibility such growing medium particulates, resulting in less
inoculated with 3rd instars. In contrast with as the 2nd and 3rd instars of fungus gnat to mortality. The one exception to this hypothesis
the first experiment, the moisture content for DE may be due to reduced movement, cuticle is the Teufel mix in which fewer adults emerged
the SB300 Universal was only lower (43%) thickness (Korunic, 1998), and where fungus in the 3rd instar inoculated growing medium
before the experiment was conducted (Table gnats pupate (Zaborski and Cloyd, unpublished than the 2nd instar inoculated growing medium.
3). Growing medium was not significant for data). Insects that are active are more likely Additionally, the location of fungus gnat larvae
the number of fungus gnat adults recovered to be damaged than sedentary insects (Fields in the growing medium profile may influence
from samples inoculated with 2nd instars (F = and Korunic, 1996). Minimal movement by the the efficacy of DE. Preliminary studies have
1.69; df = 11, 83; P = 0.095), however, grow- larval stage in the growing medium could result demonstrated that fungus gnat larvae and pupae
ing medium was significant for the number in less DE, depending on concentration, com- are distributed throughout the growing medium
of fungus gnat adults recovered from samples ing in contact with the insect’s body (cuticle) profile (Zaborski and Cloyd, unpublished data),
inoculated with 3rd instars (F = 3.36; df = 11, as it migrates through the growing medium which may influence susceptibility to growing
83; P = 0.001) with all the growing media hav- profile (Rigaux et al., 2001). Diatomaceous media containing lower concentrations of DE.
ing lower adult emergence values than SB300 earth will affect insects as long as there is a Also, fungus gnat larvae feeding within plant
Universal (Table 4). sufficient concentration to ensure that insects roots or stems may escape any detrimental
come in contact with enough diatom particles affects from growing media containing DE
Discussion (Korunic 1998). Any variation in the concen- (Hungerford, 1916). It has been suggested that
tration of DE may impact efficacy as insects fungus gnat adults may be negatively affected
The insecticidal activity of DE may depend are exposed to fewer diatom particles as less by growing medium containing DE as they
on a number of factors such as uniform par- DE is incorporated into the growing medium. emerge from pupae (Quarles, 1992) resulting
ticle size (≥10 µm), percent of particles with However, it has not been shown that one instar in increased mortality and/or reduced fitness
a diameter <12 µm, distribution of diatom of fungus gnat is more active than the other or and reproduction. The reason why there were
particles, and oil adsorption capacity (Korunic there are differences in larval stage suscepti- no significant differences among the growing
1998). However, insect sensitivity to DE may bility. In the first experiment, growing media media for the 3rd instars was due to the low
be related more to anatomy and physiology. (those with and without DE) appeared to have adult emergence from all the growing media
For example, insects with a large surface area a numerically greater negative effect, based on (Table 4).
Table 3. Percent moisture content of growing media (formulation name) containing diatomaceous earth
In general, the percent moisture content of
(DE) tested before and after the second experiment. the growing media used before each experiment
were similar based on the mean (± SE) moisture
Moisture content (%) content (52.1 ± 2.9 for the first experiment
Concn Before After and 51.2 ± 1.8 for the second experiment)
Formulation name (lb DE/yard3) n 2nd and 3rd Instar 2nd Instar 3rd Instar and range of moisture contents (24% to 66%
Diafil 10 5 52 84 83 for the first experiment and 43% to 66% for
Diafil 20 5 50 83 82 the second experiment) (Tables 1 and 3) with
Diafil 30 5 43 82 81 the exception of SB300 Universal (24% vs.
Dicalite 10 5 50 84 82
Dicalite 20 5 50 78 82
43%, respectively). The variable moisture
Dicalite 30 5 50 82 81 content of the SB300 Universal may be due
Fine Perlite 10 5 58 85 84 to the physical characteristics or composition
Fine Perlite 20 5 55 84 83 of the components.
Fine Perlite 30 5 48 84 81 The one noticeable difference in the data,
Teufel Mix --- 5 50 71 65 based on recovery rate, was the lower num-
Sunshine LC1 Mix --- 5 66 85 85 ber of fungus gnat adults obtained from 3rd
SB300 Universal --- 5 43 76 75 instars in the second experiment compared
Mean (± SE) 51.2 ± 1.8 81.5 ± 1.2 80.3 ± 1.6 to the first experiment (Tables 2 and 4). This
Range 43–66 71–85 75–85
may be a response to the different percent
Table 4. Mean adult fungus gnat (Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila) emergence based on yellow sticky card (2.5 moisture contents between both experiments.
× 2.5 cm) counts from growing medium samples initially inoculated with 2nd and 3rd instar fungus Measurements of percent moisture content did
gnat larvae for growing media containing diatomaceous earth (DE) and other growing media tested for vary after completion of the experiments in
the second experiment. There were about 20 fungus gnat larvae used per replication. regards to both instars with percent moisture
Concn 2nd Instar 3rd Instar contents (mean ± SE) for the 2nd and 3rd instars
Formulation name n (lb DE/yard3) (mean ± SE) (mean ± SE) in experiment one lower (73.6 ± 2.6 and 68.1
Diafil 7 10 7.5 ± 1.2 az 4.3 ± 0.9 bc ± 2.1, respectively) than those for the 2nd and
Diafil 7 20 8.4 ± 2.1 a 4.1 ± 0.5 bc 3rd instars in the second experiment (81.5 ± 1.2
Diafil 7 30 10.4 ± 1.7 a 3.8 ± 0.7 bc and 80.3 ± 1.6, respectively) (Tables 1 and 3).
Dicalite 7 10 8.7 ± 1.1 a 3.7 ± 0.9 bc These differences in percent moisture content
Dicalite 7 20 9.0 ± 1.4 a 2.0 ± 0.4 c
may account for the variability in recovery
Dicalite 7 30 5.1 ± 0.8 a 3.3 ± 0.9 bc
Fine Perlite 7 10 5.7 ± 0.8 a 5.0 ± 1.5 b rates experienced in both experiments for the
Fine Perlite 7 20 7.2 ± 1.1 a 3.7 ± 0.8 bc 3rd instars. Although the range of fungus gnat
Fine Perlite 7 30 10.3 ± 1.4 a 3.3 ± 1.2 bc adult emergence was similar for 2nd instars
Teufel Mix 7 --- 6.1 ± 1.5 a 5.8 ± 1.0 b in both experiments (5.4 to 10.8 and 5.1 to
Sunshine LC1 Mix 7 --- 8.1 ± 1.6 a 3.7 ± 0.7 bc 10.4, respectively), the relative number of
SB300 Universal 7 --- 9.0 ± 1.7 a 9.3 ± 1.1 a adults that emerged was lower in the second
z
Means not followed by a common letter are significantly different (P = 0.05) as determined by Fisher’s experiment compared to the first experiment
protected least significant difference (LSD) test. (Tables 2 and 4). Again, this may be due to

1808 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 40(6) OCTOBER 2005

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