5 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

INSTRUMENTATION
5.1 Principles and Practical Application

5.1.1 Introduction
Purpose and Application Components
The purpose of an aircraft inertial The four basic components of an INS unit
navigation system (INS) is to provide are (see fig. IN 5.1):
accurate worldwide navigation information • A stable platform oriented to maintain the
independent of external aids; the system accelerometers horizontal to the Earth and
neither transmits nor receives any signals. to provide azimuth orientation
• The accelerometers arranged on the stable
After being supplied with latitude and platform to supply specific components of
longitude of the ramp position prior to acceleration
departure, INS is capable of continuously • The integrators to receive the output from
updating extremely accurate displays the accelerometers and to furnish velocity
of: position, ground speed, attitude and and distance
heading. In addition, it may provide • A computer to receive the signals from
guidance or steering information for the the integrators and to change to distance
autopilot and flight instruments. travelled into latitude and longitude

Start pos. Lat & long

Integrators
1 st 2 nd
Accelerometer
Gyroscopes
Acceleration Velocity Distance

Computer

Gimbal Correction signal to level platform

System

Stabilised platform
Lat & long
Fig. IN 5.1 Components of simple INS

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 5-1

05 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).indd 1 29/03/2009 12:05:51

 An additional component, not directly of the supporting springs into an output
INSTRUMENTATION

part of the INS system but complimentary signal (fig IN. 5.2).
to it and necessary for all aircraft, is the
navigation computer and display unit. Aircraft stopped
- + No
Most aircraft now fly using triplicate -2 -1 1 2 acceleration
signal
components for safety and reliability. A
common aircraft fit would include: Aircraft - + Positive
accelerating -2 -1 1 2 acceleration
• 3 INS systems force (thrust) signal
• 3 INS control units, and
Aircraft - + No
• A navigation computer and display. maintaining -2 -1 1 2 acceleration
speed signal

Decelerating - Negative
5.1.2 Accelerometers force -4-3-2-1 1 acceleration
(braking) signal
Introduction
The basic principles upon which the Gravity -
-2 -1
accelerometers operate are related to 1 2 False
Newtons laws regarding motion. acceleration
signal
They are:
• A body will continue in a state of rest Fig. IN 5.2 Simple spring accelerometer
or maintain a straight line of movement
unless compelled to change that state by a
force acting upon it The accelerometer cannot calculate
• The acceleration of a body is directly velocity or distance itself, it quite simply
proportional to the applied force causing registers the spring displacement, which is
the change, and takes place in the directly proportional to the accelerating or
direction of the applied force decelerating forces. Velocity and distance are
• To every force, there is an equal and computed from sensed acceleration by the
opposite reaction application of basic mathematical formulas
of integration.
An accelerometer is an essential part of all
inertial systems. There are many varieties In an inertial navigation system, two or
of this instrument, but they all work on three accelerometers are used. One will
the same basic principle. They can detect measure the aircraft’s accelerations in the
accelerations to a thousandth of a G-force, North-South directions, another will measure
far more sensitive than the human body can the aircraft’s accelerations in the East-West
detect. In its simplest form, an accelerometer directions. The third accelerometer, if fitted,
consists of a small weight suspended will measure vertical displacement, but is
between two springs, with an electrical pick- not part of the system described below. A
off which converts the compression of one North/South and East/West - orientation

5-2 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

05 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).indd 2 29/03/2009 12:06:40

 of the accelerometers is most common, Movement of the pendulum will take the

INSTRUMENTATION
but note that for polar navigation, another I-bar out of the horizontal which disturbs
reference might be used. the relative position of the E and I bar and
thus generates an error signal. This signal
Pendulum Accelerometer is fed to the INS computer which will feed
Accelerometers can, as mentioned earlier, a current to the feed-back coils to pull the
be of various types, but the most common pendulum back to the vertical and regain
is the pendulum linked to a force feed-back the relative position between the E and I
system. bar. This is known as a “Force Re-balance
System” or a “Force feedback” system.
Fig. IN 5.3 shows that the pivot arrangement
allows movement in one axis only i.e. north/ The actual strength of the feedback current
south or East/West but not both. It also required to pull the pendulum back to
shows that the greater the acceleration along the vertical is directly proportional to the
the swing axis, the more the pendulum will acceleration and is used by the computer
lag behind the pivot and therefore swing to measure the acceleration along its
from the vertical. This movement is then swing axis.
sensed as a disturbance to the equilibrium
of the E and I bar. The E bar is fixed to the The system’s extreme sensitivity enables
stable platform with the legs pointing up, it to detect even the smallest change of
and the I-bar is fixed to the bottom of the acceleration. To maintain the required
pendulum, horizontally above it. accuracy, alignment is critical to the

Pivot Acceleration to
the right

From computer to From computer to

force feed-back coil force feed-back coil

Force feed-back to
the right cancels
pendulum swing
Lag swing pendulum
to the left
I bar

E bar
Pick-off to computer Pick-off to computer

Fig. IN 5.3 Pendulum accelerometer

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 5-3

Instrumentation E5.indb 3 13.05.2008 12:16:36

 sensed direction of the acceleration. If the
INSTRUMENTATION

platform is misaligned and accelerated in a

North/South direction, the north sensitive North North
accelerometer will not detect the full acc velocity
acceleration and the east accelerometer will
detect an unwanted component. AMP 1st integrator

5.1.3 Integrators Force

Integration is a function that can be viewed
as a multiplication by time. For example, a
vehicle accelerating at three ft per second
squared would be travelling at a velocity
of 30 ft per second after 10 seconds have
passed. Note that acceleration was simply
multiplied by time to get a velocity.
Fig. IN 5.4 1st integrator

The microprocessor also integrates the

calculated velocity to determine position. The signal is then sent through a second
For example, a vehicle travelling at a velocity integrator and again it is a time multiplier
of 30 ft per second for 10 seconds will have (fig. IN 5.5). With an output of ft per
changed position by 300 ft. Velocity was second, which is multiplied by time, the
simply multiplied by time to determine result is a distance in ft or miles, in this
the position. example 221 miles.

All an integrator does is to produce an The computer associated with the Inertial
output which is the mathematical integral of System knows the latitude and the longitude
the input, or in other words, the input signal of the takeoff position and calculates that
multiplied by the time it was present. the aircraft has travelled so far in a
North – South direction and so far in an
There are, as mentioned above, two stages East – West direction. It now becomes
of integration: first and second stage. There simple for a digital computer to continuously
are 4 integrators in all per system: 2 to the compute the new present position of the
North/South channel and 2 to the East/ aircraft.
West channel. The first stage integrator
takes an input voltage proportional to The integration process is completed several
acceleration (i.e. ft per second squared) hundred times a second, and will thus give
from an accelerometer and integrates it, thus a nearly continuous information on distance
producing an output voltage proportional to travelled in the direction the particular
velocity, North/South or East/West (ft per accelerometer is aligned with.
second). In fig. IN 5.4 the velocity is North.

5-4 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

Instrumentation E5.indb 4 13.05.2008 12:16:36

 INSTRUMENTATION
North North
velocity distance

2 2 1

2nd integrator

Force

Fig. IN 5.5 2nd integrator

5.1.4 The Platform aligned to north in the presence of aircraft

The platform provides the mounting for the manoeuvres:
accelerometers and gyroscopes. In order that • The pitch torquer is fixed to the pitch
accelerometers can measure accelerations gimbal and the roll gimbal
along two independent axes, namely North/ • The roll torquer is fixed to the pitch
South and East/West, the platform must be gimbal and the aircraft
kept level and aligned by a gimbal system. • The azimuth torquer is fixed to the pitch
The function of the platform is to maintain gimbal and the platform.
the accelerometers level and aligned to the
Earth’s North/South and East/West axes. The torque motors signalled by the levelling
and azimuth gyroscopes automatically
5.1.5 Gimbal System control the gimbals. If the aircraft rolls,
A three gimbal system is normally used, the roll is instantly passed to the platform
each gimbal having a pick-off and a gimbal through the gimbals. The levelling gyros
torquer. Pick-offs are used to provide will be caused to precess, producing output
pitch, roll, and heading information to the voltages which are passed to the roll
main flight instruments. Gimbal torquers torquer motor which drives the roll gimbal,
are follow-up motors used to drive the returning the platform to its start position
gimbal to maintain the platform level and in the horizontal. In practice the platform

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 5-5

Instrumentation E5.indb 5 13.05.2008 12:16:36

 remains level, driven by the gimbals and
INSTRUMENTATION

torquer motors. The angle the roll gimbal Sensitive (input) axis Output axis

has been moved to keep the platform level X

is termed roll angle. This is sensed by Z 1

the pick-off and is passed to the relevant Y

instrument displaying roll angle.

Y1
5.1.6 Gyroscopes Z
There are two levelling gyroscopes: one set Spin 1
Applied turn
X
up sensitive to rotations about the North/
South axis; the other about the East/West Fig. IN 5.6 Levelling gyroscope
axis. The third gyro, or azimuth gyro, is
sensitive to rotations around the vertical The gimbal or gyro precession around
axis. All platform gyros are rate integrating the output axis is thus proportional to the
gyros and if turned around their sensitive rate of rotation producing it. The pick-
axes will precess producing an output off measures this precession and passes a
voltage from electrical pick-offs. voltage proportional to the precession to
the relevant gimbal torquer, which drives
The levelling gyros are usually vertical gyros the gimbals to keep the platform level and
while the azimuth gyro is a horizontal gyro. aligned. In addition each gyroscope has a
gyro torquer which is used to apply forces to
The rate integrating gyroscope is a gyro
the output axis to correct for apparent drift
mounted inside two concentric cans.
and topple.
The inner can forms a gimbal by rotating
within an outer can. The outer can is fixed
INS - Principle of Operation
to the INS platform. It can be seen from the
Accelerometers on the INS platform measure
fig. IN 5.6 that the gyro’s sensitive axis
vehicle accelerations in the North/South
is at right angles to both the output and
and East/West planes. The acceleration
spin axis.
information are then integrated twice in
a computer, and compared with a timing
The outer can is filled with a viscous fluid,
signal to produce distance gone in two
which produces a resistance, or damping
channels - North/South and East/West.
to stop the inner can from toppling. If the
The platform is kept level and aligned to
gyro is rotated about its sensitive axis Z a
true north by a gimbal system stabilised by
torque/force will be applied to the spin axis
gyroscopes, and a platform control unit. The
producing a precession about its output axis
relative position of the aircraft axes and the
Y. The rotation about Y will continue until
INS platform axes provides information on
the viscous restraint of the oil equals the
aircraft pitch, roll and heading.
precessional torque.

5-6 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

05 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).indd 6 29/03/2009 12:07:48

 Measurement Axes and this alignment must be maintained if

INSTRUMENTATION
Acceleration must be measured along two the correct accelerations are to be measured.
axes, usually orthogonal, if vehicle velocity Moreover, the sensitive axes must be
and displacement are to be defined in a kept perpendicular to the gravity vertical,
given plane. Since most accelerometers are otherwise, the accelerometers sense part
designed to measure acceleration along of the gravity acceleration (fig. IN 5.7). The
one axis only, two accelerometers are reference frame defined by these directions,
required for inertial navigation in a two i.e. local North, local East, and local Vertical,
dimensional plane. In aircraft systems the is called the Local Vertical Reference
accelerometers are usually mounted with Frame. Other reference frames can be used,
their input axes aligned with north and east, but the local vertical is the fundamental
mechanisation used.
Without correction
Gyro Stabilisation
Once the accelerometers have been
aligned in the chosen reference frame,
they must be capable of maintaining that
orientation during aircraft manoeuvres. The
A B accelerometers are therefore mounted on a
platform, which is suspended in a gimbal
system that isolates the accelerometers from
aircraft manoeuvres see fig. IN 5.8).

Oriented to original vertical However, this platform is not inherently

stable, and any tendency for the platform
to rotate with the aircraft must be detected
With correction
and opposed. Gyros are therefore mounted
on the platform to detect platform rotation
and control platform attitude. Three single
degree of freedom gyros are normally used;
one gyro detects rotation about the North
A B axis, another rotation about East, and the
third rotation about the vertical.

The platform rotations detected by the

gyros are used to generate error signals,
Oriented to local vertical proportional to change in platform attitude,
which are used to motor the platform back
Fig. IN 5.7 Local vertical to its correct orientation.

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 5-7

Instrumentation E5.indb 7 13.05.2008 12:16:36

 Platform Control
INSTRUMENTATION

Azimuth North East East The platform control unit computes

gyro gyro gyro accelerometer
and applies the gyro and accelerometer
N correction terms from calculated values of
E ground speed and latitude and stored values
of Earth radius and Earth rotation rate,
see fig. IN 5.9.

Output
North The outputs of the INS system are distance
accelerometer
gone North/South (Change in latitude)
& East/West (Change in longitude from
departure formula), pitch, roll, and true
heading. The INS and navigation computer
combine to give outputs of distance gone,
groundspeed, drift, and track.

5.1.7 Platform Control

The platform must remain level and aligned
to true North in the presence of Earth
rotation and aircraft movement. These
Fig. IN 5.8 Simplified INS platform
movements must be corrected in order
that the accelerometers will only measure
Effect of Earth Rotation and Vehicle accelerations N/S and E/W, and the
Movement following terms for drift and topple must be
An INS operating in the local vertical made (see table IN 5.1).
reference frame must maintain its alignment
relative to Earth directions. The gyros It is the function of the platform control
used to stabilise the platform are rigid in to calculate these corrections and pass
space and must therefore be corrected them as correcting currents to the relevant
for Earth rate and transport wander to gyro torquers. The torquers produce forces
make them “Earth stable”. Additionally, on the gyro spin axes causing correcting
the accelerometers must be corrected for precessions. Correction voltages are
the effects of Coriolis and the centripetal also passed by the platform control to
acceleration caused by rotating the platform correct or bias the output voltages of the
to maintain alignment with the local vertical accelerometers to correct for Coriolis and
reference frame. centripetal acceleration errors.

5-8 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

05 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).indd 8 07/04/2009 09:26:29

 INSTRUMENTATION
Azimuth North North East
gyro accelerometer gyro gyro

(East acceleration)
N E

East
accelerometer

Platform
(North acceleration)

Gyro Gyro
correction corrections
Gyro corrections

Accelerometer corrections

Platform control

1st integrator 1st integrator

Velocity N/S V U
Velocity E/W

2nd integrator 2nd integrator

Radius of Earth Distance E/W

Ch Lat the Earth (R) rate (departure)

Latitude Secant gear

Ch Long

Longitude

Fig. IN 5.9 Simple inertial navigation system

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 5-9

Instrumentation E5.indb 9 13.05.2008 12:16:37

 INSTRUMENTATION

Component Correction for Correction value

_ V
E/W levelling gyro Apparent topple around E/W axis
R

N/S levelling gyro Apparent topple around N/S axis Ω cos λ + U

R

Azimuth gyro Apparent drift in azimuth Ω sin λ + U tan λ

R

E/W accelerometer Coriolis and centripetal accelerations 2ΩV sin λ + UV tan λ

R

N/S accelerometer Coriolis and centripetal accelerations 2ΩV sin λ + U2 tan λ

R

Table IN 5.1

Platform Operation Consider flying east as shown in fig. IN 5.11.

A typical platform mounting in the aircraft Pitch manoeuvres this time will be sensed
is shown in fig. IN 5.10. Gyroscopes and by the N/S levelling gyro. To correct for
accelerometers are corrected for drift and pitch manoeuvres when flying east the
topple by the platform control unit, but are North/South gyro signals the pitch torquer
not shown. motor. In both cases the pitch torque motor
drives the platform in the presence of pitch
If the aircraft is flying north as shown, any changes to re-level the platform, but is
pitch manoeuvre will cause the gimbals to signalled by either the North/South or East/
pitch the platform. The pitch rotation will West levelling gyro, see table IN 5.2.
be sensed by the East/West levelling gyro.
It will precess and pass an output signal to Pitch and Roll Correction
the pitch torque motor to level the platform. Pitch and roll aircraft manoeuvres passed
Flying north, the East/West gyro signals the to the platform are corrected by the pitch
pitch torque motor. and roll gimbal torque motors. However,
the detection of pitch and roll manoeuvres

Heading Manoeuvre Sensing gyro Correcting gyro

Yaw Azimuth Azimuth

North/south Pitch East Pitch
Roll North Roll
Yaw Azimuth Azimuth

East/west Pitch North Pitch

Roll East Roll

Table IN 5.2

5-10 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

Instrumentation E5.indb 10 13.05.2008 12:16:37

 INSTRUMENTATION
North gyro Azimuth gyro Platform East gyro

Roll motor

N-S accelerometer
N
E-W accelerometer E
Aircraft
heading
(north)
Roll axis

Pitch axis
Azimuth motor Pitch motor

Aircraft frame Vertical axis

Fig. IN 5.10 Platform arrangement-aircraft heading north

Pitch axis

Roll axis V

E-W accelerometer
N E
N-S accelerometer
Pitch motor
Roll motor

Aircraft heading
(east)

Azimuth motor Vertical axis Aircraft frame

Fig. IN 5.11 Platform arrangement - aircraft heading east

Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) 5-11

Instrumentation E5.indb 11 13.05.2008 12:16:38