Forthcoming in this series F. AARTS and J. ARTS English Syniactic Structures ‘An introduction to units and structures in contemporary written English IVAN POLDAUF English Word Stress ANALYZING ENGLISH An introduction to descriptive linguistics HOWARD JACKSON City of Birmingham Polytechnic SECOND EDITION © PERGAMON PRESS ‘Oxford - New York » Toronto « Sydney + Paris » Frankfurtux. usa, CANADA AUSTRALIA FRANCE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Pereamon Press Lt (OXS OW, Fagland Pergamon Pres ne, Maxwell House, Faivew Pas imford, Now York 10523, U.S.A. Pergamon Press Canada Lid, Suite 104, 180 Consumers Road, Willoweele, Ontario MAY 1P9, Canada Pergamon Press (Aust) Pi. Lid, P.O. Box SH, Pts Point, N°.W. 2011; Austin Peigamon Press SARL, 24 rue des Beoes, 75240 Pats, (Codex 05, France Pergamon Press GmbH, 6242. Kronberp-Taunus, ammerwet 6, Federal Republic of Germany Headington Hit Hall, Oxford ‘Copyright © 1982 Pergnon Press Lid AIL righ eserved No part ofthis publication may be dnl edn feral eetinor aed ‘ny form or by any meant: electron, leona imac wpe, chanical phoning, reading or ‘herwse, wou permission in hing ro the pub her Fit eiton 1960 Reprine1982 Sezond eon 1982 LUbrary of Congres Cataloging in Publication Data Jackson, Howard, ‘Analying English, (Language courses) Tes inde 1 English anguape-Grammar-1950 1. Tle, Series. PELIGIE RD 2)B1-23834 AACE rks Library Cataloguing in Publieation Data Jackson, Howard nalyzing English; an introduction to descriptive igus 2nd ed (Language courses) 1 Engi rege Le I fn PEL ISBN 0-08-025567-4 Printed nGreat Briain by A. Wheaton & Co. Lit, Exeter for HilaryContents Acknowledgements Introduction Part One: Sounds Making sounds English consonants English vowels Sounds and their variants Sounds in connected speech Combining sounds intonation Part Two: Structures 8, Grammar and sentences, 9. Word classes 10. Phrases 1—noun phrases 1. Phrases 2—verb phrases 12. Phrases 3—adjective phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases 13, Clauses 1—strueture and types Jd. Clauses 2—dependent clauses \Fext 1—rearranging items fext 2—cohesion Part Three: Words 17. Morphemes 18. English morphology 19. Dictionary information 20. ‘Grammar’ of words 21. Relations between words Conclusion and further reading Key to exercises International Phonetic Alphabet Index 2 2 2 48 35 n 8 83 9 102 109 4 19 2s 136 138 Ist 153Acknowledgements This book came into being over a number of years in the course of teaching the analysis of the modern English language (o students on the English degree at Birmingham Polytechnic, Like many students of English coming to study for a dogree which includes a fair proportion of linguistic work, after the purely literature courses they have pursued at. school they find the ways of thinking and the analytical approach required for this work at first often new and strange. I am {grateful to all those students who bore with my attempts to find the most satisfactory way of introducing the modern linguistic study of English, 1 would also like to thank Vaughan James of the Pergamon Institute of English for his help and advice in the preparation of the manuseript for publication. And owe a debt, asin many other things, to my wife Hy Introduction Many people associate the term ‘linguistics’ with the philosophy of language (Wittgenstcin and the like), with learning foreign languages, or with abstract, ‘mathematical symbolism supposedly charting the language that we speak and write. ‘Now linguisties does have something to do with all these three activities, and the third of them in particular occupies the attention and energies of many scholars ‘working in the field of linguistics. Perhaps the most well-known, but by no means only, scholar falling into this category is Noam Chomsky, who initiated the “transformational generative’ school of linguistics. Such scholars are often referred to as “theoretical linguists, Their aim is to construct a unified model or theory to ‘explain’ the nature of individual languages and of human language in general. Like all theoretical sciences, theoretical linguistics aims to make as explicit as possible its axioms and procedures, so that its hypotheses and theories can be adequately tested. The explicitness required demands a measure of formalism, and for this theoretical linguistics looks, like fther sciences, to mathematics and symbolic logic. This makes many linguisties books daunting to the uninitiated and difficult for the layman to gain access to, ‘Much modern linguistics over the past 25 years has been of this kind, often concentrating on individual problems of description at a quite abstract level, However, not all linguistics is like that. More important, in the opinion of this author, and complementary to the kind of approach outlined in the previous paragraph is a branch of linguistics referred to as ‘descriptive’ linguistics. This ‘approach starts with a language as it is spoken and written, withthe data of actually occurring utterances and sentences, and seeks to analyze, catalogue and describe ‘that data and that language. Descriptive linguistics is about describing languages rather than about constructing theories and models. It must, of course, use categories of description, but these arise inductively from a consideration of the language data rather than deductively from the axioms of a theory. Jn many ways, descriptive linguistics isthe successor to ‘traditional grammas’, as it used to be taught in schools. And it is ironic that, while in recent years great advances have been made in the description of contemporary English, the education system in Britain no longer demands that pupils should be acquainted with the nature and structure of their mother tongue. In the seventies a number of significant reference works have been published, distilling the latest knowledge about the English language, among them the Grammar of contemporary English by R Quitk, § Greenbaum, G Leech and J Svartvik, published by Longman in 1972. ‘This present book is aimed at those wishing to discover the techniques and insights Of linguistics as applied to the description of the contemporary English language. ‘Such persons might be students in further or higher education undertaking a coursexX Introduetion in linguistics oF English language, without any school background in language analysis. Or they might be teachers or advanced learners of English as a Foreign Language, secking the beginnings of a systematic linguistic description of modern English. Or they might be interested lay people wishing to know what this still relatively new science of linguistics has to say about the nature of the language they speak. ‘i ‘The book is divided into three sections, dealing with Sound (ie pronunciation), ‘Structures (je grammar) and Words (ie vocabulary and meaning). The terminology used is, much of it, derived from traditional grammar, and it relates directly to that found in A Grammar of contemporary English and similar works. Each chapter presents a framework of analysis for the point being discussed, and is provided with fn exercise, to give practice in applying the analytical techniques presented in the chapter. Solutions to the exercises are given in a Key at the end. The aim of the ook is 10 show how linguistic analysis and description is done and to lead the reader to make his own analyses. It is intended that the book may be used seltinstructionally, or i could be used by a teacher. And it is hoped that after working through the book the reader will then be able to make practical analyses of any English sentence or text himself—with the aid of the reference works cited in the Conclusion, Part One: Sounds| | 1. Making sounds Speaking and writing ‘We can transmit our language in two ways: either by speaking or by writing. We are all conscious of what writing invalves: the use of a pen or pencil in our hands, the ‘making of special marks (letters) on paper. But we are not at all conscious of what speaking involves, It involves sound coming out of our mouths. But how is that sound produced? And how does it relate to the letters that we write? Afterall itis the same language, whether we speak it or write it ‘The reason we are more conscious of writing is because we had to be taught how to write, how to hold the pencil correctly, how to shape the letters so that they could be recognized hy someone else, But we learned to speak on our mother’s knee. [No one told us how to make the right sounds, what to do with our tongues or our lips. All natural languages have been transmitted by speech, but not all by writing. ‘And all normal healthy people have learned to speak their language in childhood, but not all have Ieamed to write, In this sense speech is prior to writing and characteristic of us as human beings. When we speak we use over half of our bodies to do so, from the diaphragm, situated below the lungs, to the mouth and nose in our faces. Speech is quite simply ‘column of air, that originates in the lungs, and is modified in various ways before its passage through the lips, and s0 out of the mouth and into the air. Like any other sound, speech is the vibration of the the air to make sound waves. In this case the, vibration, and the characteristics of the sound waves are determined by the human vocal organs. ‘What we have just described is the most usual basis of speech, ie egressive lung ‘ir—air originating in the lungs and passing outwards. It is also possible to speak while breathing in, with ingressive lung air. We sometimes speak like this in ‘moments of tension, but it is not a normal way to produce speech sounds. However, ingressive mouth air sounds, produced when drawing air into the mouth but not into the lungs, do occur. For English speakers the tut-tut sound is made like this, and in some languages such sounds are regularly used. Egressive mouth air sounds also occur; for English speakers blowing a raspberry or giving a kiss are sounds of, this kind, But for articulating the sounds of English words egressive lung air is virtually always used in normal English speech. ‘Vocal cords ‘As air is expelled from the lungs, it passes up the windpipe (trachea) and into the larynx (see Figure 1). In the larynx is found the glottis, the passage between the ‘vocal cords (oF vocal folds). Here the air coming from the lungs receives its first4 Analyzing English major modification. The vocal cords, despite their name, are not to be imagined like strings of a guitar or piano. They are a pair of fleshy, lip-like membranes, that are hinged at the front and may be moved together or apart in order to impede or allow the passage of air through the glottis The action of the vocal cords (ie the state of the glottis) determines whether a sound being produced is voiced or voicelesss.When the vocal cords are brought close together, but not shut tightly, the air escaping from the lungs eauses them to Figure 1: The vocal organs vibrate: this is called voicing, and a sound produced while the vocal cords are Vibrating is a voiced sound, When the voeal cords are apart, no vibration occurs, and sounds produced with the glottis in this state are voiceless sounds. This is also the state of the glottis for normal breathing, The vibratory action of the vocal cords ‘may be easily demonstrated by blocking up the ears and producing alternately an s And ax sound. The s isa voiceless sound and the z a voiced sound, The articulation of the latter should induce a buzzing sensation There are two further possible states of the glottis, which are both of marginal interest to the production of speech. One is when the vocal cords are brought tightly together and the glottis is completely closed. We do this when we are lifting, heavy objects, and it occurs in speech as a momentary action, in the production of the ‘glottal stop’, familiar from the Cockney pronunciation of the t in butter. The other state of the glottis is intermediate between vibrating and completely open: the vocal cords are brought together, but not sufficiently for vibration to occur. This is the state of the glottis associated with whispering, ‘Summarizing, there are four possible states of the glottis: 1, Open and relaxed, wsed for normal breathing and making voiceless sounds; 2. Vibrating, used for making voiced sounds; 3. Completely shut, used for making the glottal stop; Making sounds 5 4. Close together but not vibrating, used for whispering. (Only the first two are of importance in the description of speech sounds, giving us the categories of voiceless and voiced sounds. A speech sound must belong to one or the other of these categories, and this is determined by the state ofthe glottis at the time of its production. (Oral and nasal sounds As the column of air passes beyond the glottis, through the pharynx, there are two possible ways of escape from the face: either through the mouth, or through the nose. At the back of the mouth, as an extension of the root, isthe soft palate, oF volum. This is under muscular control and may at any time be in one of two positions: either raised, or lowered, Ifthe soft palate is raised, the passage through the nose is blocked and air may escape only through the mouth. Ifthe soft palate is. lowered, the passage through the nose is free, and air may escape both through the nose and through the mouth, Sounds produced with the soft palate lowered are nnasal or nasalized sounds. Sounds produced with the soft palate raised and air escaping only through the mouth are called oral sounds. Indeed we assume that sounds are oral unless we use the term nasal or nasalized. The difference between oral and nasal sounds may be illustrated from the word sudden. In a normal, fairly rapid pronunciation of this word, the final two sounds are da. The only respect in Which these sounds differ from each other is that d is an oral sound and n is a nasal sound. If you monitor your pronunciation carefully you should be able to feel the action of the soft palate in the transition from d to n, i from a raised to a lowered position ‘The function of the soft palate is, then, either to allow or not to allow the passage of air through the nose. When it is lowered it does not restrict the escape of air through the mouth. However the eseape of air through the mouth may be restricted in other ways, and air may be escaping only through the nose. For example, in the pronunciation of m, air cannot escape from the mouth because the lips are tightly shut, so that the escape of air is only through the nasal cavity. The most complex modifications of the column of air that originated in the lungs take place in the mouth. Here we are concemed with two aspects of articulation: firstly, the manner of articulation; and secondly the place of articulation, The ‘manner of articulation refers to the way in which a sound is made, and the place refers tothe position in the mouth at which the sound is made. A number of sounds made in different ways may be made at the same position, ‘Manner of articulation With manner of articulation we frst of all make a broad distinction between sounds that are produced without any obstruction in the mouth, and those that are made with some kind of obstruction, The former we call vowels and the latter consonants. ‘The differing quality of vowel sounds is determined by the openness of the mouth, the configuration of the tongue and the shape of the lips. The quality of consonant6 Analyzing English sounds is determined by the kind of obstruction to the passage of air (or elasure), 8 well as by the place of articulation. igure 2: Near closure fors Complete closure ‘A umber of kinds of closure may be identified. First there is the complete closure, when a total obstruction is made to the flow of air. When the soft palate is raised and air is prevented from escaping through the nose, air-pressure will build up behind the obstruction, and may then be released with an explosion. Sounds produced in this way are called plosive sounds (or sometimes stops). Such a sound in English isthe intial b in bin, Here the complete closure is made by the two lips. Obviously the closure, the build up of air-pressure, and the plosion are momentary activities; but they are all three stages in the articulation of plosive sounds. If, with a complete closure, the soft palate is lowered, then air may escape through the nose. Sounds made in this way are called nasal sounds, eg m in English man, where the closure is again made by the lips. Figure 3: Complete closure for g Near closure ‘A second kind is a near-closure. Here the air is allowed to escape, but not freely. ‘The escaping air causes friction at the point of near-closure, and the sounds produced in this way are called ftieative sounds. Such a sound in English is the initial v of van, Here the near-closure is between the bottom lip and the top front teeth, with friction resulting. Laterals ‘A third kind is made with the front of the tongue forming a complete closure, but With the air being allowed to escape over the sides of the tongue, Sounds produced in this way are called lateral sounds, since the air escapes laterally. Now, the air Making sounds 7 escape may be completely free, as in the case of the initial 1 of English lid, or the sides of the tongue may be raised, so that air escapes only with friction, as in the initial 11 of Welsh Lian-, This latter sound is called a lateral fricative. Intermittent closure A fourth kind is an intermittent closure, In making sounds with an intermittent closure, « complete closure is made very quickly and repeated several times. Such a sound isthe rolled r, sometimes heard with an emphatic (or Scottish) pronunciation ‘of F in, for example, red. Here the intermittent closure is between the tip of the tongue and the back of the upper front teeth. An intermittent closure may, however, involve only one such closure, in which case itis called a Napped sound, sometimes heard when F occurs between vowels eg in very. Near closures without friction ‘A fifth and final kind is a near-closure, like the second kind, but without friction. The articulators come close together, but not close enough for friction to occur. ‘These sounds are called frietionless continuant sounds. Such a sound isthe intial w in wer. Here the near-closure occurs between the two lips. These sounds could be classed as vowels, since they are made without any obstruction to the air-flow through the mouth, but they are usually regarded as consonants, at least as far as English is concerned, because they act like consonants in all other respects, especially in syllable and word structure. These, then, are the categories that we use to describe the manner of articulation of sounds. There is first ofall the broad distinction between vowels and consonants, ‘and then among consonants we distinguish between plosives, nasals, fricatives, laterals, rolls and flaps, and frictionless continuants. Place of articulation Now let us consider the place of articulation of sounds. From what has been said about the distinction between vowels and consonants, it will be clear that ‘consonants are easier to describe for place of articulation than vowels, since it is possible to feel where the obstruction is taking place in the mouth. Nevertheless, ‘vowel sounds may be described in terms of their place of articulation Vowels ‘wo sets of categories are relevant to this description. The first involves the ‘openness of the mouth and height of the tongue, for which the categories are close, half-close, half-open, open (an alternative corresponding set of categories is also sometimes used: high, mid-high, mid-low, low). The second involves the general configuration the tongue and the area of the mouth in which the sound is made, the categories here are front, eentral, back. A third set of categories i relevant to the description of vowel sounds, involving the shape ofthe lips; the categories are8 Analyzing English ‘rounded and spread (also referred to as unrounded). Ilustrating from English, the vowel sound in beat, represented by the letters ea, isa close front vowel with spread lips; the vowel sound in boot, represented by the letters 09, is a close back vowel with rounded lips Figure 4 Vowel Chart showing and 00 close ST Ty . WG | 5, are involved, In making consonant sounds, two parts of the mouth, or articulators, For the majority, one of these articulator isthe tongue, oF atleast some part of the tongue. Since this is so, the label for tongue, (from Latin lingua), is not usually included in the description of the place of articulation of the sound. Consonants We will begin our review of places of articulation at the front of the mouth. The Figure 6: Labio.dental f Jace involves the two lips as articulators, and sounds made here are called bilabial sounds (from Latin labium). They may be illustrated trom the initial b in bit, which is bilabial plosive, or the initial m in men, which is a bilabial nasal. At the next place of articulation the bottom lip makes a closure with the top front teeth; these sounds are called tabio-dental sounds. In English the inital fof fun isa labio-dental fricaive ‘The other consonant sounds all involve the tongue as one of the articulator. First, consonants are made by the articulation of the tip of the tongue and the back of the "upper front teeth; these are called dental sounds (from Latin dens). In English the final sound in teeth, represented by the letters th, isa dental fricative, Next, a sound ‘Making sounds 9 is made by the articulation of the tongue and the bony ridge just behind the upper front teeth. The part of the tongue used is that just behind the tip, called the blade, Figure 7: Dental Figure &: Alveolar d and the bony ridge is called the alveolar ridge, which ‘made in this position —alveolar sounds. In English the initial d of din is an alveolar plosive. The next area of the roof of the mouth, behind the alveolar ridge, is called the hard palate. An articulation occurs between the hard palate and the part of the Figure 9: Palatal y tongue behind the blade, called the front of the tongue. These sounds are called palatal sounds; in English the intial sound of yes, represented by the letter y, is a palatal frictionless continua. If you run your tongue over the roof of your mouth you will feel the hard palate being replaced by a soft area, called the soft palate or velum. There is an articulation between this area and the back of the tongue, making velar sounds: in English the intial g of ge isa velar plosive. The velum extends into the uvula, the piece of flesh that you can see dangling atthe back of your mouth when you look in, mirror. The uvula articulates with the back of the tongue to produce uvular sounds. In French the sound is often uvular roll, with the uvula making an intermittent elosure against the back of the tongue. Moving further back in the ‘mouth we come to the pharynx; itis possible for an articulation to occur between the back or root of the tongue and the pharynx, giving a pharyngeal sound. No such10 Analyzing English sounds ovcur in English or the European languages; they are typical, however, of ‘Arabic, Proceeding beyond the pharynx we come to the glottis, where the position Figure 10: Velarg of the vocal cords may produce glottal sounds, We have mentioned the production of the glottal stop (the Cockney pronunciation of the tt in butter) by means of a complete closure in the glottis. From this description of the possible places of articulation for speech sounds it will bbe clear that for purposes of description, the tongue is divided into a number of identifiable areas as is also the roof of the mouth. Beginning at the front end, the Figure arts ofthe tongue and root of the mouth Team 7 parts of the tongue that are distinguished are: tip, blade, front, back, root. The areas of the roof of the mouth are alveolar ridge, (hard) palate, yelum (ie soft palate), uvula, Deseribing speech sounds In deseribing speech sounds there is a convention well worth following. When labelling a vowel sound, give first of all the category for height, then the one for the general area of the mouth, and then the one for the position of the lips. Thus, the Vowel of heat is described as a close front spread vowel, Vowels are assumed to be Making sounds 11 voiced, ie articulated with the voeal cords vibrating, since this is predominantly the ‘case. And in English, at any rate there is no regular distinction to be made between voiced and voiceless vowels. In labelling consonant sounds however, voicing is portant and is given frst, then the place of articulation, and finally the manner of articulation. Thus, the b of beat is described asa voiced bilabial plosive, and the fof fun as a voiceless labio-dental fricative. International Phonetic Alphabet It will have become clear that the Roman alphabet, which we use for writing English, is by no means adequate for representing the diversity of speech sounds that we use for speaking English. The inadequacy becomes evident if we reflec that thete ate over 40 distinguishable speech sounds in English, while our alphabet contains only 26 symbols. To make the point more concrete, consider that we have {0 use a pair of letters (th) to represent the single voiceless dental fricative sound at the end of teesh, Moreover, this same pair of letters also serves to represent the voiced dental fricative sound, as found at the beginning of shen. So in representing speech we make use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, developed by the International Phonetic Association. This alphabet is based on the Roman alphabet, but with the addition of symbols from other sources. We shall be introducing the symbols that are necessary for representing English speech sounds in the following chapters, and the complete alphabet is given on page 151. Exercise 1 ‘Make a, description of the following speech sounds in the way recommended eg the b of beat—voiced bilabial plosive; the en of bea—close front spread vowel 1 the € of beat 2. tho v of van 3. the k of kiss 4 the th of thin 5. the mof now 6 7 8 the a of bath the p of pin the €e of seed the 0 of bole 10. the Lof like 11, the g of go 12, the # of 002. English consonants In the previous chapter we defined consonants as those speech sounds which are produced with some kind of closure in the mouth, restricting the escape of air. And ‘we distinguished among consonants according to the place in the mouth that the closure occurs (place of articulation) and according to the kind of closure made (manner of articulation). These factors, along with the state ofthe glottis (voicing), determine the kind of consonant sound that is produced. We shall now take each of these classes of consonants in turn, discover which sounds are used in English, and introduce the phonetic symbol for each sound from the International Phonetic Alphabet. Fricatives The largest group of consonants in English comprises the fricatives, sounds that involve a near-closure with friction resulting between the articulators, In most cases there is a voiced and a voiceless fricative occurring at each place of articulation. Bilabial fricatives, where the friction occurs between the two lips, have symbols taken from the Greek alphabet: for the voiceless bilabial fricative the symbol is, igure 12: Bilabialiative and for the voiced bilabial fricative 8, These sounds do not regularly oceur in hglish, except in certain contexts as variant sounds for labio-dental fricatives (see Chapter 5). ‘The labio-dental fricatives have the familiar symbols f and v for the voiceless and voiced variety respectively. Friction occurs between the lower lip and the upper front teeth. These sounds occur regularly in English words, in all positions, eg initially in feignivain; medially in referee(reverie; finally in lifelive. When the phonetic symbol is a familiar one, as in this ease, it should not be assumed that English consonants 18 when the corresponding letter occurs it always represents the sound that the phonetic symbol stands for. So, in the case of the letter f for example, the word ‘written of is in fact pronounced with a voiced labio-dental fricative as the final sound, ie represented by the phonetic symbol . Figure 13: Dental fricative In producing dental friatives the friction occurs between the tongue tip and the back of the front teeth. For some speakers the tongue tip actually protrudes between top and bottom teeth, and these sounds are sometimes called interdental fricatives. One symbol is taken from the Greek alphabet: for the voiceless dental fricative the symbol is; and for the voiced dental fricative—8, which is a specially invented symbol. These sounds occur in all positions in English words, eg thiefthis; lethaltleather; clothiclothe. Iveolar frgative ‘The alveolar fricatives have familiar symbols, s for the voiceless alveolar fricative, and z for the voiced alveolar fricative. Again, it should be noted that not all ‘occurrences of the letter $ are voiceless alveolar fricaives, ie symbolized phoneti- cally by s; eg rise has a voiced alveolar fricative as its final sound, represented phonetically by 7. With alveolar fricatives the friction is between the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge. But they differ from dental fricatives not only in place Of articulation, but also in the shape that the tongue takes up in the articulation of the sound. With alveolar fricatives in English the tongue is shaped so that there is a groove down the centre line along which the air passes, whereas with dental fricatives the tongue is relatively flat with only a narrow slit. So s and 2 are groove fricatives in English, while @ andO are slit ficatives. The alveolar fricatives occur in14 Analyzing English all positions in English words, although x is not common initially: seal/zeal, racerirazor, lacellaze. Figure 15: Palao-alveolar fictive Further back in the mouth we come to the pair of palato-alveolar frieatives. Friction occurs between the tongue front and the hard palate, but at the same time the tongue tip is raised towards the alveolar ridge. These sounds are symbolized by J for the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative, and 3 for the voiced palato-alveolar fricative. They occur in all postions in English words, eg, ship/gigolo,fssion!vision, rushirouge. But the voiced palato-alveola fricaive is of very restricted occurrence initially and finally, found only in words borrowed from French; and there is a tendency in some people's speech to replace the voiced palato-alveotar frieative in these positions with the voiced affricate (see below). Palatal fricatives do not occur in English. Of the velar frieatives only the voiceless ‘member occurs, and then in only a few words borrowed from other languages. The velar fricative is produced with friction between the tongue back and the soft palate, and the voiceless member is symbolized by x. It occurs in the Scottish pronunciation of lack, and in some German names, eg of the composer Bach, ‘The only other fricative to note in English is the glottal fricative, which occurs only as-a voiceless sound, It is represented by the symbol h. This consonant occurs mainly initially, although it is also sometimes found medially, eg headlahead, huiltuphill. [is sometimes discounted as a consonant by phoneticians of English. In articulating the h the mouth takes up a configuration for the following vowel sound, ‘and for this reason it is considered to be a voiceless onset for the vowel which follows. But for practical recognition and transcription purposes it is useful to regard it as @ separate sound, and we shall call it a voiceless glottal fricative, symbolized by h. Figure 16: Velar fricative English consonants 15 Plosives Prosive consonants in English involve a complete closure in the mouth, a raised velum preventing escape of sir through the nasal cavity, and plosion after the release of the closure. Figure 17: Bilabial plosive Bilabial plosives occur commonly in English and are represented by the familiar symbols p and b, for the voiceless bilabial plosive and the voiced bilabial plosive respectively. They are found in all positions in English words, eg pearibear, chapelicable, ropeirobe. Figure 18 Alveolar plosive Figure 19: Vela plosive ‘The alveolar plosives are made with a closure between the tongue blade, or sometimes tongue tip, and the alveolar ridge. They are represented by the familiar symbols t and d, for voiceless alveolar plosive and voiced alveolar plosive respectively, They occur frequently in all positions in English words, eg trainidrain, writeririder, matlmad. ‘A final pair of plosives in English is made at the velar place of articulation, involving a closure between the tongue back and the solt palate. The voiceless velar plosive is symbolized by k and the voiced velar plosive by g. Like the other plosives they are found commonly in all positions in English words, eg cane/gain, pack- agelbaggage, rickirig.16 Analyzing English In many cases the voiceless plosives in English are articulated with aspiration ‘accompanying the release phase of pronunciation. This means that when plosion ‘occurs, a puff of air accompanies it, So we talk about aspirated and unaspirated ‘voiceless plosives, and aspirated voiceless plosives are symbolized pt, th, KS. The aspiration of voiceless plosives in English isa more-or-less phenomenon rather than an either-or one; that isto say, there are a numbar of degrees of aspiration rather than aspiration versus non-aspiration. Strong aspiration is typical when voiceless plosives occur initially, and a complete absence of aspiration typically occurs when voiceless plosives follow s, cfpin/spin,un(sin,Rilliskill. A lighter aspiration is often present when voiceless plosives occur medially or finally, eg happerthope, latter! le, packeripack. There is one further plosive that we should include—the glottal plosive, or glottal stop, that we mentioned in Chapter 1. [tis not really a plosiv, in that no observable plosion occurs; hence ‘stop’, the alternative name for plosive, seems more “appropriate inthis instance. Only a voiceless glottal plosive occurs; its represented by the symbol 9. Apart from its widespread use in Cockney and some other accents, its oceurrence in English speech is restricted to special uses. It may be heard in the pronunciation of words where two vowels follow each other but belong to separate syllables, eg co-operate, re-action. Here a glottal stop is often used to separate the two vowels, It may also be heard on occasions as a reinforcement of the articulation of a final voiceless plosive, eg in leap ot leak. ASfricates| ‘One pair of sounds in English is related to both plosives and fricatives: the palato-alveolar affricates. The voiceless palato-alveolar aifricate may be illustrated by the inital and final sounds in church, and the voiced by the initial and final sounds in judge. Atfricates involve a complete closure, as for plosives, but the release phase is not with plosion but with friction, In the case of the palato-alveolar affricates the closure is made with the tongue blade and front at the alveolar ridge and hard palate area, and the release is by means of a palato-alveolar fricative. ‘These sounds are symbolized by t{ for the voiceless palato-alveolaraffricate, and by Figure 20; Palato-alveolar afreate 4 for the voiced palato-alveolar allricate. They occur in all positions in English words, eg chinigin, richesiridges, lunchilunge. English consonants 17 Nasal Like plosives, nasals involve a complete closure in the mouth; but unlike for plosives, the soft palate is lowered so that air may escape through the nose. Nasals, Unlike plosives, but like fricatives, are continuant sounds. This means that their articulation may continue for as long as the person speaking can find breath: compare mmm, ff, p. In English, nasal consonants are normally voiced; voiceless nasals do sometimes occur in some contexts, but they are then variants of normal voiced nasals, and may be ignored for our purposes. [English has a bilabial nasal, represented by the familiar symbol m, which occurs in all positions in English words, eg mind, limit, rhyme, ‘The labio-dental nasal, involving @ closure between bottom lip and upper teeth, is represented by the ‘symbol 1). This isnot a regular sound in English, occurring only as a variant of the bilabial m or the alveolar nasal n before labio-dental fricatives, eg in symphony and in infant. And then it occurs really only in fairly rapid speech, It will be mentioned again in Chapter 5. |As already implied, English has an alveolar nasal, represented by the familiar symbol n, which occurs in all positions in English words, eg nigh, lantern, line. Finally, English has a velar nasal, involving a closure between the back of the tongue and the soft palate, It is reprosented by the symbol n, and is of restricted occurrence, never being found initially. It occurs frequently before a velar plosive, and in some accents of English, eg in the Midlands, itis always followed by a velar plosive. In other accents it may occur finally as well as medially, eg linger, fongue, singer. Laterals Like nasals, the lateral consonants are also continuant sounds: there is a complete closure, but air escapes over the side of the tongue. In English laterals are normally voiced, although there is a voiceless variant that regularly occurs in a particular context and which will be discussed later (Chapter 4), The only lateral occurring in English isthe alveolar lateral, represented by the familiar symbol |. Itis found in all positions in English words, eg lav, filler, rail. In fact, there is a marked difference in {quality between the alveolar lateral in inital position and that in final position. The difference arises from the configuration of the body of the tongue in the mouth: for the alveolar lateral in final position, the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, and it is said to be velarized, The velarized alveolar lateralis symbolized by ‘igure 21: Alveolar letral ~ non-velarized and velarized18 Analyzing English compare leafifel, lateiil. The details of the contexts in which the two varieties ‘occur will be discussed in Chapter 4. Frictionless continuants Last in our review of English consonants we.come to the class of frictionless ‘continuants, the sounds involving a near-closure in the mouth but without friction, ‘The normal English r sound is a post-alveolar fritionless continuant: a near-closure is made between the tongue blade and the area just behind the alveolar ridge. It is represented in the Intemational Phonetic Alphabet by the symbol J, but for purposes of broad transcription (see Chapter 4) it may be more convenient to use the usual orthographic symbol. It is of restricted occurrence in English, not normally being found in final position eg run, free, furrow. The orthographic symbol appears frequently in final position in English spelling, but careful ‘observation will reveal that in British English itis not normally pronounced in that position, eg car, more, bear, farm, although it is pronounced here in many ‘American aecents. Other kinds ofr sound are also found in English speech and will be discussed later (Chapter 4). The postalveolar frictionless continuant is reckoned to be the normal English sound. It is usually voiced, although a voiceless variant does occur in some contexts (see Chapter 4), ‘Two further sounds are included among the frictionless continuants, although they are sometimes also called semi-vowels. They have similarity with particular vowel sounds of English, and were it not for the fact that they pattern like consonants in the structure of English words and syllables, they would be counted as these vowels, One is the bilabial frictionless continuant, represented by the familiar symbol , which is similar to the elose back rounded vowel, as in boot. This occurs in initial and medial positions, eg wet, cower. But in final positions its occurrence in spelling is usually considered to be a close back rounded vowel. ‘The other vowel-like consonant sound is the palatal frictionless continuant, where the near-closure is between the tongue front and the hard palate. It is represented by the symbol j, and it is similar to a close front spread vowel as in beat. The ‘occurrence of the palatal frictionless continuant is restricted: it is found in initial position, and in initial consonant combinations after certain consonants, ¢& ye, beauty (bj), queve (kj). Both these frictionless continuants are normally voiced, By way of summary the consonants of English are set out in a chart below. Place of articulation is indicated across the top of the chart, and manner of articulation down the left-hand side. If a particular kind of consonant has a voiceless and a voiced variant, then two symbols appear in the relevant box in the order voiceless followed by voiced. Consonants that occur only as variants of other regularly ‘occurring sounds have been omitted from the chart English consonants 19 ‘igure 22: English consonants ] a) 3 ay | al ails atl y A | 3 | 2 se) s]a}é als eli] alii fv | @6 | sz ss | b pe ta ke Afriate v4 Nal = [el] 3 Tatra [a Frionles | wy 1 fi Continuant | _ _ Exercise? ‘Transcribe the following English words in the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet charted in Figure 22 to represent their pronunciation. Since every word has a ‘owel sound, # number of vowel symbols will b needed. The following vowels have been {sed in the words listed: | as peep, asin pit a8 in bet, anda asin the educated southern [English pronunciation of pat cf then Sen; jar dg; lick hk 1, shed 2 teeth 3. chart 4. detest 5. jet 6. guard 7. these 8 barge 9. vase 10, chet 11 peach 12, thieve 1B. yeast 14, green 15, Mars 16. wealth 17. beet 18, wrench 19. crease 20. charge 21, shriek 2. fling 23. stink 24. yield3. English vowels In Chapter 1 we defined vowels as sounds which are made without any kind of closure or impediment to the escape of air through the mouth. Because there is no contact oF near-contact of articulators, vowel sounds are more difficult to deseribe than are consonants. But, as with many consonants, the tongue is crucial in determining the quality of vowel sounds, and it i the differing configurations of the tongue in the mouth that cause the varying qualities, As we mentioned in Chapter 1, there are three parameters by which we deseribe vowel sounds: firstly, the height of the tongue or openness of the mouth; secondly, the area of the mouth having the highest part of the tongue or the general area of the mouth in which the vowel is made; and thirdly, the shape of the lips. The frst of these gives us the categories lose, half-close, half-open and open; the second the ‘categories front, central, and back; and the third the categories rounded and spread. Vowel sounds are, of course, normally voiced, so that voicing is not relevant for their description. Before we look at the English vowels in detail we should mention a broad distinction to be made among vowel sounds between pure vowels and diphthongs. ‘This is particularly relevant for English, since the proportion of diphthongs is unusually large. Pure vowels are made with the mouth taking up a single position during the articulation. In the ease of diphthongs the configuration of the mouth changes in the course of the articulation of the vowel sound. As we shall see, «diphthongs can be deseribed in terms of the pure vowel from which the articulation starts, and the pure vowel in whose direction the articulation moves. Pure vowels First of all, we shall consider the pure vowels. In English, pure vowels are made in all three areas of the mouth—front, central and back Front vowels Inthe front area English has four vowels; all are made with spread lips. Two of the front vowels are in the close area. One is the lose front spread vowel found in beat or sheep and symbolized by i, so these words would be transeribed phonetically as ‘biv and sip. The other is a more open and a more central close front vowel, usually described as a lowered and centralized close front spread vowel. It is represented by the symbol 1, and it occurs in bir /bit) and ship IS English has no vowel at precisely either the half-close or the halfopen position, but ‘one mid way between the two. This is usually described as a mid front spread vowel It is sometimes symbolized by ¢, which is the International Phonetic Alphabet English vowels 21 symbol for a half-close front spread vowel, but itis more usually symbolized by €, the IPA symbol for a half-open front spread vowel, and this is the symbol we shall be using. This vowel occurs in ber /bet! and jeich ite ‘The other English front vowel isin the open area, but it is not completely open: itis ‘somewhere between half-open and open, although itis usually described as an open front spread vowel. However, the IPA symbol for an open front spread vowel (a) is, not used, but rather the symbol z. It occurs in bat bet! and catch Jka} Back vowels In the back area of the mouth we can recognize five vowels in English. Four of them ‘are made with rounded lips and one with spread lips, There are also two vowels in English that fallin the close back area, One is the elose back rounded vowel, as found in boot and too! and symbolized by u, so these words will be transcribed phonetically as /but/ and /tul. The other is a more open and more central variety, usually described as a lowered and centralized close back rounded vowel. It is represented by the symbol v and occurs in (Southern British pronunciations of) ‘book Sook! and put (pov. {AS in the case of front vowels, English has no vowels at precisely half-lose and. hhalf-open back positions. There is one vowel somewhere between the two, probably nearer to half-open thn hall-close. The IPA symbol for a half-close back rounded vowel (0) is sometimes used to symbolize it, but more usually the IPA. symbol for a half-open back rounded vowel is used, 9, It may be described asa mid back rounded vowel and it occurs in boughe lot and law ia! In the open back area two vowels are found in English, one made with rounded lips, the other with spread lips. The open back rounded vowel is, like its front counterpart, not completely open, but somewhere between half-open and open. Nevertheless, the IPA symbol for an open back rounded vowel is used to represent it, p. This vowel occurs in hor /hoV and moss /mos’. The open back spread vowel is completely open but not completely back: it tends towards the central position, The IPA symbol for an open back spread vowel is used to represent it, and it oceurs in farm Vom and cart Skat. Central vowels ‘We come now to the final group of pure vowels, those made in the central area of the mouth. There are three vowels produced in this area in English, all with spread lips. One of these central vowels isin the open area,but like z and o in fact mid-way between half-open and open, although it is described as an open central spread vowel. It is represented by the IPA symbol for a half-open back spread vowel, rnamely a, and it occurs in (the southern British pronunciation of) bur /bat! and some isam, The other two,central yowels in English are both mid central spread vowels, that is mid-way between half-lose and half-open. These sounds may be illustrated by the vowel in bird, represented by the symbol 3, and the final vowel in father,22 Analyzing English Fepresented by the symbol 9. The latter sound is often referred to as the schwa vowel; it occurs in English only in unstressed syllables and has a generally lax articulation. By contrast the 2 vowel occurs in stressed syllables, and is generally {longer in duration than the schwa vowel. They may be fusther illustrated by loser Nusa, ahead fabed/, git igeW, first Nast. This completes our description ofthe tel’ English pure vowels. f you do not speak with a southern Brilsh accent, you may have found that some. the ilstatons given didnot match your ptonenction ofthe word, Indeed sone Midland and Northern speakers nay fad dilfleltt dcovera word Ih ey speech that contains an open central spread vowel (a). The ellerenoos in Eghat Accents ae due tn considerable extent to the vowel sounds, and fn two tee Vowel sounds ifr among accent in their quality, for example, In wnne aceon ‘he mid back rounded vowel is considerably more open atkulation tna described here. in caught ka! And vcondly, vowel sun difersnane accor, in the words in which they occur; for exampley most Northemer sad some Midlanders wil wea lowered and centrlzed clos back rounded vovel Seon, rather than an open central spread vowel (1). Itis impossible to do justice to the variety of British English accents in a work of this kind, not to mention American, Australian and other accents. So, transcriptions will be given as representing Southern British pronunciation, and the reader will be left to determine what the transcription will be for his own accent ‘The vowel chart So far we have characterized English vowel sounds by means of a descriptive label such as ‘close front spread vowel’, ete. Phoneticians also use another means of characterization: the vowel sounds are plotted on a vowel chart. This is a fepresentation of the human mouth (in a squared out form!) and the peripheral Points constitute a set of ideal sounds (called cardinal vowels) against which the sounds actually occurring in a language are compared and their points plotted on the chart. The TPA symbols are those given to the cardinal vowels. The chart of the pure vowels of southern British English is as shown below: Figure nglsh vowels _ V_\ Ha-close iain \2] Open ea English vowols 23 Diphthongs Let us now consider the diphthongs of English, of which cight are usually recognized. They may be divided into three groups according to the vowel towards ‘which the articulation of the diphthong moves. In the case of three diphthongs the articulation moves towards a lowered and centralized close front spread vowel (1); in the case of two it moves towards a lowered and centralized close back rounded ‘vowel (v); and in the case of the remaining three it moves towards the unstressed ‘mid central spread vowel (9). 1 diphthongs ‘Taking each of these groups in turn, we begin with that in which the diphthong tends towards 1 One of the diphthongs in this group begins with a half-close front spread vowel, s0 it is represented by the symbol e1. The beginning point of this diphthong is then more close than the articulation of the mid front spread pure vowel of English (), ‘This diphthong is found in late leit! and blame (ler. AA second diphthong in this group begins with an open front spread vowel and is ‘represented by the symbol a1. The beginning point is more open than the articulation of the English pure vowel described as open front spread (2). It occurs in sight Isatt) and mice may ‘The third diphthong in this group begins with a half-open back rounded vowel; it is sometimes represented by the symbol 21 and sometimes by the symbol ni, since the half-open position is mid way between the English pure vowel symbolized and the vowel symbolized 0, the former being mid way between half-close and half-open, and the latter mid way between halfopen and open. We shall be using the latter symbol, 01. This diphthong occurs in soil soil and boy Show, v diphthongs ‘The second group of diphthongs comprises those tending towards v ‘The first in this group starts with the unstressed mid central spread vowel and is represented by the symbol 9v. This diphthong occurs in home /hovmy/ and in boat Ibavu. ‘The other in this group starts with an open central spread vowel, a vowel which slightly more central than the English pure vowel described as open back spread; and in fact the symbol used for this pure vowel is also used in the symbolization of the diphthong, av. This occurs in house /havs! and ow! fav). {It will be noticéd that in making both the diphthongs of this group, not only is a cchange in the shape and height of the tongue involved, but also a change in the shape of the lips, moving from a spread vowel to a rounded one.24 Analyzing English 2 diphthongs ‘The third group of diphthongs tends towards the mid central spread vowel 0 First there is a diphthong beginning with the lowered and centralized close front spread vowel and represented by the symbol 19. This occurs in fierce ifs! and clear kl. " ‘A second in this group begins with a half-open front spread vowel, that is with a ‘vowel more open than the pure vowel described as mid front spread. The symbol of this pure vowel is used in the diphthong and is the LPA symbol for a half-open front spread vowel. So the diphthong is represented by the symbole and occurs in scarce Iskeos! and fair (feo. ‘The remaining diphthong of this group begins with a lowered and centralized close back rounded vowel and is represented by the symbol v2. It occurs in cruel /krval/ and pure Ij. ‘The eight diphthongs of English may be plotted on a vowel chart: Figure 24: English diphthongs Front Central Back se Hale-close Hattopen Open xereise 3 “Make a transcription ofthe pronunciation ofthe following English words, using the symbols iscussed. The Key will give # representation of a southern British pronunciation; you may ike t0 also consider what the transcription should be in your own accent tg humble tambo, lathe ile, badge Soa! 1. caught 2. another 3. faint 4. sock 5. bag © cover 7 tam 8 fuel 9. count 410. look 11. catching 12. te 413. large 14. bee 415. dozen 16. dirty 17. share 18. goal 19. food 20. flesh 21, fear 22, fall 23, morning 24, pleasee 25. confess 26, moist 27. plain 28. salt 29. lurking 30, climb | oGtnctine Gotures 2 (oo Demers 4 Farmer) English vowels 25 ‘Summary ‘Asa summary of the last chapter and the present one, here is list ofthe 44 sounds ‘of English that we-have. identified and described. Each one is given with its symbol followed by its label. Consonants voiceless labio-dental fricative voiced lahio-dental fricative voiceless dental fricative voiced dental fricative voiceless alveolar fricative voiced alveolar fricative voiceless palato-alveolar fricative voiced palato-alveolarfricative voiceless glottal fricative voiceless bilabial plosive voiced bilabial plosive voiceless alveolar plosive voiced alveolar plosive voiceless velar plosive voiced velar plosive voiceless palato-alveolar affricate voiced palato-alveolar aflricate bilabial nasal alveolar nasal velar nasal alveolar lateral bilabial frictionless continuant post alveolar frictionless continuant palatal frictionless continuant. Seg -segganrateu raSN aces Vowels close front spread vowel lowered and centralised close front spread vowel mid front spread vowel ‘open front spread vowel close back rounded vowel lowered and centralized close back rounded vowel ‘mid back rounded vowel ‘open back rounded vowel ‘open back spread vowel id certral spread vowel ‘unstressed mid central spread vowel ‘open central spread vowel26 Analyzing English 1 diphthong beginning with half-lose front spread vowel, moving towards lowered and centralized close front spread vowel 1 diphthong beginning with open front spread vowel, moving towards lowered and centralized close front spread vowel DI diphthong beginning with half-open back rounded vowel, moving towards lowered and centralized close front sproad vowel 90 diphthong beginning with unstressed mid central spread vowel, moving. towards lowered and centralized close back rounded vowel ‘90 diphthong beginning with open central spread vowel, moving towards lowered and centralized close back rounded vowel 19 diphthong beginning with lowered and centralized close front spread vowel, moving towards unstressed mid central spread vowel 69 dipthong beginning with half-open front spread vowel, moving towards unstressed mid central spread vowel 'v9 diphthong beginning with lowered and centralized close back rounded vowel, ‘moving towards unstressed mid contral spread vowel. xercise 4 Make transcription of the pronunciation ofthe following English words, using the symbols sven, 1. playground 2. Mexible 3. Chinese 4. Snudgery 5: insinuation 6 pleasurable 7. blinkers 8. understate 9. Search-warrant 10. blackmail 11. migration 12 frequency 13, robust 14. forceps 15. paranola 16. birthday 17. catedstor 18. writhing 19, cures 20. overestimate 4, Sounds and their variants — In the preceding chapters we have in general assumed that each sound that we perceive as a separate sound in English is transcribed by just one symbol: p sounds are transcribed by /py, | sounds by /V, and so on, At the same time we have also noticed that some such perceptually different sounds may, in different contexts, have different phonetic values. We have distinguished, for example, between a non-velarized and a velarized alveolar lateral (I and 4); and we have noticed aspirated and unaspirated varieties of voiceless plosives (eg p and p). But in ‘transcription we have not taken account of these finer differences, although we could have done. If we had done so, we should have produced a narrow transcription instead of the broad one we have been making, Broad and narrow transcription A broad transcription is one that only takes account of the sound differences that are important to distinguish words from each other in a language. The distinction between [p4] and [p] does not make a difference between words in English, If we substitute [p] for [p"] in [pln] we produce a peculiar pronunciation of pin but not a new word; similarly, if we substitute [p] for [p] in [spin]. But the substitution of p for t does make a difference of word: pin /piw/ and tin /tn/ are different words in English. A narrow transcription attempts to represent more of less accurately the ‘way in which a particular speaker pronounces his words. Obviously the amount of Phonetic detail that may be represented can vary enormously; that is to say, there are degrees of narrowness of transcription, and a narrow transcription may be made for the pronunciation of a group of speakers, with a particular dialect or accent. ‘This distinction is, in fact, not merely a distinction between different kinds of transcription; its also.a distinction between different ways of looking at the sounds of a language. When the sound system of a language is viewed as a system of units for maintaining distinctions between units on a higher level of linguistic organiza tion (ie words), we call the sounds phonemes. The sounds that people actually make ‘when they speak are called phones. Its part of the task of phonology (or phonetics) to establish and describe the relationship between phones and phonemes in a language, Phonemes and allophones ‘The phonologist starts with phones, the accurate phonetic transcription of the sounds that hé hears speakers making, But it soon becomes clear that not all the distinctions made at this level are relevant for distinguishing words from each other. Or, to put it another way, native speakers do not perceive as distinct sounds all the28 Analyzing Engi phones that the phonologist has recorded. Several phones may, therefore, belong to the same phoneme; or a phoneme may have a number of variants, called allophones. In grouping phones together into phonemes, three criteria are used by the phonologist: complementary distribution, free variation, and phonetic similar- ity, Complementary distribution ‘The criterion of complementary distribution states that if two or more phones occur in non-identical environments, then they may be members of the same phoneme. So, we find that for English the non-velarized alveolar lateral (I) occurs before vowels, while the velarized alveolar lateral [#] occurs before consonants and at the cends of words. Their distribution in English words is complementary; they do not occur in the same environment, Hence these two I-phones belong to the same phoneme. Or, we can say thatthe /V phoneme has wo allophones: (1) [1] occurring before vowels; and (2) *] occurring before consonants and word-tinaly. From this statement you will notice the following convention: a broad transcription ie in terms of phonemes, is enclosed between slashed brackets / /; and a narrow transcription, ie in terms of phones, is enclosed between square brackets }. Taking ‘contrary example, we find that the phone [p] and the phone [0] both oceur in a umber of identical environments eg onipun, shopishor, sippinglsiuing. Their distribution is, therefore, not complementary and they cannot be considered as belonging to the same phoneme. Free variation ‘The criterion of free variation states that if two or more phones occur in the same environment, but without changing the word in which they occur, then they may belong to the same phoneme, So, in English, a word like bid is sometimes articulated with @ fully voiced final alveolar consonant [4]. and sometimes with @ devoiced (voiceless) final consonant, represented by [d]. But whichever phone is used, the word is the same. These two phones, then, belong tothe same phoneme. ‘Or we can say that the phoneme /d! has two allophones when it oceurs word-finaly () [al and (2) {J}, which are in free variation. Iti also the case that a devoiced velar plosive [g] occurs word-finally; so that we eould hypothesize that {d) and (g] were in free variation, But we soon realize that the substitution of one forthe other makes a difference in the word: bid [bid] and big [big] are diferent words. Phonetic similarity ‘These two criteria—complementary distribution and free variation—by themselves Teave a loophole, which has to be filled by the criterion of phonetic similarity. In English, on the basis of the criterion of complementary distribution, the voiceless alottalfricative (h) and the voiced velar nasal (9) would be members of the same phoneme, since [hi] occurs only word-initially and [9] occurs only word-medially and word-finally. But, quite obviously, it is ridiculous to suppose that these two sounds have anything in common: a glance at their descriptive labels reveals that i Ve | | Sounds and their variants 29 they share nothing—not in terms of voicing, nor place of articulation, nor manner of articulation. This insight is formalized in the criterion of phonetic similarity, which states that if two or more phones are.to be members of the same phoneme they must be phonetically similar. In practice, this means that the allophones of a phoneme usually share at least two of voicing, place of articulation and manner of articulation in common. English phonemes and allophones ‘A phoneme may be defined, then, as a class of phonetically similar phones in complementary distribution or in free variation or in both. Remembering that transcription in terms of phones is a narrow transcription and is enclosed in square brackets, and a transcription in terms of phonemes is @ broad transcription and is enclosed in slashed brackets, we shall now turn to a detailed consideration of English sounds (phonemes) and their variants (allophones) Plosives We begin with plosive sounds, which asa class show more variation than any other. ‘We have already noted, in Chapter 2, that voiceless plosives in English (pt, k) may: be either aspirated (accompanied by a puff of air on release) of unaspirated. ’That is to say, the phonemes /p,/¥ and /ki each have an aspirated allophone [p(t] and {ki}, and an unaspirated allophone [p}, {t] and [k]. And these allophones are in ‘complementary distribution: the unaspirated allophone occurs after /s/ and the aspirated allophone occurs in all other positions. As we pointed out in Chapter 2, though, the degree of aspiration varies from environment to environment, There is strong aspiration when the plosive occurs initially in a stressed syllable eg in pin, tn, kin, Between vowels the aspiration tends to be rather weak, and may indeed be absent altogether eg in upper, utter, sucker: we could say that we have @ ease of allophones in free variation in this instance. And in final position the amount of aspiration is variable, depending whether the plosive is released fully or not eg as in sip, sit, sick. The voiced plosives in English, d, g/ may be considered to have two allophones. ‘The main allophone, and the one which occurs in all environments, is the fully voiced [b], [4], [f]. The other allophone occurs only in worde-final position and is & devoiced variant (b), [0 [QI isin free variation with the fully voiced allophone, that is, either of them may occur in this position with no particular factor conditioning the occurrence of one rather than the other, excep forthe speakers whim atthe time eg asin ib, id ig. ‘The difference between /p,t,k/ and /b, d,g/ in English is not merely one of voicing, or even unequivocally one of voicing; that is, the distinetion between voiced and voiceless. It is also a difference of aspiration. The one environment in which unaspirated voiceless plosives regularly occur, ie after /, is the one in which voiced plosives do not occur: there are no English words beginning with sb, /sd/ oF /s ‘There is, therefore, no contrast between voiceless and voiced plosives in English in this environment. In all other environments (initially, finally, intervocalicall) /p,30 Analyzing English W/ and /b, d, g/ are distinguished both by voicing and usually also by aspiration. In fact, aspiration might be said to be more important in distinguishing /p, tk! (or words containing them) from /b, d, g/ (or words containing them), ef pipibib, suid, ickigig. For this and other reasons, the series /p, ,k/ are often referred to not as ‘voiceless’ plosives, but as fortis plosives; and the /b, d, series not as ‘voiced plosives, but as lenis plosives. The terms fortis and lenis refer to the muscular energy used in articulation: fortis consonants are more energetically articulated than lenis conson- ants. These terms are used not only for plosives, but also for fricatives and affricates in English, ‘The variants of plosive that we have dealt with so far involve the whole class of, plosives in English. We now consider variants of individual members of the class. Besides the allophones already mentioned, the alveolar plosives each have a further allophone. In words like widih /wd8/ and eighth fut the articulation ofthe plosive is not alveolar, but dental: the tongue tip makes @ closure with the back of the upper front teeth, rather than with the alveolar ridge. In other words, the articulation of the plosive is the same here as that of the following dental fricative, and this allophone occurs only in this environment. So /d! has an allophone [d] before a dental fricative, and /V has an allophone [}] before a dental fricatve. Velar plosives also have variants in addition to those already mentioned. Compare the articulation ofthe velar plosives in the following words: keepigeese, cupleum, ooplgoose. By careful observation you will feel thatthe contact of the tongue with the roof of the mouth is made in slighty different position for each of the three Pairs of words. The closure ofthe velar in the frst pair is more forward than that of {he second pair, and the closure of the velar in the lat pair is further back than that in the middle pai. The conditioning factor is the nature ofthe vowel that follows the inital velar plosive: a front vowel, asin keep/kip/ or geese /eis! tends to pull the articulation forward, and a back vowel, as in coop /Kup’ and goose igus, tends to push the articulation back. So if we regard the articulation of the velar before central vowels, asin eup /kapy and gum /gatn, as genuinely velar, we can call the articulation before front yowels ‘pre-velar" and the articulation before back vowels ‘post-velar’, So the phoneme /k/ has an allophone {k] or [kt] before front vowels, and an allophone [k] or [k#] before back vowels; and the phoneme /g/ has an allophone [8] before front vowels and an allophone [g) before back vowels. One further variant needs to be mentioned for plosives, When a voiceless (or fortis) alveolar plosive /¥’ occurs in final position in a syllable, it may be articulated as a glottal stop cg in suit So the phoneme // has allophone (?] occuring in syllable final Position, and which isin free variation with [t) Larerals We have already mentioned the fact that the alveolar lateral /V in English has two allophones, a non-velarized allophone [1], occurring before vowels and /j as in leave, early, illuminate, and a yelarized allophone [H], occurring before consonants, Iw! and word-finally (ie before pause), as in altogether, always, pool. These ‘Sounds and their variants 91 allophones are, then, in complementary distribution. There is, in addition, a third allophone which isin complementary distribution with these two: after a forts (ie voiceless) plosive /p, k/ the alveolar lateral in English is devoiced (ie voiceless), eg in play, clean. So the phoneme /V has the allophone {I} after /p, W/. There is yet one more allophone of /V/ in complementary distribution with the others: like the alveolar plosives, the alveolar lateral has dental articulation when it occurs immediately before a dental fricative, as in filth, stealth, although. Since this ‘occurrence is before a consonant, the allophone is also velarized: (I) P sounds In (Chapter 2) we said that a number of ‘sounds occur in English speech. Itis possible to recognize three regularly occurring allophones of the /t/ phoneme in English, The allophone with the widest distribution isthe post-alveolar frictionless. ‘continuant [1]. After fortis consonants pt, k, f, 9, J ete a devoiced (voiceless) allophone occurs [J] og in tain, crane, free, shrug. These two allophones are in complementary distribution. The third possible allophone is a flapped consonant Ir], which may occur intervocalically eg in very, marry. This allophone is in free varition with the voiced post-alveolar frictionless continuant. While other ‘r= sounds do occur in the speech of English native speakers eg a rolled consonant // or ‘ uvular roll /R/, they do not occur regularly enough for them to be included in a general description of English sounds. Nasals ‘Among the nasals we have to consider two variants. Like its alveolar counterparts, among the plosives and laterals, the alveolar nasal has a dental articulation before ental fricatives as in plinth, ninth, So the phoneme /n/ has an allophone (9) occurring before dentals, and an allophone [1] occurring elsewhere; they are in complementary distribution, The other variant occurs as an allophone of both the bilabial nasal and the aveolar nasel. When these occur before a labio-dental {ricative if, v! 9s in symphony, convent they are often articulated as a labio~dental ‘nasal (m)]. This allophone is probably in free variation with the normal allophone [m] and [n]; its occurrence is more likely, the more rapidly a person speaks. So the phoneme /mm/ has an allophone [ny] before labio-dental fricatives, which is in free variation with the normal allophone [m]; and the phoneme /n/ has an allophone [79] before labio-dental fricatives, which is in free variation with the normal allophone (nl. Fricatives Lastly among the consonants we come to the fricatives. Like voiced plosives, voiced fricatives have a devoiced allophone occurring word-finally (before a pause), which is in free variation with the normal fully voiced allophone eg rise [2], live [y], seethe [B]. The palato-alveolar fricatives /f, 5/ present at an interesting case for the application of phoneme theory to English. They could almost be regarded as allophones of the same phoneme. The voiced palato-alveolar fricative (5/ occurs32 Analyzing English only intervocalically, except for a few loan-words from French, where it may occur initially and finally: although, as pointed out earlier, many speakers substitute a palato-alveolar affricate in these positions. Moreover, there is hardly & pair of words in which /f/ and i5/ contrast; the nearest is perhaps fission and vision. However, the fact that /f/ does occur intervocalically eg also in mission, cushion, ‘bushel, means that the two sounds cannot be eonsidered to be in complementary distribution or in free variation, and so must be separate phonemes, Vowels ‘The English vowels can be divided into two groups: a number of the pure vowels and all the diphthongs are in general longer in duration than the remainder of the ure vowels, A comparison of seat and st wll make it plain that the vowel of seat i! hhas a longer duration than the vowel of sit /i/. The set of short vowels is /,¢, 4,5 , a/ and the set of fong vowels /:,u:, a:,9:,2:/ together with the diphthongs. The symbol : denotes length. Some of these vowels may be matched into pairs of complementary long and short vowels eg i,t, /u:, 8 93, D, /:,a/ but it is important to note that the distinguishing factor between these vowels is primarily’ one of quality determined by difference of articulation, and not one of length. ‘The short vowels have no variants. The long vowels and diphthongs, however, vary in Iength according to the environment in which they occur. They ean be considered te have two allophones: (1) a short allophone before a fortis consonant ie /p, t,k, tf, 4,0, 15 (2) along allophone in all other environments. Compare, for example, the length of the vowels in bead/bear, rude/root,cardlcart,cause/course, curdicurt. The {ong allophone may be marked with a length mark eg [i] and the short allophone without eg [i]. In broad (phonemic) transcription, there will be no need to indicate the length of long vowels at all, since it is not a phonemically distinguishing characteristic. But in a narrow (phonetic) transcription the long vowels will need to be marked for length when they occur in environments where they are relatively long, ie not before fortis consonants. Neutralization One further topic remains to be dealt with under the heading of sounds and their variants: neutralization, We have referred to phonemes as contrastive units of sound: the substitution of one phoneme for another will result in & different word being formed, ef pinibintinisinithin, butbetlbatbootlbaitiboatlbutlbitetboughtlbeat etc. Sometimes, however, in a particular environment, the contrast between phonemes in a particular set will be neutralized: the normal contrast will not Operate. We have already mentioned an instance of this in English, though without using the term ‘neutralization’, ‘This was the neutralization of the contrast between fortis (voiceless) and lenis (voiced) plosives after /s/. The plosive after Is) is ‘unaspirated and voiceless: the firs feature it shares with /b, d,g/ the second with /p, 1, W/. The contrast between /p, t, k/ and /b, 4, g/ is neutralized in this environment, since there are no words in English that differ from each other by the fact that one begins with /sp/ and the other with /sb/ (or /st, /sd/ and /sk/, sg/). In fact, the phone | ‘Sounds and their variants 38 is ne of either the fortis ‘occurring in this environment could be considered an allophone of either t set of the lenis set. It is usually allocated to the fortis set, however, and this is reflected in the orthography. ‘Another case of neutralization occurs in Englishi among the nasals /m, n, y/ when they occur before fortis plosives Jp, t, K/. This is a slightly different case from the preceding one. Here the neutralization of contrast between fm, /n/ and /p) arises from the fact that which of these nasals occurs is totally predictable from the following plosive: a bilabial nasal occurs only before a bilabial plosive, an alveolar nasal before an alveolar plosive, and a velar nasal only before a velar plosive, as in limp, lint, link, That is to say, only the combinations mp, /nt/ and /gk/ occur, and not the combinations /mU, /mk/,/np!,/nk/, pl, From what has been said in this chapter it will be clear that the list ofthe 44 sounds fof English at the end of Chapter 3 represents an inventory of the phonemes of English, those units which are regarded as being contrastive, making a difference in ‘words if one is substituted for another. By way of summary for this chapter, there now follows the same list, together with the allophones of each phoneme: Consonants ‘pv [p] after /, [pH] elsewhere ‘bv [p] word-fnally (free variation), [b] normally iy [t) after i, [0] betore 1, 01, (41 word-fnaly (free variation) [1] ekewhere ‘a [g) before 8, 6, [d] word-fnally (fee variation), [) elsewhere ‘ki [before front vowels, (k] before back vowels, [k] after I, {k¥] elsewhere ig! f] before front vowels, [g} before back vowels, [g) word-finally (Free variation), [z] elsewhere wt iv! [y] wordefinally (free variation), [v] normally (0) 8! (] word-finally (free variation), [6] normally iw fs) ‘rd [z] word-fnally (free variation), [2] normally aw 3) tw [h] im [m] before /f, v/ (free variation), {m] elsewhere In! [p] before /®, 6/, [mp] before /f, w/ (free variation), [n] elsewhere ‘a fo) 1 [HJafter/p, Ws {1} before 1, 0, [t] before consonant, pause, [I] elsewhere ‘1! ({)after fortis consonant, [| intervocalially (fee variation) (1] elsewhere iw! [w] wv fil Vowels [i] before fortis consonant, [i:] elsewhere94 Analyzing English wt a! Ie} ‘a! [e) ‘ai [a] before fortis consonant, a: eewhere ‘oo ‘3! [3] before fortis consonant, [>] elewher a [Ol 7 a ‘[u] before forts consonant, u:] elsewhere a) bl ‘a) [3] before fortis consonant, [:] elsewhere tl ‘ aoe ‘feu! [et] before fortis consonant, [et] elsewhere ‘au’ [at] before fortis consonant, [ats] elsewhere You! [o1) before fortis consonant, [o1:) elsewhere ‘av! [90] before fortis consonant, [2v:] elsewhere ‘avi [av] before fortis consonant, [av] elsewhere ‘io! [19] before fortis consonant, [9:) elsewhere ‘ea/_ [va] before fortis consonant, [e9:] elsewhere Jv2/_ [v9] before fortis consonant, [v9:] elsewhere, Exercise § Make a broad (phonemic) and narow (phonetic) transcription ofthe following English pret fre (bed), pune ope [Pap shaving wick SermnscW ex :wpsh) freak ‘wealth 5. kee & plinth 5. Thursday 6 achive 7, forgeous 8 comfortable 5: pereusion 10. fre 11 aleahot 12, thirty reject 14 15, especialy 16. mis 0 1 paramount 9. conversion 20. penne 21 favourite 22, recive tosure 24, ablaze 25. sreech 5. Sounds in connected speech All the variations in pronunciation that we considered in the previous chapter were inthe pronunciation of words a units in isolation, Changes such as /n! to [n] before 10) we accounted for by word-internal factors, or by the assumption of pause at the ‘end of the word, as for example in the conditions for the occurrence of a velarized alveolar lateral [¥], But we rarely speak in single word utterances. And in studying the phoneties of a language we have to take account of the kinds of changes in pronunciation that take place as a result of words being strung together. Most of these changes occur at word boundaries and affect the final end inital sounds of words. Assimilation Some of the allophonic variation which occurs within words, that we discussed in the previous chapter, occurs also at word boundaries. Alveolar consonants at the end of a word have a dental articulation if the intial sound of the following word is 4 dental fricative eg the dental allophone [t] of occurs in no hin (nol Orn). Here there isin fet no aspiration of the alveolar plosive, because itis unreleased, the release occurring through the following fricative. In ten thumps, the dental allopbone [a] of’ occurs: ['e9 Onmpts]}. And in well thought, the dental allophone fH] of /1/ occurs: wet Gat, A second case of allophonic vatiation occurring at a ‘word boundary is the substitution of alabio-dental nasal fora bilabial or alveolar nasal before a labio-dental fictive. In the sequence fen forks, the alveolar nasal may have the labio-dental variant {r) in a fairly rapid pronunciation; and in the Sequence come Jor me the bilabial nasal at the end of come may have the Jabio-dental variant in a rapid delivery. A third case of allophonie variation dceurring at word boundaries as well a8 within words is the incidence of the voiceless (devoiced) allophones of /V and /r ie [I] and J], when these phonemes Cccur after a fortis (voiceless) consonant. So in the sequence af last, the initial alveolar lateral of last is devoiced after the forts alveolar plosive:[3tJast]. And in the sequence a rest, the post-lveolar frictionless continuant is likewise devoiced: ot Jest) ‘There isa further case of variation at word boundaries which could be considered as allophonie variation, but this isnot a kind which occurs within words, This is the case of word-final lubio-dental fricatives having a bilabial articulation when the initial sound ofthe folowing word isa bilabial plosive. This probably only occurs in a fainly rapid delivery. For example, in the sequence rough paich, the final labio-dontal tricative of rough may become [®] in rapid pronunciation: [ra phe]. And in the sequence live bird, the final voiced labio-denalfricative of live ‘may become (Bin apid pronunciation: [Ian b96 Analyzing English ‘The conditions that we gave for the occurrence of one allophone of « phoneme rather than another applied to words spoken in isolation. It happens in a couple of cases that these conditions no Tonger apply ina sequence of words, particularly in relation to wordefinal positon. One of the conditions for the occurrence of velarized alveolar lateral is word-final position; but if an alveolar lateral word- finally is followed by a vowel in intial postion in the subsequent word, then its non-velarized eg in the sequence flit compared with fil: [fi 1, [68]. We said that lenis (voiced) plosives and frcatives tend wo be devoieed in word-fnal position. But it ina sequence, the word following begins witha vowel or voiced consonant, then they will not be devoiced, though they wil be if the inital sound ofthe following ude vote mona Compr ood das [pe et wih ood es iz ‘The influence of one sound on another to become more like itself is called assimilation. Assimilation may be to the place of articulation of a neighbouring sound, as in the dentalizaton of alveolars before dental fricatives, or the substitu- tion of a labio-dental nasal for a bilabial oF alveolar nasal before a labio-dental fricative. Or assimilation may be in voicing, as when voiced plosives and fricatives become devoiced before voiceless sounds or silence (pause), or when /V and iti become voiceless after fortis (voiceless) consonants. All the cases of assimilation that we have considered so far have been cases of allophonic variation: the substitutions have been regarded as allophones of the same phoneme, with the criterion of phonetic similarity being of particular relevance here eg in counting [}] and [Bas allophones of // and !v/ respectively. But there are many cases of assimilation where the substitution is not allophonic but phonemic, the substitution of one phoneme for another. Alveolar sounds in word-final postion are particularly able 10 assimilate to the place of articulation ofthe initial consonant ofa following word; that is, the sounds 1, 5,2. Final is ikely to become pl before bilabial sounds /p,b, mv eg in the sequences shat pen [Dep pPen}, sat boy [Omp bo, that man [Owp msen]. And Final ‘becomes /by before the same sounds eg in good pen [gob plea] ete, Final is likely to become /k/ before velar plosives, g/g, in the sequences that cup [Bzxk i shat gir Ozek go 3]. And likewise ia! becomes before the same sounds eg in good cup [avg k*npH) ete ‘A word-fina alveolar nasal /n/ becomes bilabial /n before bilabial sounds /p,b, and velar iy before velar plosives /k, gl. Examples: en pens [em prenz ten boys {tem bor:2], ten men [Nem menl; ten cups [te keaphs, en girs (te ga Ha). Ira Sequence of alveolar nasal and alveolar plsive occurs worde-finall, then both may assimilate to the place of articulation ofa following consonant, Examples: int in don’ assimilates to the place of articulation of the following iy in don’t be late [ov :mp s lett;/n/in won’ assimilates to/k/ in he won's come {hu wav: kb ms ‘nin ound assimilates tothe bilabial articulation of following ib in he found both {hu fav:mb bv); /nd in kind assimilates othe velar articulation of ina kind gift fo kearing git. Alveolar fricatives /s, 2/ assimilate to a following palatal sound, either palato- ‘Sounds in connected speech 97 alveolar fricative ot palatal frictionless continuant J, j/ and become palato-alveolar fricatives,3/- Examples: this shop [O15 fop) this year [rf jt J; has she [has fi], those young men [80:3 jay men], Assimilations of the kind we have been discussing could, in theory, give rise 0 ambiguous utterances, since in substituting one phoneme for another the new phoneme may already make an acceptable sequence in English. For example, the sequence [lenk*wikt}} could be taken as representing either rang quickly or ran quickly with assimilation of fw to following ‘ki. Or the sequence (woif jo : wert] Could represent either watch your weight or what's your weight with assimilation of Js! to following palatal /j ‘When wordefinal alveolar plosives and fricatives/t, d,s, 2/ are followed by an initial palatal frictionless continuant //, then assimilation is to palato-alveolar place of articulation and the initial /! usually disappears, although for /s, x this is not always the case, as indicated above. The alveolar plosives become palato-alveolar affri- cates tf, d5/ in this instance, and the alveolar fricatives become palato-alveolar fricatives f, 3, as discussed earlier. Examples: woud you [wod3 u: ], what you want [woufu: wont); as yer [eget], in case you need it [iq Kerfus nid 10 Now we come to assimilations involving nasalization. A voiced alveolar plosive /d! ‘may become a nasal when followed by a nasal. Ifthe following nasal is alveolar, /d/ becomes /n, eg in the sequence he wouldn't do it, the Jd! of would becomes an alveolar nasal: [hi wonn(t) du: 10]. There is a tendency for the /V of not to disappear. Ifthe following nasal is velar, then /d! becomes /; eg in the sequence he wouldn't go, the ‘nl assimilate to the following velar /g/, and the /d/ of would then assimilates to the velar nasal following, while the /k/ from /t/ probably disappears {iv wonn(k) gov :]. IF the following nasal is bilabial, then Jd becomes /m/, assimilating again both in place of articulation and in nasalty eg good morning {[gom mo nin]. It is not just word-final alveolar consonants that may be involved in assimilation; for example, the voiced labio-dental fricative /W/ may assimilate in place and nasality to a following bilabial nasal /mi, as in you cam have mine [ju ko hhasm mat in}. In this sequence also the vowel of ean probably disappears (see further below on reduction) and the final alveolar nasal /n/ assimilates towards the glottal articulation offv and becomes velar. Finally we turn to assimilations involving voice. Word-final lenis (voiced) fricatives ‘may become fortis (voiceless) when they are followed by an initial forts consonant, especially ifthe two words are part ofa closely knit group. Examples: / becomes 10) in with thanks [0 Oaey}s), breathe slowly [bliB stv sr; /2! becomes is in these socks [is sok*s], he was sent {In was sent]; 1 becomes /t/ in of course [ot k*9s], ‘we've Jound it (wil fav nd 11}; fg! becomes (tf] in bridge score [bUrtf ska ‘Assimilation isa widespread phenomenon in speech, The instances that we have discussed represent the main ones in English. Quite obviowsly they do not necessarily occur all the time; but statement about assimilation implios that when people speak, and the more rapidly they do so, then these kinds of alteration may {ake place. Since this is so, these variations will need to be taken account of in a harrow transcription of speech, Indeed, it may be argued that the phonemic38 Analyzing English variation resulting from ass should even be accounted for in a broad transcription. But for practical purposes we shall assume that a broad transcription represents words as if spoken in isolation. By way of further illustration, here is an imagined short conversation between a policeman and a motorist in narrow transcription including assimilations (under- lined). . Good morning, sit {om mo:nig 9 Good morning, officer. m ma :niy ofis Your stop lights not working jp stop [ais nop wat teas when left he house. tp woz wen a1: ke f.bo havs —That’s not quite now. Oss nok Kwart nao Which one might tbe? with vam malt 1p bi —The left light doen fate LU have to get the thing fixed. aH hak to get 60 Oxy fist} Buercse 6 Make marow transition of the following sequences of wort, ineuding any poste assimilation, 8 Shut the yard gate behind you [fa D2 jag getp tuhat:ndsus) A. They train cows to jump 2. A badd picture of rose tree 3. Who do you want? 4 He was shipwrecked 5. He's found seven fake pitures Elision Besides assimilation, there are two further processes that cause variation in the pronunciation of sounds at word boundaries: elison and liaison. The process of élision involves the complete disappearance of a sound and takes place only in fairly rapid speech. In such speech it is very common for word-initial fh’ to disappear—and this isa characteristic by no means restricted to cockney speakers! Example: up the hill (4p 01 1], In word-fnal postion it isthe alveolar plosives that are most likely to undergo the process of elision, particularly if they are preceded by another consonant and the following word has a consonant in initial position. The pairs of word-final consonants for which this isthe case can be divided into two groups. The frst of ‘these comprises continuant consonants followed by /t or a: st, ft, nd, 1d, 2d, 8, val, Examples: nest day [nek's det:), lef turn [lef than}, mashed potatoes [maf Potertov:z], bend back [bem bak), hold tight (hav t tart], refused both {ufju 12 bov0], loathed beer [lov :6 bx9 +], moved back {mu : v bk], The second group comprises plosives and affricates followed by /V oF /d: ip, kt, tft, bd, gd, 5d. Examples: kept quiet [k'p! K>wat :a1) liked jam [laik* dseem), reached Paris [ph red bor Lob boo) lagged behind (eg brat: changed colour ter sods kb) Sounds in connected speach 99, \Word-final/U may undergo elision in two further circumstances. I he initial sound of the following word is iV or /d), then the resulting cluster of /t/ of /t! is often simplified to or (respectively. Examples: 've got 1 go (at:v gp to gov: |, what do you want [wo «gu : wont]. The second case involves the negator not when itis reduced to nt, and the /U/ undergoes elision before another consonant. Examples: ‘you mustn't Tose itv masn lu:z.1t, doesn’t she know [dazn Ji:nav:)- This similar to the continuant +/t, d/ cases discussed above. Liaison Liaison, the other process occurring at word boundaries, involves the insertion of a sound that is by and large unmotivated from the phonetic context. The sound is. ‘And it is by and large unmotivated, because, although an /r/ occurs in the written form of some of the words involved, reflecting an earlier pronunciation, the use of sking /rf has been extended to contexts where there is no r in the orthographic form. In the sequences here and there (ial an Sea), father and son {fa :69.1 20 san), fand the far east [Ba fa: 1 ist] an r occurs in the written form, although not if the words concerned are pronounced in isolation: [ha], (fa:60), [fa:}. But in the sequences law and order [lo: 1 an ada} andche idea of i [1 a1:419: J av it) there is no in the orthography and yet liaison takes place Reduction ‘There is one further process that occurs as the result of rapidly articulated speech, but itis not one that occurs at word boundaries. It is called reduction and involves the substitution ofa ‘weak’ central vowel, especially // ori, for a peripheral vowel fe front or back. Reduction occurs particularly in unstressed syllables of words with ‘mote than one syllable, and in single syllable words that have a grammatical (rather than a lexical) function, eg words like is, are, have, of, his, the, does, and, a, an (Syllables are discussed in Chapter 6 and the distinction between grammatical and lexical words in Chapter 9.) Ic is impossible to give a detailed list of all the possible reductions, but the following examples will provide a fair idea of the kinds of cases that may occur. Take the ‘word of, pronounced in isolation as /ov. In connected speech this would commonly be pronounced [av], and may even be reduced further to [v] or [3] eg in wo of mine {tu: o(v) main}. In isolation have would be pronounced /hiev/, but in connected speech the /hy will undergo elision and the front vowel /a/ will be reduced, giving [ov], eg in shey have eaten [Set : ov iton]. The word the, pronounced in isolation as ‘ix/, may in connected speech be either [O1], if it occurs before a word beginning with'a vowel, or [6a] before an initial consonant. In isolation and is pronounced ‘endl, but in connected speech as [ond], or more frequently as [an] or even [n]. In unstressed syllables that end in lor the vowel is normally the unstressed mid ‘central spread vowel /9/ ep in boule fbotot or buuon Vaan’. But in connected speech a further reduction often occurs which causes the vowel to be dropped completely, giving (bot*4] and [btn]. Normally a syllable has to contain a vowel (Gee Chapter 6), but in this case the /V and /n/ are doing service for the vowel and40 Analyzing English ‘are called syllabic A and syllabic ini respectively. The symbol for a syllabic consonant is the small stroke bencath the consonant symbol: fj) [2] As in the case of assimilation, a narrow transcription of a connected sequence of speech will have to take account of the processes of elision, liaison and reduction By way of summary, hete is list of the processes described in this chapter that ‘occur when words are put together in connected specch. Assimilation Word-final alveolars become dental before dental fricatives, Bilabial and alveolar nasals become labio-dental before labio-dentalfricatives. Word-initial /W and /r! becomes voiceless after fortis consonants. nal labio-dental fricatives may become bilabial before bilabial plosives. inal /V is non-velarised if followed by an initial vowel inal lenis plosives and Iricatives are not devoiced if followed by a vowel or voiced consonant. inal /, d/ become bilabial before bilabial consonants. inal /t, d/ become velar before velar plosives inal /n/ becomes bilabial before bilabial consonants. inal /n/ becomes velar before velar plosives. inal /nt, nd/ both become bilabial before bilabials and velar before velars. Word-final /s, 2/ become palato-alveolar before palato-alveolar fricatives and the palatal frictionless continuant. Word-final /t,d, s, / become palato-alveolar affricates (It, dl) or fricatives (Js, z/) before / and /j/ disappears Word-final /d) becomes a nasal before a nasal, at the place of articulation of the nasal. Word-final /v/ becomes a nasal before a nasal Word-final lenis fricatives become fortis before an initial fortis consonant Elision Word-inital Jh frequently undergoes elsion, Word-final /t, d’ preceded by another consonant and followed by an initial consonant undergo elision. Word-final t’ followed by /t, d/ undergoes elision. Liaison Word-final vowel followed by an initial vowel are often linked by insertion of /!. Reduction Vowels in unstressed syllables, or in monosyllabic grammatical words are often reduced to // of i ‘Complete reduction, ie elision, may oceur in unstressed syllables ending in or /n/, giving a syllabic consonant, ‘Sounds in connected speech 41 Exercise 7 Make s narrow transcription ofthe following uiterences, taking account of any asain, stision ltion and reduction, * an fg He'oe the of fof ta: greengrocer i019 oe tra of Sk pteloes) 1. What cid you sy his name 2. We discusted the idea of Twas ast Tuesday 5 He dnt come tote lecture or he would have known a 5 ‘They camped by the river on the other side ‘The masked gunman held the hostage at gunpoint6. Combining sounds Phonemes themselves have no meaning: their only function is to combine together to form higher-level mesningful units; that is, words. But between phonemes and words we have to recognize an intermediate level of phonological organization: the syllable. Many words in English have only one syllable; they are ‘monosyllabic’. But ‘many have more than one syllable; they are ‘polysyllabic’. And yet it is clear that the same principles operate in the combining of phonemes into syllables, whether the syllable itself constitutes a word, or whether the syllable in turn combines with another or several other syllables to form a word. Like phonemes, syllables are in principle meaningless eg sim /sum/ and ple /pal/ of simple, even though in some cases they do eaincide with a meaningful unit, eg in hard—ship, un—do or, of course, in monosyllabic words, Syllabie structure A syllable has a basic three-part structure, composed of a central part and a peripheral part before and after the central one. The central part is almost always a vowel sound and the peripheral parts are consonants. Each syllable has only one vowel, either a pure vowel or a dipthong, at its centre; but the number of consonants in the peripheries may vary. It is possible that one or other or both of, the peripheral parts will not be realised ie there may be no consonants either before or after the vowel, as for example in out favt, foe /tav/ /at!. In English there may, in fact, be up to three consonants before the Vowel and up (0 four consonants after it eg in sirengihs /strepk0s!. Phonemes, then, combine to form syllables, and syllables combine to form words. The maximum number of syllables possible in an English word seems to be about seven or eight eg in in—ter—natio-—na-lizar fon. We have said that a vowel is almost always at the central part of a syllable. The exceptions to this statement are the so-called syllabic consonants, discussed in Chapter 5, which arise from the reduction of a weak vowel to extinction, The consonants which most often become central io the syllable for this reason are il/ ‘nd /n, asin the examples given in Chapter 5: bottle bo, button ib ty In some other languages syllabic consonants are normal central elements, eg a form of rin Czech, Vowels in English never function at the peripheries of syllables, and this provides the reason for treating the ‘semi-vowels’/w/ and /j as consonants: inspite of their vowel-like quality they pattern in syllable structure like consonants, ie they ‘occur in the peripheries of syllables and not in the central part. One practical reason for recognizing syllables as intermediate units between phonemes and words is that they represent the most convenient level at which to describe the way in which phonemes combine together and the restrictions that Combining sounds 43, ‘ccur on combinations of phonemes. The possibilities of phoneme combination are not unlimited: any phoneme may not combine with just any other. There isthe obvious restriction imposed by the nature of syllable structure Consonant-Vowel- Consonant (CVC); a syllable could not be composed of just consonants, nor of more than one vowel or diphthong. But even taking ths restriction into account, some phoneme combinations would be impossible to pronounce eg /pgnust, except perhaps with extreme difficulty. Other combinations, although in principle quite pronounceable, just do not occur in English, eg nufR/. English does not use all the possible pronounceable combinations of phonemes to make syllables and words ‘That isto say, there are certain rules of phoneme combination for English which can be deduced from the syllables and words actually occurring Initial periphery Since the nature of the syllable itself specifies that only one vowel phoneme may ‘occur in each syllable, we can describe the rules of phoneme combination in terms (of the consonants and their combinations that may occur in peripheral positions in syllables. We shall look first at the consonants in initial position in the syllable. Tt is possible that no consonant at all will occur before the vowel (as in oud), and that is the case in English before all the vowel phonemes except two: / and /oa/ never ‘occur without a consonant preceding. All the consonant phonemes of English may coccur singly in syllable initial position except two: / and iq/ never occur by themselves, nor for that matter in combination wit another consonant, in the initial periphery of an English syllable. The permissible combinations of two consonants ia syllable initial position may be expressed by the following diagram: Figure 28: Sllable-inital ewo-consonant combinations als eens f According © this diagram the following syllable initial two consonant combinations are possible: /smv, sn, /st, ski, sp sf, fw, Ow/, lt, fr, er, hw, k,l, pr, Hl, fot, axl, ipl, MU, POV, IgV, Ife, ISw/, VS, making a total of 26. This obviously represents only a very small proportion of the arithmetically possible combinations of the 24 consonants in English, which would amount to 576, assuming that each consonant would be allowed to occur with itself. The restric- tions are even more remarkable when we turn to combinations of three consonants in syllable initial position. Here the arithmetical possibilities would be 13,824, but the actually occurring combinatiqns number six, of which one is found in only one44 Analyzing English ‘word. The following diagram represents the permissible three consonant combina tions: Figure 26: Syllable-initiatthree-consonant combinations The six three-consonant combinations are, then: /spV,/spr,/st, st! /kr/,/skw ‘The combination /sfr/ occurs only in the word sphragistics, the study of engraved seals xercie 8 Find English words to illustrate exch of the permissible two-and three-consomant combi tions in syllable initial position in English Final periphery ‘We turn now to the rules of phoneme combination that apply to the final periphery of the syllable, Here also itis possible for no consonant to occur: this is the case after any vowel phoneme in English, except the following five, which are always followed by a consonant: fe; fa, /o/, ial. All consonant phonemes may occur singly in syllable final position in English, except the following four: i, wl 11 is more difficult to find precise formulas to express the permissible clusters in syllable final consonant combinations than in syllable initial combinations, As stated earlier, there may be up to four consonants in the final periphery; and as in the case of syllable initial clusters, the fower are the permissible combinations, the larger the clusters become. Although not expressing the restrictions in the greatest possible detail or with complete precision, the following chart provides a neat representation of permissible combinations in syllable final position: Figure 27: Sllable-inal consonant combinations Position A_ Position B _ Position € Position D__| T ‘Any consonant @ t mao except ta 5 3 hewj se eeesae sees ‘Two consonant combinations may comprise either a consonant from Position A combined with a consonant from Position B, or from Position B combined with Position C. The 48 permissible three-consonant syllable final combinations are either Position A + Position B+ Position C, or Position B + Position C + Posi tion D. The seven permissible four consonant combinations are as follows: /Ikts, Impstl, Impts/, Aksts/, MDs), Os, /ntOs!, as in mudets, glimpsed, tempts, texts, ‘welfihs, sicths, thousandihs. Obviously, these sound clusters are likely to be Combining sounds 45, reduced under the pressures of connected speech. The reader is let withthe task of discovering examples for the two-and three-consonant combinations, and indeed of discovering precisely which combinations are found in contemporary English. "The phoneme combination rules that we have been discussing are established on the basis of monosyllabic words. In polysyllabie words itis not always clear, when a number of consonants ovcurs at syllable boundaries, to which syllable they should be assigned. For example, in the word exira fekstro/ there are obviously (wo syllables, as two vowel phonemes occur, but itis not clear how the syllables should be divided. Three possible divisions may be made, all of which would give permissible consonant combinations: k-str, ks-tr and kst-r.The method proposed to solve this kind of problem is a statistical one, A statistical survey of syllable initial and syllable final positions has produced an order of “favoured” syllable beginnings and endings, and the break between syllables that conforms to this most favoured principle isthe preferred one. At the beginning of a syllable the order of favour is: CV, VC, CC (C= consonant, V = vowel); at the end of a syllable the order is: VC, CV, CC. So in a word like aster /esta/ (VCCV) the preferred break would be as-7. For extra one would presumably have to choose between VC-CCCV and VCCC-CY, ie ek-stra and ekstr. Stress Another good reason for recognizing syllables is that there isa further phenomenon that scems to be associated with them, that of stress placement. When we hear polysyllabie words spoken we are often aware that some part of the word sounds louder or seems to be uttered with more force than another part. Or, to put it another way, one syllable is more prominent than another. This is achieved by the fact that syllables have different degrees of stress, and this is one of the phonetic factors that ensures that speech does not sound completely monotonous and level ‘Stress is perceived as difference in loudness, but from the articulatory point of view stress variation arses from force of articulation and more especially from difference in pte In English words we usually recognize three degrees of stress: primary stress, indicated by a stroke above the line at the beginning of the syllable so stressed ('); secondary stress, indicated by a stroke on or below the line atthe beginning of the syllable $0 stressed; and unstressed syllables, which are not marked. Each English word, spoken in isolation, has one and only one primary stress, So monosyllables have just a primary stress. In connected speech some monosyllabic ‘words may become unstressed; this applies particularly to ‘grammatical’ words, those that are also subject to vowel reduction (see Chapter 5). Polysyllabie words may have, though not necessarily, one secondary stress, and in some fairly rare ‘cases Iwo secondary stresses. All remaining syllables will be unstressed, Each English word, then, has @ characteristic stress pattern which normally remains unchanged in connected speech. Unlike in some languages, primary stress in English does not fall on the same syllable in every word (eg last sylable or penultimate); it may fall on just about any48 Analyzing English syllable. However, for any particular word primary stress usually fall on the same syllable whenever the word occurs. So in every occurrence of reserve, primary stress always falls on the second syllable. In English, then, stress placement is free in the sense that there is no uniform pattern for every word, and itis fixed in that the stress patterns of individual words do not change according to context, Here now are some examples of stress patterns i English polysyllabic words: secondary + primary jun known unstressed + primary llone primary + secondary ‘profile primary + unstressed 'ta ble Secondary + unstressed + primary un derstand primary + unstressed + unstressed "ba che for Primary + unstressed + secondary ‘pho tograph unstressed + primary + unstressed im'por tant secondary + primary + unstressed jun'cer tain unstressed + primary + two unstressed n'po ssi ble secondary + primary + two unstressed ,un'for tu nate unstressed + primary +-unstressed + secondary eli maize primary + three unstressed ‘me fan cho ly Primary + unstressed + secondary + unstressed ‘educa ted unstressed + secondary + unstressed + primary misjun der'stand unstressed + secondary + unstressed + primary + unstressed comsi de'ra tion secondary + unstressed + primary + unstressed + secondary in ca'pa ciate unstressed + primary + three unstressed ad’mi nis tra tive unstressed + secondary + unstressed + primary + two unstressed con,ver sbi lity secondary + three unstressed + primary + unstressed yaa tio na lea tion secondary + unstressed + primary + theee unstressed yn dis'tn gui sha ble secondary + unstressed + Secondary + unstressed + primary + two unstressed vu rei abi lity Uunstressod + secondary + two unstressed & nrimary + two unstressed impe ne tra bi lity ‘A mere difference in stress pattern does not usually serve to distinguish one word from another. Stress is not contrastive in the sense that phonemes are: the substitution of one phoneme for another results in the creation of a different word eg ban'panitanican etc. But for stress this is not the case: stress is contrastive in the sense that it contrasts one syllable with another in the linear sequence of a word, However, there is small number of words in English where the substitution of one stress pattern for another does result in the creation of a different word. Very often, though, the difference in stress pattern is uecompanied by a difference in vowel quality, since unstressed syllables tend to be associated with vowel reduction and centralized vowels. Compare the following pairs of words: ‘trans fer trans fer ‘digest di'gest ‘con duet con'duct ‘protest pro'test Combining sounds 47 ‘The words in the first column, with primary stress on the first syllable, are nouns; while those in the second column, with primary stress on the second syllable, are verbs. We have said that each word in English has a characteristic stress pattern. These stress patterns may, however, change in the course of time. For example, the word ‘momentary has the stress pattern in modern English of a primary stress on the first syllable, with all the others unstressed, In the seventeenth century the primary stress was on the penultimate syllable, with a secondary stress on the first syllable—mo men'ta ry. This older stress pattern is retained in present-day American-English pronunciation. In modern English there are a few words whose stress pattern is variable, even within the speech of an individual, and it could be that these are words whose stress pattern is currently in the course of changing, eg “im te graliin'te gral; ‘con tro ver sy,con'tro ver sy Rxercse 9 Work out the stress patterns for the following English words: eg control, fant a s},,sup po 's ton. 1, machine 2. female 3, magazine 4. quantity 5 telephone 3. thinoceros 7. Gowardliness 8. satisfactory 9, inferiority 10, personification 11, unilateralism a7. Intonation When we speak, we do not do s0 on a monotone, Indeed, we should all sound very boring if we did. Speech does not just consist of a sequence of phonemes combined into syllables and words. Accompanying these combinations of phonemes, occur- ring simultaneously with their articulation, are two features of speech that have linguistic importance. One of these is stress; the importance of which we sav in the previous chapter in contrasting one syllable with another in the phonological structure of words. Stress has a similar {unction in longer stretches of utterance, in according prominence to one syllable (and so to the word of which itis a part) as ‘against another. For example, the utterance The cat chased the mouse could be stressed in one of three ways: The CAT chased the mouse The cat CIASed the mouse The cat chased the MOUSE. As in the case of words, stress is produced in utterances not especially by greater force of articulation on one syllable rather than another, but more particularly by a change in pitch on a syllable, ‘Tone groups ‘The other linguistically important feature accompanying the phoneme combina tions is intonation, This isthe musical or melodie accompaniment of speech. On the level of intonation each utterance is composed of a number of tone-groups, Each tone-group represents a unit of information, which isto say that intonation has the function of dividing an utterance up into information units. Viewed phonetically, tone-groups consist ofa series of rises and falls in the pitch of the voice. Since, as we have said, pitch movement is probably the most important contributing factor to stress, intonation and stress can be seen to be closely interconnected in this area of speech production. Besides structuring the utterance in terms of information units, intonation is often important grammatically in distinguishing one type of sentence from another; and it is also important in signalling the attitude of the speaker in what he is saying. Nucleus Every tone-group has a nucleus, which i its most prominent part. The nucleus is, in other words, the most heavily stressed syllable in a tone-group, and the one which has associated with ita pitch movement. In a tone-group without contrastive or ‘emphatic stress the nucleus falls on the primary stressed syllable of the last lexical Word (noun, verb, adjective or adverb, as against pronoun, preposition, ete which 48 Intonation 49 are ‘grammatical’ words—see Chapter 9) eg The cat chased the MOUSE. Where there is contrastive or emphatic stress, the primary stressed syllable with such stress is the locus of the nucleus, eg The cat CHASed the mouse, The CAT chased the Intonation is a notoriously difficult area of phonetic investigation, and phoneticians vary considerably inthe way that they analyze it. Among other things, they disagree ‘on the number and types of nucleuses that should be recognized for English. We will restrict ourselves to four types of nucleus, which seems adequate, They are: falling, ising, flling-rising ond rising falling. We can illustrate these, together with the notation that is frequently used, on the uterance No: Falling ‘No (a matter-of-fact statement) Rising ,No (questioning) Fallngzrising ‘No (expressing incredulity) Rising-falling "No (emphatic probbition, solding). “The notes in brackets are an attempt to provide a meaning for each of the nucleus tones, and to help the reader identify and produce them for himsel. Tail [Any lables in a tone-group coming after the nucleus are called the tall The pitch ‘on these syllables continues the direction of the nucleus. So if the nucieus has a rising or @ fallng-rising pte, that on the tail will be ising; and it will be falling i {he nucleus is falling oF rising-falling. Compare the following utterances: He wants some “ICE-cream on top off (statement) He wants some ,ICE-cream on top of i (qiestioning). Head “The part of the tone-group coming directly before the nucleus is called the head. This extends from the primary stressed syllable of the first lexical word in the tone-group up to the nucleus. The tones of the head are level, rather than having. pitch movement, 50 that two kinds of effect may be found. The head may all be ‘tered on the sume pitch, usually low, or a stepping effect may be produced, either from relatively high to relatively low pitch, or from relatively low to relatively high pitch, Compare the following utterances: Pat it on the “TABle (nonchalant instruction) Put it on the “TABle (emphatic, impatient command). Pre-head ‘Any syllables coming before the head are called the preshead. They willbe part of “lexical” words of “grammatical” words, and will be relatively unstressed. The pre-head may normally consist of high level tones or of low level tones. Compare the following, utterances: He dest kinow Row io 'SAY 3 (matter-of-fact statement) Fe doesn't kilaw how fo “SAY it (mocking tone).50 Analyzing English ‘The foregoing isa sketch of one possible way to analyze and describe the intonation of English. When one tries to observe intonation, it is often difficult to recognize ‘what isa falling tone and what isa rising one, but it soems clear that in conversation ‘we do perceive and react to these differences, and that they play an important part in signalling meaning. 1t is partly from the intonation of an utterance that we Understand what a speaker intends by what he is gaying. That means his intention both in respect of linguistic meaning, and in respect of his attitude to what he is saying, We will now consider these two aspects of the function of intonation in English. Intonation and meaning The contrast between a falling intonation pattern and a rising intonation pattern often correlates with a distinction between a statement and a question. Compare, {for example, the intonation patterns that might normally accompany the following: Cats chase mice.—statement; Do cats chase mice?—question expecting the answer yes of no; Where did the ball go?—question seeking information; itis possible for this kind of, question to be spoken with either rising or falling intonation, Indeed, with information seeking questions falling intonation is probably the norm, In any case, for either kind of question it is not just the intonation that indicates whether itis & {question or a statement: the order of words (do before eats, id before the ball) and the presence of a question word (where) in information seeking questions are ‘enough (o make the distinction clear. Where the intonation invariably carries the contrast between statement and question is if the utterance has a statement form but a rising intonation pattern eg Cats chase mice? Another meaning associated with a rising intonation pattern is that of incomplete~ ness. A rising intonation at the end of a tone-group may indicate that what is being said is not finished, that there is more to come eg First she went to the Cupboard, then she tried the Sideboard, and finally she found itin the table draver Or, in offering a list of items—Would you lke tea, o coffee or milk?—a falling intonation on the last item implies that the choice is limited to those items mentioned, whereas a rising intonation on the las item implies that the fist is not closed and that the speaker is open to further suggestions ‘The meaning of an utterance may also be affected by where the nucleus of a tone-group is placed: this may be erueial in deciding which itoms in an utterance bbelong together grammatically. The by now famous example to illustrate this point is the utterance He fed her dog biscuits. Ifthe nucleus falls on BiScuifs, then itis the ddog that he is feeding, If, on the other hand, the nucleus falls on DOG, then the lady participant is being fed with dog biscuit. In a similar way, how the utterance is divided into tone-groups, ie where the ‘one-group boundaries are placed, may also affect the sense of what is being said. A. traditional example is the utterance He washed and brushed his hair, If this ltterance is spoken as one tone-group, ie with only one nucleus, then it means that Intonation 51 the actions referred to applied only to the hair. If, on the other hand, itis spoken as two tone-groups, with a tone-group boundary between washed and and, then the washing may be taken to refer to other parts of his body and the brushing alone applied to the hair. Intonation may, then, be & contributory factor in determining which words belong together grammatically in an utterance, by tone-group boundary placement, by the placement of the nucleus within a tone-group, or by the kind of nucleus and general intonation pattern that is used, Intonation and attitude Perhaps more important than the use of intonation to make distinctions in grammar is the function of intonation to signal how a speaker intends his utterance to be taken or what his attitude is as he speaks the utterance. But this aspect of intonation is probably the most difficult of all to characterize, not least because we scem not to have a handy or agreed list of labels to apply to different attitudes. For example, how could we characterize the differences between the following, utterances: ‘That's fine (falling)—? matter of fact That's sine (rising) —2 encouraging That's “fine (falling-rising)—? what have you been worrying about. Part of the difficulty is that the same intonation pattern may have different ‘meanings or signal different attitudes in different contexts. It seems to depend on the meaning of the lexical items as much as on the meaning of the intonation. Compare the following utterances: No (rising-faling)—indignant ‘Really (rsing-falling)—ineredulous, sarcastic He "always is (cising-talling)—impatient and the following: No (falling-rising)—doubtful but encouraging If you want to (falling-rising)—grudging acceptance. It is not just the type of nucleus that may be important in conveying the attitude of the speaker, butalsothe kind ofhead, For example, Good Morning isnormally spoken with a falling nucleus on MORNing. But the head good may be characterized by cither a high level pitch or a low level pitch: the high pitch signals the attitude ‘cheerful’, while the low pitch signals the attitude ‘routine’ Bxercise 10 For normal rendering of the following utterances, consider where the nucleus would fall, land what kind of nucleus it might be: eg thar's a STUpid way to do i Hell telephone 19’ MORrow. 1, Don't do it lke that. 2. He came home yesterday 3. What did hd say after that. 4. His suggestion ix simply ridiculous, 5, You ean” go out,82 Analyzing English (6. He seems alright to me. 7. Is that al he talked about? 8, He won't find me there, 9. Lan understand it 10. You're never here on time. Notes ” "The etttude labels are taken from A C Gimson’s An introduction to the pronunciation of English Edward Amold, 1970 # Labels trom Gimson, op cit For a dettiled investigation ofthe attitudes conveyed by different kinds of tone-group and intonation patetn, the reader is refered to O'Connor, J D, and GF Arnold Intonation of colloquial English Longmen, 1961. | Part Two: Structures8. Grammar and sentences ‘A linguistic description, and consequently a language, is often regarded as being ‘composed of three parts: phonetics/phonology, grammar and semantics. And there is a sense in which grammar links phonology and semantics: phonemes combine into words (phonology), words combine into sentences (grammar), and sentences refer to events, actions and states in the world (semantics). However, phonology ‘and grammar are different from semantics in that they deal exclusively with the internal structure of language (form), while semantics is concerned largely with the external relationships of language (meaning). Phonology and grammar The relationship between phonology and grammar is not as simple as has been implied. There is no automatic progression from phoneme to word to sentence There are, in fat, two parallel sets of hierarchical relationships: phoneme—syll able—word (—tone-sroup); morpheme—word—. sentence. It so happens that the unit ‘word occurs in both, and not without reason. “Word” i the level at which the greatest amount of congruence is found between units in phonology and units in grammar. For the majority of phonological words there are equivalent grammatical words in # one-to-one relationship. But there are several interesting cases that demonstrate the separateness of the two sets of hierarchical relationships. These are cases where there is no one-to-one match between phonological and grammati- cal word. The uneven match between phonology and grammar is welt illustrated by the so-called homophones, where different grammatical words have the same phonemic structure or pronunciation, Take the phonological word /bav!. It represents a ‘number of lexical items (grammatical words): bough, bow (of a boat), bow (verb, “to incline the head or body"), bow (noun, ‘inclination of the head or body’). Besides being homophones, the last three items mentioned are also homographs, ie they are written the same. Or take the phonological words /stend! and /marnd/ teach of them represents two grammatical words, one @ noun and the other a verb Uneven matching between phonology and grammar is also found the other way round, though more rarely. The past tense of the verb dream may be represented phonologically as either Jdremv or /drimd/. And whether integral has the phonolog. ical structure /ntagraV or /in'tegral, itis till the same item as far as the grammar is concerned. ‘The separateness of the phonological and grammatical sets of relationships is sometimes referred to as the ‘double articulation’ of language. This implies that language is patterned simultaneously on two levels: sound and syntax. Phonemes pattern into words, words pattern into sentences, and the link between the two8. Grammar and sentences A linguistic description, and consequently a language, is often regarded as being composed of three parts: phoneties/phonology, grammar and semantics. And there is a sense in which grammar links phonology and semantics: phonemes combine into words (phonology), words combine into sentences (grammar), and sentences refer to events, actions and states in the world (semantics). However, phonology and grammar are different from semantics in that they deal exclusively with the internal structure of language (form), while semantics is concerned largely with the external relationships of language (meaning). Phonology and grammar The relationship between phonology and grammar is not as simple as has been implied. There is no automatic progression from phoneme to word to sentence. ‘There arc, in fact, two parallel sets of hierarcheal relationships: phoneme—syll- able—word (—tone-group); morpheme—word—. . sentence. It so happens that the unit ‘word’ occurs in both, and not without reason, "Word" isthe level at which the greatest amount of congruence is found between units in phonology and units in grammar. For the majority of phonological words there are equivalent grammatical words in’a one-to-one relationship. But there are several interesting cases that demonstrate the separateness of the two sets of hierarchical relationships. These are cases where there is no one-to-one match between phonological and grammat- cal word. ‘The uneven match between phonology and grammar is wel illustrated by the so-called homophones, where different grammatical words have the same phonemic structure or pronunciation, Take the phonological word /bavi. It represents a umber of lexical items (grammatical words): bough, bow (of a boat), bow (verb, “to incline the head or body"), bow (noun, ‘inclination of the head or body’). Besides being homophones, the last three items mentioned are also homographs, ic they are written the same. Or take the phonological words /stand/ and /maind cach of them represents two grammatical words, one @ noun and the other a verb Uneven matching between phonology and grammar is also found the other way sound, though more rarely. The past tense of the verb dream may be represented phonologicaly as either Jdremt/ of /drimd/. And whether integral has the phonolog- jcal structure /tntagra’ or in'wgrol, is still the same item as far as the grammar is concerned. ‘The separateness of the phonological and grammatical sets of relationships is sometimes referged to as the ‘double articulation’ of language. This implies that language is patterned simultaneously on two levels: sound and syntax. Phonemes pattern into words, words pattern into sentences, and the link between the two56 Analyzing English levels occurs at the unit ‘word’. This, no doubt, accounts for the importance that has ‘been attached to words in the study of language through the centuries, although the status ofthe word as the basic unit of lexicography (dictionary making) must also be a contributing factor to its importance, (Grammar and nary So grammar is different from phonology: itis concerned with the internal structure of sentences (in terms of words), while phonology is concerned with the way these sentences and words ‘sound’. But we need to differentiate grammar from semantics also, If we want to know what a word ‘means’, we go to a dictionary, where, among other things, we expect to find the ‘meaning’ or ‘definition’ of the word we are interested in, Let us say that we came across the sentence The funnel was raking terribly, and we wanted to know the meaning of aking in this context. What we should iook up in the dictionary would be ‘rake’, not raking or was raking. And we should find that the meaning was ‘of the funnel, slope towards the stern’, Now, in the entry ‘rake’, some dictionaries would tell you that one of the forms of ‘rake’ is ‘raking’, but raking would not have a separate entry in the dictionary because itis merely an alternative form of rake, not a different ‘word’. Here, then, we can distinguish a thied sense of the term ‘word’: the word as an entry inthe dictionary, sometimes called a lexeme, which may have a number of grammatical forms or ‘words, Thus big and bigger are distinct words as far as the grammar is concerned, bt they are forms of a single lexeme and are both dealt with in a single dictionary ‘entry. Each of the three parts of our linguistic description—phonology, grammar, semanties—deals with ‘words’, but in each case something slightly different is ‘meant, though of course something common is also implied. We ean see, once again, why words have held such an important place in linguistic studies. Grammar ‘The grammatical description of a language specifies the way in which sentences in that language may be constructed: it gives the rules of sentence structure. But what is meant by ‘rule’ here? What is nor meant by ‘rule’ is statements of the following kind: ‘A preposition is not a suitable word to end a sentence with’, or ‘It is the height of bad grammar to begin a sentence with ‘and’, ‘but’ or a number of other undesirable words’. As in a phonological description, « grammatical description is charting what people actually say rather than what the linguist thinks they ought to say. Now, in the course of doing this for a particular language, the linguist will more than likely find several different usages for one area of grammar or another. But the core of the grammar will probably be the same. Different rules will be found to ‘operate in different regional areas, representing different dialects, and in different kinds of communication: the grammar of scientific textbooks will probably be somewhat different in particular features from that of ordinary conversation oF personal letters. Grammatical descriptions, such as that made by Quirk and his ¢é-authors in A grammar of contemporary English, generally define which variety ofthe language Grammar and sentences 57 they are describing. This is usually what is called ‘general educated usage’ (Variations from this variety may, however, be noted; in A grammar ofcontempor- ary English attention is paid to the differences between British and American educated usage.) So grammatical rules are the descriptions of the regular ways in which speakers of a particular language or language variety construct the sentences in that language or variety. They are generalizations of what happens, made from observing many specific instances and relating them to one another. In a sense therefore, there is no such thing as ‘bad’ grammar. There may be ‘inappropriate? grammar, that is, inappropriate for the style of language required for the situation in which itis used. ‘And there may be ‘deviant’ grammer, when an adult makes a slip of the tongue, or when a child or foreigner has not yet learnt the language completely, or when a poet deliberately produces deviant sentences for effect. Though, of course, you. cannot know what is deviant until you know what is normal or accepted! We use the term ‘grammar’ in at least two ways, illustrated by the following sentences: His grammar is terible, I must go and consult the grammar. tn the first ‘we are referring to the speaker's competence in the language (or lack of it!), that is, what is stored in his brain. In the second we are referring to what a linguist has written, which is a description of the first, This description is not an exact, representation of the speaker's grammar (which is what some linguists have suggested). We do not know how our language competence is stored in the brain We can only make deductions about the system from what people say, and the description isan order, or a model, imposed or inducted by the descriptive linguist. Grammatical units From our discussion so far in this chapter, it should be obvious that two grammatical terms have been occurring fairly frequently; they are word and sentence. In writing, these units are easily recognizable: a word is the unit bounded either side by a space, and the sentence is the unit that stretches from a beginning capital letter to a concluding full-stop. In speech, if such was the only form of language we had, they would be more difficult to identify, but the fact that they ‘oceur in writing implies that the native speaker has some intuitive awareness of what is @ word and what is a sentence in his language. In a senso, these two units—word and sentenee—are basic to grammar, though they are by no means the only units of grammatical structure, and there is no direct relation between words and sentences. Neither are they the smallest and largest units of grammar respectively: there are recognizable units smaller than words, and units larger than sentences. However, sentences do exhibit structure that no Jarger unit, eg paragraph or discourse, does. And larger units are discussed in terms ff changes that take place in sentences or of characteristic features of particular sentences: this js the area of textsyntax which we shall be considering in Chapters 15 and 16. The units smaller than words are called morphemes, which we shall be considering in Chapters 17 and 18. For the present let the following examples serve58 Analyzing En as illustrations of the decomposability of words: nationalized, temptations, un—sympathe—tc, re—paint—ing. Phrase and clause [Now let us consider the statement made in the pgevious paragraph, that words do not pattem directly into sentences, Tis implies that there are some intervening levels of organization between word and sentence. Consider the following sen= tence: The grand old man of leters stumbled along the dimly lit road, but the pen Which he had lost had been picked up by a small boy. This sentence cannot be viewed simply as a concatenation of words: The + grand + old + man +... ete. Some groups of words belong more closely together than any of them do with any others, and these longer stretches of word groups in turn form larger units. In this sentence we can recognize the following word groupings: the grand old man of lewers, along the dimly lt road, the pen which he had lost, had been picked up, by a ‘mall boy; and stumbled belongs on its own. These word groupings combine in turn {nto the following larger units: the grand old man of letters stumbled along the dimly lit road and the pen which he had lost had been picked up by a small boy. And then these two units are linked together by bur to form the complete sentence. ‘The intervening units between word and sentence are usually called phrase and clause: phrases are equivalent to the ‘word groupings’ of the previous paragraph, and clauses to the ‘larger units’. So words pattern into phrases, phrases into clauses, ‘and clauses into sentences. Or, from the alternative perspective, a sentence is com- posed of one or more clauses, a clause is composed of one or more phrases, and a phrase is composed of one or more words. So the instruetion Fire is one word, one phrase, one clause, one sentence. Our investigation of grammar will, then, be concerned with the kinds of words, phrases, clauses and sentences that occur in contemporary English, and with the rules for their structure and combination, Finally, in this chapter, we must consider ways of representing the structure of sentences. There are two conventional methods: bracketing, and tree diagrams. In this book we shall be using tree diagrams, because they are easier to read and decipher. But below, for illustration, are the bracketing and tree diagram for the following sentence ‘S’ stands for sentence, ‘CI’ for clause, ‘Ph’ for phrase, and ‘Wd? for word: John kicked the ball and Harry caught it Bracketing: S(C(Ph(Wd:John))(Ph(Wdskicked)) (Ph(We:the)(Wé:ball))) and (Ci(Pa(Wa:Harry))(Ph(Wa:caught))(PH(WA:t))) Figure 28: Tree diagram eS pt >| -P > Grammar and sentences 59 [Now hore are the tree diagrams for three more sentenees ‘The fifty English cours walked along the Great wall i — A ° ait Ifyou write to this address they wil send you a coloured brochure $e ied , AT AN The old lady has been anxious about her cass ai A a Wee We wa Mea Welw we Exercise 11 ‘Analyze the following sentences into clauses, phrases and words, representing your analysis by means ofa tree diagram, Go away! ‘Tim sold his bicycle to a friend, .. Martha loves cats |The two men were fishing for trout in the clear stream beside the woodman's cottage The committee elected the oldest member president for the coming year ‘Your apple pie looks really delicious ‘Young Jim has been looking for tadpoles in the village pond, She gave him a look which betokened trouble. (Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to fetch her poor dog a bone. ‘When she got there the cupboard was bare, and so the poor dog had none.9. Word classes One of the traditional ways of analyzing a sentence was known as ‘parsing’, This involved identifying each word in the sentence and assigning it to the appropriate ‘part of speech’, and saying what ‘form’ the word had. For example, in the sentence The cows are in the field, cows would belong to the part of speech called noun, and it would be in the ‘plural form; are would be a verb, and have the third person plural form of the infinitive be; and so on, ‘This kind of analysis derived from techniques used in the investigation of the classical languages, Latin and Greck, where the endings of words give a good deal of information about the syntactic function of words, ie their particular job in the sentence. For instance, in the Latin sentence Puer amat puellam (the boy loves the girl’), puer and puellam are identified as subject and object of the sentence respectively simply because their endings (or lack of them in the case of puer) assign them to a particular ‘case’ (nominative and accusative respectively), which is 1 mark of syntactic function (subject or object). The particular kind of endings, in the case of puer and puellam case endings, also indicate which part of speech the word belongs to Since English does not have such an elaborate case system as Latin or Greek, a parsing of English sentences does not yield nearly so much syntactic information, Besides, underlying the technique of parsing isthe notion that sentences are made Lup of strings of words, and that each word has a function in the sentence identifiable from its form. There is, then, no notion of intervening levels, such as phrase and clause, Definitions However, the notion of ‘part of speech’ is still a useful one, though the term word lass is usually preferred these days. It is convenient to talk about classes of words that have some characteristic or other in common, Deciding which characteristics should be regarded as defining characteristics for a particular word class is not easy. ‘Traditionally, the parts of speech had a ‘notional’ definition; for example, a noun ‘was defined as ‘the name of a person, place or thing’, or a verb was called a ‘doing word’. While these definitions have some validity, they were nevertheless too loose and restricted to be very serviceable in a rigorous analysis, For example, in the sentence His thumps became louder, ‘thump’ hardly fals nto the definition of noun as ‘the name of a person, place or thing’, it seems rather to be a “doing word’; and ‘became can hardly be called a “doing word’, since it refers to-a quite passive process, For the purposes of a ‘scientific’ definition, a more watertight set of claracteristies was looked for, and these were found in the grammatical characteristics of words. 60 Word classes 6 For example, a noun is often defined as a word that typically inflects for plural number (Cow —coms), Functions as head of a noun phrase (see Chapter 10), which typically functions as subject or object of a clause (see Chapter 13). In other words, the definitions of the word classes looked more to the internal structure of language, rather than to the relation between language and the external world. "Now, while such a form of words as we have given for a noun above may go some ‘way towards providing a watertight definition of the word clas, it does not always help very much in aiding the recognition of different types of words. For this, a notional characterization is far easier to apply, and it is certainly possible to improve on the notional definitions of traditional grammar. We could say, for ‘example, that a noun generally refers to ‘things’ in the broadest sense, whether ‘objects table), activities (his hammering), feelings (hatred), ideas (eternity), as well as people and places. ‘Open and closed classes Word classes are generally divided into two broad groups: those which are open lasses and those which are closed classes, These terms refer to the membership of the classes. For the closed classes the membership is fixed; it is in general not possible to add new members. For the open classes the opposite is the case: new members are being constantly added, as new words are coined in science, technology, or by advertisers or sub-cultures, The open classes of words are: noun, verb, adjective, adverb; the closed classes are: pronoun, numeral, determiner, preposition, conjunction. It will be clear that the open classes bear the greatest load in terms of meaning, in the sense of reference to things in the world, while the function of the closed classes i oriented more towards internal linguistic relation- ships, though this is by no means exclusively the case. Numerals obviously refer to ‘quantity in the external world, and prepositions refer to relations in time and space. Nouns Nouns, as we have said, genérally refer to ‘things’ in the broadest sense. If we have noun for something, it implies that we view it as a ‘thing’ (a process known as ‘tcification’). For example, in English we have nouns for thunder and lighting, whereas in Hopi, a North-American Indian language, these concepts can only be expressed by verbs, The class of nouns is traditionally divided into a number of subclasses. There is, frst of all, a division into proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns refer to unique ‘things’, such as people, places or institutions eg Robert Walpole, Cologne, The Guardian. Common nouns do not refer to unique things: the noun plant does not refer to a unique object, but either to a class of objects or to a specific instance of that class, Common nouns are often subdivided into concrete nouns and abstract nouns. Conerete nouns refer to perceivable objects in the world, while abstract nouns refer to ideas, feelings, and ‘things’ of that kind. So rable, bear, tree would be ‘concrete nouns; and sruth, love, imagination would be abstract nouns.62 Analyzing English A division which cuts across that between concrete and abstract nouns is the division between countable and mass (or uncountable) nouns. Countable nouns, as the label suggests, refer to objects that may be counted, objects of which there may- bbe more than one, eg bor, six boxes. Mass nouns are in principle uncountable, eg flour, bread, cheese, wine. Some nouns may, in fact, be both countable and mass, ‘depending on the context in which they are being used, egcake isa mass noun in He wants some cake but a countable noun in She has baked six cakes. And some mass nouns may be used as if they were countable nouns eg cheese in these five cheeses from Switzerland of wine in those six wines of Alsace; but the meaning is not simply 4 plurality of objects, but rather ‘a number of kinds of objects’, ie five kinds of cheese and six kinds of wine, Mass nouns like flour and bread can only be made countable by prefixing some expression of measurement eg six spoonsful of flour, five loaves of bread. Verbs Verbs generally refer to actions, events and processes eg give, happen, become. They typically have a number of distinct forms: infinitive ((io) walk), third person singular present tense (walks), past tense (walked), present participle (walking), past participle (walked). The past participle is usually the same as the past tense form, but for some verbs itis different eg show has past tense showed and past participle shown; similarly give has gave and given respectively. ‘The main division made among verbs is that between auxiliary verbs and lexieal verbs. Auxiliary verbs are a closed subelass and have a mainly grammatical function. The subclass of auxiliary verbs includes be, have and do in certain of the uses of these verbs, and additionally the modal verbs, ie can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must and one or two others. ‘Among lexical verbs a distinction is traditionally made between transitive and intransitive verbs: transitive verbs are those that require an ‘abject’ (see Chapter 13), while intransitive verbs are those that do not take an object. Thus, go is an intransitive verb, since we cannot say ‘He went something’ or ‘What did he go?; while thump is transitive verb, since we can say Jim thumped Michael and WhoiWhat did Jim thump?. A number of verbs are both transitive and intransitive, depending on the context, eg march is intransitive in The soldiers marched to the barracks but transitive in The captain marched the soldiers 1o the barracks. ‘A further, more notional distinction is made among lexical verbs, the distinction between dynamie verbs and stative verbs. Syntactically, the dynamic verbs may enter the be + -ing construction eg They are speaking Russian; whereas the stative verbs may not eg "They are knowing Russian’. Speak is, then, a dynamic verb, but know is.a stative verb, Dynamic verbs may be further subdivided notionally into Activity verbs (drink, play, write), process verbs (grow, widen), verbs of bodily sensation (ache, fe, itch), transitional event verbs (arrive, di, fall), and momentary verbs (hit jump, kick). ‘And statve verbs are divided further into verbs of inert perception and cognition (astonish, believe, imagine, like) and relational verbs (belong 10, contain, matter). Word clases 69 Adjectives: “Adjectives typically amplify the meaning of a noun, either by occurring immedi- ately before it, as in the wide road, or by being Tinked to it by means of a copula verb, as in The road isibecame wide. For this reason adjectives are often characterized as descriptive words. Like verbs, adjectives may be divided into a dynamic and a stative subclass; but ‘whereas verbs are typically dynamic, adjectives are typically stative. Tallis a stative Adjective, asin Jim itll; careful is a dynamic adjective, as in Jim is being careful ‘A further subclassification of adjectives is that into gradable and mon-gradable adjectives. Gradable adjectives may be modified by certain adverbs that indicate the intensity of what the adjective refers to eg very careful, more beautiful. Most adjectives are gradable, but some are not eg previous, shut. It is not possible to say ‘his more previous visit’ or “The door was very shut’ (One further distinction sometimes made is that between inherent and non-inherent adjectives. Inherent adjectives, which are the majority, characterize the referent of the noun direetly eg a wooden cross, @ new car. Nonvinherent adjectives, or ‘non-inherent uses of adjectives do not exhibit a direct characterization of the noun ga wooden actor, a new friend. In this case the actor is not made of wood, and the friend is not just created or produced, Adverbs “Adverbs represent a very diverse set of words. There are basically two kinds; those which refer to circumstantial information about the action, event or process, such as the time, the place or the manner of it, and those which serve to intensify other adverbs and adjectives. The first group may be illustrated by the following: ‘yesterday, now; there, outside; carefully, beautifully and the second group by very as in very hard, extremely as in extremely uncomfortable, terribly asin terribly quietly. The composition of the class of adverbs and their function will become clearer when we discuss the adverb phrase in Chapter 12 and the adverbial clause in Chapter 14. We turn now to the closed classes. Here there is less need for a notional definition, sinee very often the words involved have little or no reference to external reality, and in any case the exhaustive membership of each class could be listed. We will attempt a characterization of each class, nevertheless. Pronouns Pronouns, as the name implies, have the main function of substituting for nouns, ‘once a noun has been mentioned in a particular text ‘There are several subclasses. The central subclass is that of personal pronouns (f, ‘me, you, he, hi, she, her, it, we, us, they, them), along with the reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself himself ete) and the possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, lis, ours, theirs). With these pronouns a distinction is made between first, second64 Analyzing English and third person, that is between speaker (1), addressee (you), and other (he), and also between singular and plural number (l—-we, he—they etc). The singular/plural distinction does not, however, operate for second person (you), which refers to just fone or to more than one addressee. Another subclass is that of interrogative pronouns, These substitute in questions ‘not only for nouns, but also for adjectives and adverbs, This subclass includes who, what, which, how, when, where, why, as in the following examples: Who were you talking t0?, What isthe time?, Which train are you catching?, How did the accident happen’, When are you going on holiday?, Where have you left your umbrella?, Why did you hit your sister? Relative pronouns substitute for nouns as elements in relative clauses (see Chapter 10) and include who, which, whose, that and whom: eg the boy who has lost his ball Demonstrative pronouns also substitute for nouns, but they imply a gesture of pointing, either to something in the situational context, or to some previous or following language eg That is an interesting point, This is a beautiful picture. The subclass of demonstrative pronouns includes his, that, shes, those. Finally, there is, 4 subclass of indefinite pronouns, among which are included all, many, few, everyone, anything, nothing ete. Again, they substitute for nouns but at the same time express an indefinite, quantity of some “thin ‘Numerals Numerals are of to kinds; ordinal and cardinal. Ordinal numerals, as the name indicates, specify the order of an item and comprise the series frst, second, third, fourth and so on. Cardinal numerals do not specify order, but merely quantity, and comprise the series one, two, three, four ete Dewerminers Determiners are a class of words that are used with nouns and have the function of defining the reference of the noun in some way. The class is divided into two broad ‘roups, identifiers and quantifiers. The subclass of identifiers includes the articles, ie the indefinite article a/an and the definite article rhe; the possessives my, your, his, her, its, our, their; and the demonstratives ihis shat, these, those. The last two groups are often called possessive adjectives and demonstrative adjectives, to distinguish ‘them from the possessive and demonstrative pronouns, Demonstratives in fact have the same class membership as demonstrative pronouns. The identifiers may be illustrated by the following examples: a book, the cow, my pencil, those sheep. ‘Quantifiers are expressions of indefinite quantity, and this class has some members in common with that of indefinite pronouns. Among the quantifers are included a lot of, many, few, several, liste etc, and they may be illustrated by the following examples: @ lot of cheese, few ideas, litle comfort Word classes 65 Prepositions Prepositions have as their chief funetion that of relating a noun phrase to another unit. The relationship may be one of time (eg fier she meal), place (egin front of the bus) or logic (eg because of his action). Many prepositions may be used to express ‘more than one of these relationships eg from in from the beginning, from the house, from his words. ‘The other function of prepositions is to be ted to a particular verb or adjective and to link that verb or adjective with its object. In this case the preposition cannot be said to have any special meaning of its own eg for in They are waiting for the bus, ‘and about in He is anxious about his future Conjunctions Conjunction, as their name implies, also have a joining function, usually that of joining one clause to another, but sometimes also of one noun to another. They are ‘of two kinds: eo-ordinating conjunctions, such as and, or, but, which join two items fon an equal footing; and subordinating conjunctions, such as when, if, why, whether, because, since, which subordinate one item to another in some way. The subordination may be one of time, as in He will come when he is ready, ot one of reason, as in He cannot come, because he is ill, or some other kind (See further Chapter 14) a Sheil se rant we tan) Mora, Se (9 eee ey a a aon ease wa) ie} Seta Re Se loan SEE eran t from strawberry bed a certsin amount of10. Phrases 1—noun phrases ‘Types of phrase “ In Chapter 8 we saw that words did not combine directly to form sentences, but that there were two intermediate levels of syntactic organization. Words pattern into phrases. This means that phrases may be described in terms of the kinds or classes ‘of words that function in them, and of the order in which the words or classes of words are arranged relative to cach other. Five types of phrase are recognized in English: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and preposi- tional phrase. The first four of these take their name from the word that is the chief ‘word or head of the phrase. The prepositional phrase is different in that there is 90 hhead word. For the other types of phrase the minimal form of the phrase is the hhead. For example, in the clause Lions become ferocious nightly, we have a noun, verb, adjective, adverb sequence; and each of these words is in turn the sole constituent and head of the corresponding phrase, ie noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase and adverb phrase. A prepositional phrase, on the other hand, is always composed of two elements, a proposition and a noun, or rather noun phrase, eg at night, in the jungle. In this chapter we shall be considering the structure of noun phrases, in the following one the structure of verb phrases, an in Chapter 12 the structure of adjective phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases, Noun phrase ‘The noun phrase in English is composed potentially of three parts. The central part of the noun phrase, the head, is obligatory: i is the minimal requirement for the ‘occurrence of a noun phrase. The other two parts are optionally occurring. The hhead may be preceded by some pre-modification, and it may be followed by some ‘Post-modification. For example, in the noun phrase hat old car in the drive, car constitutes the head—it is the primary reference of the phrase; that old is the pre-modifcation, and in the drive the post-modification, Heads The most usual kind of head of « noun phrase isa noun ike carn the example above. Alternatively, the head may bea pronoun of some tind, very commonly personal pronoun, eg he in He is there. Other kins of pronoun faneionng as head Of a noun phrase include: indefinite pronoun, eg someone in Someone called; possesve pronoun, eg mine in Mine are green; demonstrative Pronoun, eis in This heats everything. When 2 pronoun functions as head of 2 noun phase, i usally occurs without any Kind of modification: presmodificaton is vitally impossible for pronouns, though port-modifeaion may occasionally be found, c& 6 Phrases t—Noun phrases. 67 he who hesitates. There is also a restriction on the modification that may be found ‘with proper nouns, ie those referring to unique persons and things: again post-modification is possible, while pre-modification rarely oceurs, eg Lovely Morecambe, which we visited last year. Pre-modifiation ‘The pre-modification in a noun phrase consists of a number of word classes or sub-classes ina specific order: Kdentifier-—numeral/quantifier—adjective—noun ‘modifier, as for example in the noun phrase these five charming country cottages. ‘he class of Kdentifiers includes articles ('a', the’), demonstratives this’, that’) and posessives (‘my’, “your, “his', ete); and they come before any numerals or indefinite quantifiers that may be present, eg chose /fty postage stamps, the many ‘enquiries, he fist attempt. Only one identifier may occur in any noun phrase; that isto say, articles, demonstratives and possessives are mutually exclusive in English Itisnot possible to say the my book” or the like; and the sequence this my book in fact consists of two noun phrases in apposition, with zhis being a demonstrative pronoun functioning as head ofthe fist noun phrase: indeed, in writing, it would be usual to write the sequence with a comma between the two noun phrases—this, iy book. It one wishes to combine article or demonstrative identifier with possessive, then an “of-phrase with the possessive pronoun must be used, eR thelihis book of mine More than one mumeral/quantifier may, however, occur in a noun phrase, though there is a restricted number of possible combinations. Favourite sequences are ordinal numeral (especially ‘irs’ and last’) + indefinite quantifier, eg the first few hours; ordinal + cardinal, eg the second five days; and indefinite quantifier + cardinal numeral (especially round numbers), eg several thousand people, many scores of ants. There is a small group of words which may occur before the identifier in a noun phrase, which are sometimes called pre-determiners. They also have a quantifier reference, and the most common members of this class are ‘al’, ‘both’ and ‘half’, together with fraction numerals (‘one-third of', ete); eg bothiall the desperate terrorists. The linguistic function of the identifiers is to indicate the status of the rnoun phrase in relation to its linguistic and situational context: this is basically a textual function, and we shall return to consider the identifiers from this point of view in more detail in Chapter 16. Adjectives, whose function is to amplify the head noun in some way, come after the identifiers and numerals/quantifiers. Several adjectives, or none at all, may deeur in ‘anoun phrase, and when a number of adjectives do occur there appears to be some principle of ordering at work. For example, native speakers regard the big red fox fs grammatical, but she red big fox as deviant. Likewise in the following noun phrase, the order given appears to be the normal one and any deviation from it isin Some way abnormal; a charming small round old brown French oaken writing desk. Itis often afsumed that the ordering is according to the semantic category of the ‘adjective, although it is not clear that this is necessarily always the case or that the68 Analyzing English ordering is entirely rigid. In the abov ‘ example the categories represented ee": epithet (charming) 2 size (anal), 3. shape (round. & age (ald, 8. colt (brown), 6 origin (Fen), 7 aubwtance (ken), present part (wn ‘and then these might be followed by other adjectives of the type medical and social, which ate denominal e derived from noun). Its, ofcourse, unusual fora the possible postion tobe filed, expt na ingists concocted example! Between adjectives and the head noun come noun modifiers, Thus nouns may function not only as heads of noun phrases, but slo modifies inthe noun armchair, lifestory, dishcloth : Y to fectchers et ‘There is one futher kindof pre-modifer that we have not yet mentioned and whic we didnot inelae nthe erie st Ths fra mun phate nthe gene ese 2opcaing inthe premodifeatin of anche noun phe eg hs lg od senileman's scruffy bowler hat. This is analyzed as: noun phase genitive (this delightful old gentleman's), adjective (scruff), noun modifier (bower), hexd noun (hat. Noun phrases in the genitive are marked by an's added to thet final word and often, though not always, indicate possession; for this reason they are more commonly found with animate nouns as head than inanimate nouns (et the ship's red funnel, the bicycle’ ow sade The cars open window). The noun phase genitive may be considered to be substituting fora possesive identifier (my. your ‘er, etc) in the noun phrase in which it occurs as pre-modifier, eg in the example sve fs srfly bowler hat Clearly, the noun phrase genitive may in urn be subject to analysis like any other noun phrase, ep tis (identifier), delightful (jes), od ede), enonan head moi) (gente meer rere 13 ake ta fe owing son ae in ems te wa ses a ey Those (den) delicous (ake creams (head; my brother's (NP (num) nephews (head); my (ident) brother (head)'s (gen) EAM) Five green bottles d Ce Ms tid currant bun Si nay al mikes our many grievous ss ‘an ply ge Slow submarine Platine pois is machfevous tar coector® rating ha His underrated musical talent Braig Ment Her bive colapable sik unbrea Al our slton” ny sereaming oping Phrases 1—Noun phrases. 69 Post-modification ‘The post-modification position in a noun phrase is most commonly filled not by specific word classes or subclasses, but by phrases or clauses. Three kinds of Phrasal/clausal post-modifcation occur: relative clauses, non-finite clauses, and prepositional phrases. Additionally, it is possible for an adjective or an adverb to function as a post-modifier in a noun phrase. [Adjective post-modification is found usually with indefinite pronouns as head: these cannot be pre-modified by adjectives; eg something strange, somebody brave. ‘Adjectives do not normally come after nouns, except ina few set phrases (probably copied from French), eg blood royal, heir apparent. Adverbs are rather more frequently found as post-modifiers in noun phrases, eg the time before, the room above, the morning afer, the bus behind. These examples could possibly be regarded as reductions of @ prepositional phrase, eg the time before this one, the room above us; and it seems that the most usual kind of post-modifying adverb is ‘one that may function alternatively as a preposition (eg back, in front (of), below, ete) A relative clause, which is discussed further in Chapter 14, isa full clause, one of ‘whose members (ie phrases) consists of a relative pronoun as head, which refers back to the head noun of the noun phrase in which it occurs as a post-modifier. For example, in the noun phrase the man who came here yesterday, the relative clause is who came here yesterday, with who as the relative pronoun which refers back to the head man, and which isthe subject noun phrase (see Chapter 13) within the relative clause. Compare this with the noun phrase the man who(m) saw yesterday, where who(m) is a relative pronoun functioning as object in the relative clause. The relative pronouns who and whom are used to stand for heads that refer to persons; which is used for non-humans, and thar may be used for both. In addition, there is a “genitive? relative pronoun whose, as in the man whose car was stolen, which fanetions like an NP genitive within one of the noun phrases of the relative clause Whose is generally regarded as the genitive form of who (ie = of whom), but it may also be used with non-human head nouns, eg the car whose windows were broken. Some native speakers, however, prefer to avoid whose with non-humen heads, but the alternative (of which) sounds formal and cumbersome, eg the car the windows lof which were broken or the car of which the windows were broken. Ifthe relative pronoun is functioning as object in the relative clause, then it may be omitted, eg the man I saw yesterday, where the relative clause is who(m)lthat I saw yesterday. ‘A further type of relative clause is one involving comparison, eg She buys more Glothes in a month than 1 buy in a year. Hiere the relative clause is the rhan-clause, and the equivalent of the relative pronoun is the than, which refers back to the {quantifier more in the noun phrase. In the clause She buys more expensive clothes than she can afford, the more expresses the comparative degree of the adjective, and the than now refers back to the comparative adjective. A superlative adjective 'as pre-modifier may be followed by a relative clause introduced by that, eg the most expensive clothes (that) she can afford: in this instance, as the that functions as “object in the relative clause, it may be omitted.70 Analyzing Engish Non-finite clauses are clauses usually without subjects, introduced by a non-finite form of the verb. There are, therefore, three kinds of non-finte clause, according to the form of the verb that introduces them: infinitive clause, eg fo answer this question; present participle clause, eg coming down the road; and past participle clause, eg expected 10 arrive at any moment. Besides being able to substitute for noun phrases as subject or more usually object of a clause (see Chapter 14), non-finite clauses may function in the post-modifleation of a noun phrase, eg in the following noun phrases: the man to answer this question; the car coming down the road; the woman expected to arrive at any moment, Non-finite clauses can often be regarded as reductions of relative clauses, eg the man who should answer this ‘question, the car which is coming down the road, the woman who is expected to arrive at any moment. It wil be noted that the present participle clause relates to a progressive form ("be + -ing) of the verb, and the past participle clause toa passive form (‘be’ + -ed) in the relative clause (See Chapter 11 for explanation of ‘progressive’ and ‘passive’). While a past participle clause is always linked to a passive and is thus restricted to transitive verbs, a present participle clause is not always relatable to a progressive form, though it always relates to an active; eg Someone knowing the circumstances is related to someone who knows the circum- stances, not to ‘someone who is knowing . . For present and past participle clauses as post-modifiers in noun phrases the implied subject is the head of the noun phrase, ie she car in the car coming down the road, the woman in the woman expected to arrive at any moment. For infinitive clauses, however, the implied subject is not always the head of the noun phrase ‘Clearly it isso in the man fo answer this question; but not in the man to ask about this question, which can be related to something like Everybody/You should ask the ‘man about this question. Iti also possible to insert a specific subject by means of a {for-phrase, eg a good man for Harry to see about his problem. ‘The most frequently occurring kind of post-modifier in a noun phrase is a prepositional phrase, the structure of which is discussed in Chapter 12. Examples of Post-modifying prepositional phrases are: the man after me, in which afier me is the Prepositional phrase as post-modifier; che man in the queue on the boat, in which in the queue on the boat is post-modifier to man, and on the boat is post-modifier to ‘queue, The full range of prepositions is used to introduce post-modifying preposi tional phrases. Like nom-finite clauses, prepositional phrases may be related t0 a fuller relative clause, very often with the verb be, eg the man who is after me, the ‘man who is in the queue which is on the boat, Verbs other than be are, however, implied in the newspaper as a propaganda instrument, the man of the hour, the girl with freckles. ‘One striking fact about these different kinds of phrasal/lausal post-modification ‘emerging from our discussions isthe degree of explicitness associated with each of them. As one passes from relative clauses through non-finite clauses to preposition- al phrases, so one finds a gradation from most to least explicit; cf the cow which is Standing in the meadow, the cow standing in the meadow, the cow in the meadow. Phrases 1—Noun phrases 71 Exercise 14 ‘Analyse the following noun phrases in terms of the word classes or subclasses or other kinds Of phrase or elause that comprise them eg the (ident) bleak (adj) landscape (head) covered in snow (post-mod non-in cl); the (Gent) sixth (num) balipoiné (N mod) pen (head) that Ihave broken (post-mod rel cl). 1. the old cupboard with the blue handles 2, all the coal stacked outside the back door 3. the third unpleasant task to be assigned to me 4 the fourth place behind Jim 5. the major upset of the year 6 the clearest instructions that anybody could have been given 1 8 5, 0. this sudden disaster approaching us all the eighty elderly passengers inthe front coach Several irate gentleman farmers waiting forthe prime minster 2 poor litle boy who seems toe lost. Note * These categories are bused on those in RA Close's A Reference Grammar for Studenss of English Longman, 1975.11. Phrases 2—verb phrases Structure In the verb phrase all the elements are verbs of one kind or another. In Chapter 9 wwe made a distinction between auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs. A verb phrase contains one lexical verb as head and may have up to four auxiliary verbs, besides the negative word not, as modifiers. The lexical verb is always the last element in the verb phrase; eg may not have been being interrogated, in which the lexical verb is interrogate and the other elements auxiliary verbs together with nor ‘The lexical verb carries the primary reference of the verb phrase, relating to an action, process or event in extralinguistic reality. The lexical verb may be composed ‘of more than one (orthographic or phonological) word, especially in the case of ‘phrasal’ and ‘prepositional’ verbs. For example, in the sequence she is looking after her aged mother, the lexical verb is most conveniently considered to be look ‘after. And in the sequence he must have looked up the word in the dictionary, the lexical verb is look up. Look after is an example of a prepositional verb: the preposition is the only one possible in the context and it always comes immediately after the verb word. Look up, on the other hand, is a phrasal verb: the adverb particle up may come either before or after an object which is a noun, cf fe must have looked the word up; and it must come after if the object is a pronoun, eg he ‘must have looked it up not *he must have looked up it’. Multi-word verbs also include so-called phrasal-prepositional verbs, which include both an adverb particle and a preposition, eg put up with, look down on. ‘Among auxiliary verbs we distinguish between primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) ‘and modal auxiliaries (can, may, will, must, etc.). Auxiliary verbs serve to realize the grammatical categories associated with the verb phrase, especially tense, aspect ‘and mood (see below for discussion of these categories). The modal auxiliary, of which there may be only one in a verb phrase, always comes first ifit is present and is followed by the infinitive (without 10) form ofthe verb, eg he may come, they can stay, The negative word always takes up second position. The primary auxiliary be hhas two uses; have has one. Be s followed by the present participle (-ing form of the verb) to indicate progressive (alternatively called continuous) aspect, as in he is ‘coming, she was going. Be is followed by the past participle (-ed form of the verb) to indicate passive voice, asin iis finished, it was eaten. Have is followed by the past participle (ed form of the verb) to indicate perfect or perfective aspect, asin he has gone, they had eaten. When combinations of auxiliary verbs occur, the verb form that a particular auxiliary requires is taken by the verb immediately following the auxiliary in question, whether that verb isa lexical verb or an auxiliary verb. The relative order among auxiliary verbs is as follows: i Phrases 2—Verb phrases 73 modal—have—be (progressive)—be (passive). ‘And the forms they require are, then, as follows: modal requires infinitive, have requires past participle, be (progressive) requires present participle, and be (passive) requites past participle. Which form the lexical verb has, depends on the immediately preceding auxiliary. Here are some examples of verb phrases with combinations of auxiliary verbs: he has been going (have-pertective + be-progressive) ‘he had been being examined (have-perfective + be-progressive + be-passive) he will not have been being interviewed (modal + negative + have-perfective + be-progressive + be-passive) ‘The first auxiliary in a verb phrase is called the operator, and has a number of special functions: 1. The operator is the element in the verb phrase that is marked for tense; that is, the distinction between ‘past’ and ‘present’ (see below). If there is no auxiliary in the verb phrase, then the lexical verb itself is marked for tense. Examples: he is coming. he was coming; she has gone, she had gone; he walks, he walked. 2. The operator changes places with the subject of a clause in most questions; for example, is she coming?, What has she been doing?, Where will she be coming from?. but cf Who has seen her? where the wh-word (interrogative pronoun) is the subject of the clause and comes first like all wh-interrogatives, 3. The negative word nor is placed immediately after the operator and before any other auxiliaries; for example, he has not come, she may not be staying. A contractéd form of the negative word may occur in this position, joined in writing to the operator; for example, he isn’t coming, she mighin's be staying, they won't be needed. 4. The operator is the item that is repeated in a tag question. Tag questions are tagged on’ toa statement clause and request confirmation or disconfirmation of the statement. Examples: he is éoming, isn’t he?, she hasn't been seen, has she?, they can't have been interviewed yet, can they?. 5. The operator is the item in the verb phrase that is usually able to take contrastive stress; for example, he IS coming, she HAS been seen, they CAN'T hhave been interviewed. If there is no auxiliary (modal, be or have) inthe verb phrase in a clause that i a question, of is negated, or has a tag question, or in which the verb phrase caries ntrastivestes, then the usilary verb do mast be sed. As an auxiliary, this i the sole use of do: to be therein instances where an euniiay is needed but where cone is not present (ie in case 2105 listed above when there is n6 other operator). Following are extmples based on the clause: She likes cream cakes 2. Does she like cream cakes?, not ‘Likes she cream cakes?” 3. She doesn’t ke cream cakes, not ‘She likes not cream cakes’ 4, She likes eream cakes, doesn’t she?, not’... likesn’t she" of... likes she not’ 5. She DOES like cream cakes, rather than ‘She LIKES cream cakes"74 Analyzing English It should be pointed out that the primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) may also be used as lexical verbs. Or, put it another way, there are (at least) two verbs be, have fand do: the auxiliary be otc and the lexical be etc. Here are examples of be, have, ‘and do used as lexical verbs: Bertis an engineer, She is having a lot of visitors, He is doing his homework. This, if is the last item in a verb phrase, be, have or dois lexical verb; if itis followed by another verb in the same verb phrase it will ben auxiliary verb, Non-finite verb phrases All the verb phrases that we have considered so far have been finite verb phrases; that is, they have contained a finite form of the verb, showing tense distinction between ‘past’ and ‘present’, and being associated with a particular subject (first, second or third person, singular or plural). This function is performed by the ‘operator or by the lexieal verb if there is no auxiliary present. Non-finite verb pphrases are those that consist of non-finite forms of the verb, ie the infinitive form (usually with to), the present participle, or the past participle, as for example in: Twant to go home, Going along the road . . ., Fixed up with the necessary cash respectively. Present participle and infinitive non-finite verb phrases may also ‘contain auxiliary verbs, but these must also be in a non-finite form (infinitive or participle). Modal verbs do not occur in non-finite verb phrases; they do not, in any ‘case, have non-finite forms. The type (infinitive, present participle) of the rnon-finite verb phrase is indicated by the form of the first member. Thus a present participle non-finite verb phrase may contain a have auxiliary, as in Having gone along the windy road . . .; and it may contain alternatively or additionally a be-passive auxiliary, as in Being encouraged by the crowd . . .. Having been asked about his identity . «The infinitive verb phrase may contain a be-passive, eg He ‘wants to be fed; it may alternatively contain a be-progressive, eg They want 10 be ‘going; and it may contain a have-perfective, eg He likes to have shaved before 8.00 ‘am. Have and be-passive appear to be able to combine in an infinitive verb phrase, eg He regrets not to have been consulted. This example also illustrates that non-finite verb phrase is negated by positioning the not first in the phrase, Tense ‘The grammatical category of tense is related to real-world time, Time is divided into past, present and future; and many languages have tenses marked in the verb phrase corresponding to these divisions. In English there is a clear distinction ‘marked between past tense and present tense, eg walk(s)—walked, show(s)— showed. In fact itis the past tense that is marked, in its regular form by -ed (see further Chapter 18); and the present is marked only inthe third person singular, by ‘means of the -s ending ‘The past tense forms of the verb phrase nearly always refer to actions and events in past time, But the reference of present tense forms is not nearly so straightforward. Simple present tense forms, eg walk(s), show(s), may be used for Phrases 2—Verb phrases 75 “eternal truths’, eg the earth is round hhabitual actions, eg Bill jogs every evening present actions in a commentary, eg Lilley comes in, bowls, and Boycot hits it for future actions, eg Harry flies © New York tomorrow. In the case of habitual actions and future actions the reference (o ‘habit’ and ‘future’ is by means of the adverbial expressions, eg every evening, tomorrow; but the form of the ver’ phrase used is present tense. Arguably, in a few uncommon ceases, a present tense verb may refer to an action or event in past time, eg I hear that you've had an aceident, where hear is @ present tense form but presumably refers to a past event. To refer to actions going on atthe present moment in time, it {usual to use a present progressive form of the verb (see below), eg fam washing my hair, ‘What of the future? Clearly, a future tense is not marked in the verb in thé way that past tense is, It is generally thought, however, that the future tense in English is formed by means ofthe (modal) auxiliary shall'will followed by the infinitive of the lexical verb, og /shalliwilf come tomorrow. But while this may be the most frequent way of referring to future events, itis by no means the only way. In this sense there is no future tense in English, merely a number of ways of referring to future time. Among these ways are the following: shall/will + infinitive, eg, We shaltlwill vist the museum tomorrow present progressive, eg We are visitng the museum tomorrow be going to + infinitive, eg We are going to visit the museum iomorrow simple present, eg We visi the museum tomorrow be to + infinitive, eg We are to vist the museum tomorrow. AS is evident from these examples, none of the ways of referring to the future does so ina totally neutral manner: talking about the future inevitably involves talking at the same time about intentions, plans, certainty and uncertainty Aspect ‘The grammatical category of aspect relates to the way in which the action or event referred to by the lexical verb is regarded, particularly in respect of its extension in time. In English there are two pairs of distinctions to be drawn: a verb phrase may bbe regarded as either progressive or non-progressive, eg / was walking—t walked a verb phrase may be regarded as perfective or non-perfective, eg / have walked—T walked, ‘The main meaning of the progressive in English is t0 view the action or event as continuing over time or being in progress, rather than as just taking place. Clearly some verbs are inherently durative in this sense, eg sleep, but even then the progressive can be used and emphasises the progression or duration of the event, ef He was sleeping when the thunderstorm started, He slept while the thunderstorm raged. The past progressive, as used here, often refers to an action or event that is in progress when something else happens. We have mentioned already that the76 Analyzing English present progressive is the usual form for referring to events taking place at the present moment in time, pethaps because such events are viewed as spanning the resent and including immediate past and immediate future, eg What are you doing?—1 am writing a leer. One other meaning of the present progressive is 10 refer to a temporary’ action or event in contrast to an ‘habitual’ one represented by the simple present. For example, water Bills garden refers to an habitual action, while am watering Bills garden (while he's on Roliday) refers to an aetion with & limited duration, ‘The present perfective verb phrase (I have seen) contrasts with the simple past (I saw) in the following way: the simple past refers to an action or event that took lace at some point in past time, usually explicitly referred to by a time adverbial or at least implied in the context; the present perfeet, on the other hand, refers to an action or event which began in the past and which either lasted up t0 the present (moment of speaking) or has relevance for the present. For example, I saw three -ingfishers yesterday views the action as taking place at that moment in past time, ‘while J have seen three kingfishers implies that the speaker is on the look out for ‘more, or atleast that there is the possibility of seeing more. Compare also: We have lived in Birmingham for en years and We lived in Birmingham for ten years, where the present perfect implies that we stil live there, while the simple past implies that we no longer do. Compare: I lost my umbrella yesterday in Oxford and I have lost ‘my umbrella, where the present perfect implies that the event is stil relevant at the time of speaking—note that it would be impossible to add a point-of-time adverbial to the present perfect example (‘I have lost my umbrella yesterday’). The past perfect (J had seen) transfers the meaning of the present perfect into the past, ‘where it refers to an action or event beginning at a point in the past and continuing to another more recent point or event in the past, which has to be specified, eg 1 hhad seen sic kingfishers by the time dusk fell. One further meaning of the present perfect isto refer to ‘indefinite’ past time, when a point in time is not or cannot be specified, eg Have you (ever) visited Peking?—Yes I have been there (but I don't remember when). Mood ‘The grammatical category of mood relates to the attitude of the speaker or of the subject (ofthe clause) to the action or event referred to by the verb phrase fogether with the clause of which itis a part. Meanings associated with mood are realized in the verb phrase by the modal verbs (cam, may, shall, will, must). On the one hand ‘modal verbs realize meanings such as “ability’ (He ean swim), ‘permission’ (You ‘may go now), ‘volition’ (They will look after your guinea-pig), ‘obligation’! ‘prohibition’ (The landlord shall be responsible for the condition of the premises, “You must not walk on the grass). On the other hand, modal verbs realize meanings such as ‘certainty’, ‘possibility, ‘probability’ and their opposites, eg She may telephone us tonight, They can’t have missed the train, That knock on the door will be the postman, She might have caught the later bus, They must have got home by Phrases 2—Varb phrases 77 ‘The other use of the term ‘mood’ relates to clauses or sentences, more than to verb phrases, and refers to the distinction between declarative, interrogative and imperative clauses, illustrated by: The secretary has opened the letters—declarative ‘Has the secretary opened the letters?—interrogative Open the leters!—imperative. ‘These, t00, relate in a broad sense to the attitude of the speaker, though perhaps more in regard to his interlocutor than to the action or event itself. This can be llustrated by the fact that the terms ‘declarative “interrogative’ and ‘imperative® are not synonymous with the terms ‘statement’, ‘question’ and ‘command! respec tively. For example, it is possible to give a command using any of the moods indicated, ef Open the window!, Would you mind opening the window?, I wonder if ‘you would open the window. As can be seen from these examples, the choice of ‘mood reflects the relationship (or attitude) of the speaker to the addressee, and they could be regarded as constituting a scale of politeness or directness for commands, Voice ‘The term ‘voice" relates to the distinetion in English between active and passive, a distinetion that refers not just to the verb phrase (I saw—I was seen) but to the whole clause, involving a rearrangement of the elements in the clause besides a special form of the verb phrase; cf The police arrested the thief—The thief was arrested by the police. In an active clause the subject is the ‘actor’ of ‘agent’ involved in the action, while in a passive clause the subject isthe “patient” or goal” oo ‘affected participant’ in the action, The passive is discussed further in Chapter 15, Exercise 15 ‘Analyze the verb phrases in the following, indicating for each auxiliary verb its type. eg he has (perfective) been (passive) found (lexical past part); he must (modal) be (progressive) joking (lexical pres part); they might (modal) have (perfective) aid (lexical past part) 1. he may ave sat can’t have been singing you have been drinking they are being stopped hhe doesn't know you woulda’t have been caught he caa’t have been being executed Thaven't finished 1 might be seen ithas been being heated12. Phrases 3—Adjective phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases Adjective phrase As the name suggests, adjective phrases have as their heads adjectives, eg very ‘enthusiastic about his latest dea. As with noun phrases and verb phrases the head is ‘the minimal form. From the example given itis clear that an adjective may be both pre-modified and post-modified. Pre-modification in an adjective phrase may only be by an adverb. Usually the adverb is one of a restricted set of ‘intensifying’ adverbs, eg very, quite, somewhat, rather, extremely, fairly, highly—which express varying degrees of intensity. Occasionally other adverbs may occut in this position, eg beawifully cool, annoyingly simple, disgustingly rich, incredibly slow. The post-modlifeation in an adjective phrase is sometimes called the ‘complement’ of the adjective. Three kinds of post moditir or complement occur Hr adjenive phrases: a prepositional phrase, eg very anxious about Jim's health; an infinitive ‘clause (clause introduced by an infinitive form of verb), eg very anxious to please ‘everybody’ a that-clause (clause introduced by the conjunction at), eg very anxious that no-one should accuse him of laziness. We have illustrated the three kinds of adjective complement with one head adjective (anxious), but adjectives vary in the kinds of complement that are possible after them. Many a y kind of cor astute, sudden, tall. Some adjectives allow only ‘Bhe oF two kinds of complement; é inderesting may take only an infinitive clause, 48 in this book is interesting to read attentive allows only a prepositional phrase, as inthe audience was attentive to the speaker; safe allows either a prepositional phrase (or an infinitive clause (but not a that-lause), as in this toy i safe for children, this {ree is safe to climb up. For most adjectives post-modification is optional; fora few, however, itis obligatory, the adjective does not occur without a complement; eg ‘aware is always followed by a prepositional phrase introduced by of, as in He was aware of a ereaking noise. Adjective phrases have two uses or functions: an attributive function and a Predicative function. ‘The attributive function is when adjectives or adjective phrases are found in the pre-modification of a noun phrase, as for example in avery interesting ory, a somewhat aU 7 iat 10 tay, strictly speaking, a precmodifying adjective should infact be regarded as an adjeaive phvase; though when, as is mostly the ¢ ase, -adjocties alone Oosnt Gene ai aimal form of an sdjective_phase), it is_more sensible from_apractical analytical viewpoint to then ‘words’ entering the pre-motification of & noun phrase, When an adjective (phrase) is functioning atributvely, it may not, in any ERE, be followed by a complement. That is to say, adjective phrases ‘containing ‘complements (ie post-modification) may function only predicatively. Seine Phrases 3—Adjective phrases, adverb phrases, preposiional phrases 79 ‘The predicative function of an adjective phrase is its occurrence after a ‘copula’ {Gu such aS Be, seem, sound, feel; for example, Naomi is anxious about Jim's health, Jim seems concerned that Naomi will worry too much. An adjective phrase functioning predicatively does not obligatorily contain a complement: as we have seen, some adjectives do not allow complements, eg criminal in His actions were criminal, However, we noted that some adjectives (eg aware) are obligatorily followed by a complement. This fact clearly implies that some adjectives must be restricted to functioning in predicative position (since attributive adjective phrases ‘may not contain complements). Indeed, an adjective does not have to be obligatorily post-modified to be restricted to predicative position. The vast majority of adjectives may function either attributively or predicatively, eg the charming gir, the girl is charming. But there is a small set restricted to predicative position, and likewise a small st restricted to attributive position. For example, main occurs only attributively, as in the main reason; itis not possible to say ‘the reason is main’. Likewise mere is found only in attributive position, eg a mere youth, but not ‘the youth is mere’. Adjectives restricted to predicative position include, for example, faint asin he fels fine (but not ‘a faint man’), asleep as inthe dog is asleep (but not “the asleep dog’), and alone asin the girl is alone (but not ‘the alone git’). Some native speakers would include “iP among this group; ie they would accept the cow is ill but not ‘the ill cow’; other native speakers would accept the latter. Among adjectives restricted to predicative position and obligatorly followed by a complement are also: averse as in Iam not fverse t0 a cup of tea; tantamount as in Her remarks were tantamount to slander; Toath as in They are loath to leave this district. ‘Adverb phrase {As the name implies, adverb phrases have as their heads adverbs. An adverb is the ‘minimal form of an adverb phrase; indeed, many adverb phrases occur in the minimal form. An adverb may, however, be pre-modified; though post- modification is not found at all in adverb phrases. The only kind of pre-modifier ‘occurring in adverb phrases is another adverb, usually of the same restricted set of ‘intensifying’ adverbs as is found in the pre-modification of adjective phrases, eg very quickly, quite wonderfully’, somewhat fletingly, extremely faithfully. Howev- cr, a8 with adjectives, other adverbs may also function as pre-modifiers in adverb» phrases, eg amazingly well, understandably badly, horribly fas, incredibly graceful= Jy. This kind of modifying adverb appears to be either directly (amazingly) or indirectly (horribly) an expression of personal evaluation. Adverb phrases have three uses or functions. Their main function is in the adjunct position in clause structure (see Chapter 13), to provide circumstantial information about the action, process or event talked about in the clause in which they occur. Circumstantial information includes information about the place, time, manner, ete ‘of the action, process or event. The majority of adverb phrases have this adjunct function, ¢g very soon (time), right here (place), extremely carefully (manner), rather noisily (manner).80 Analyzing English ‘The other two functions of adverb phrases are the conjunet function and the disjunct function. The sets of adverbs or adverb phrases that may perform these functions are limited in number, and the adverbs involved are not, as a rule, ‘modified. Adverb phrases with the conjunct function serve to link or ‘conjoin’ one clause or sentence to another. In the following example, therefore and besides are functioning as conjuncts: Harry is inefficient. I is 20, therefore, worth considering hhim for the post. Besides, George is the ideal man. Other conjuncts include: however, yet, moreover, thereupon, indeed (see further Chapter 16). They typically ‘come first in a sentence, or at least early on, and in writing are bounded by commas: That, however, is another question; However, that is another question. ‘Adverb phrases with a disjunct function also tend to occur initially ina sentence. ‘The disjunct function refers tothe expression of the speaker's stance oF atitude 10 ‘whet he is saying; a disjunct adverb (phrase) reflects explicitly the way in which a speaker intends what he is about to say to be interpreted. Disjunct adverb phrases (unlike adjuncts) are not realy constituents of the clauses that they introduce; eg Frankly, 1 can't see George doing the job either. Here, frankly is the disjunct adverb, expressing the speaker's intention as to how he wishes his statement to be understood: it could be considered a kind of abbreviation for something like [am telling you frankly, where frankly is now an adjunct of manner. Disjunets involve the speaker reflecting on his own use of language. Adverb phrases functioning as disjunets may oceasionally contain a pre-modifier in the form of an ‘intensifying’ adverb, eg Quite honestly, I don’t see a soluion to the problem. Other adverbs having a disjunct function include: seriously, candidly, bluntly, generally, personal- b. Prepositional phrase Prepositional phrases are unlike any ofthe other types of phrase: they do not have ‘head, and thus also do not have a minimal form consisting of just one word. A prepositional phrase is composed of a preposition and a noun phrase, e& in the ‘garden, after the party. Both clements are obligatory and neither may substitute for the phrase as a whole, in the way that a head noun may substitute for a noun phrase, for example. Phrases like noun phases are said to be endocentrc, while a prepositional phrase is exoeentric. An endocentric construction may be substituted forasa whole by one of its constituent units; eg a noun may stand for a whole noun Phrase, ef big African lions roaming the jungle—lions. In an exocentric construction no such substitution is possible, eg in a prepositional phrase both the preposition and the noun phrase must occur; one of them alone cannot stand for the whole phrase. Here are some further examples of prepositional plarases: on the Boat, behind the bus, on Friday night, into the final straight, at the stroke of ten. Prepositions are of various kinds; they have a relational role. The kinds of relation expressed most often are those of space and time, eg beneath the spreading chestuut tree, throughout the long and stormy voyage. Space may be subdivided into locati and direction, eg in the kitchen (location), towards the town (direction). Time may be subdivided into point of time and extent of time, eg before the wedding (point), for several days (extent). A number of other relations are also expressed by Phrases $~Adjective phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases Bt prepositions; for example, topie as inthe chilling story about ghosts; purpose, asin a key forthe opening of the safe; similarity, asin a boy tie his father; instrament, as in with an axe; accompaniment, as in with a bowler hat, In all the cases mentioned in the previous paragraph, the preposition has a specific ‘meaning, namely the meaning of the relation that it represents and refers 0. ‘Sometimes prepositions are used without specific meaning of this kind, when they are attached to particular verbs, adjectives or nouns, For example, the verb blame is followed either by the preposition on (They blamed the mess on Jim) or by the preposition for (They blamed Jim for the mess); in either case the preposition is predictable, and so lacking in specific meaning. Similarly, the adjective interested is followed by in (I am interested in your offer), and proud by of (She is proud of her children). ‘The noun anxiety is followed by about (There is great anxiety about his future), and sympathy by for (We have alot of sympathy for you). In all these cases ‘the preposition has purely syntactic relational function in relating a verb, adjective or noun to a following object or complement. It is mote or less ‘meaningless, since it cannot be replaced by any other preposition and thus enter into a meaningful contrast, Indeed, in the case of verbs like blame on, blame for, wait for, look after, the preposition is often considered to be part of the verb, and linguists speak of ‘prepositional verbs’ (see Chapter 11). Given these two functions of prepositions, there are, then, two kinds of preposi- tional phrase. There are those prepositional phrases that represent circumstantial information about an action, process or event, indicating time, place, manner, reason, etc, and which have a similar semantic and syntactic function to adverbs ‘and adverb phrases (filling adjunct position in clause structure). And there are those prepositional phrases which follow particular verbs and adjectives, and also ‘occasionally nouns, as objects or complements. In the case of such nouns we are thinking of items like anxiety about, desire for, submission to, which require specific preposition; rather than the more general post-modification of nouns by prepositional phrases (eg the man behind the wall, the morning after the wedding), ‘where the prepositional phrase is functioning more like an adjunct than a ‘complement. However, the post-modifying prepositional phrases here are provid- ing circumstantial information, usually either of time or of place, about a ‘thing’ rather than about an action, process or event. Nouns requiring specific prepositions and complements are usually derived from verbs or adjectives, eg anxiety from anxious, desire from the verb desire, submission from submit. uerie 16 Tent the prass inthe following, and give an anal in terms of the lasses or subelasses bt words tht compre them fe Understandaly (adv P jut) Sam (NP) has decid (VP) the offer (NP): Sam (head $B hes aun per) Govined (lex ¥) the Gent fer (bend N) is wal (NP) looks (WP) eromlyunkely (dF) ow (atv adjunct) his ent) aval (head N),oks (ek). Exteel) {itns ogy) watikely (head ad), now (end). ie QUP) could ave tld (VP) as (NP ts very good news (NP) yesteréay (a Paden); i (head pron), cold (moa) hae ux per to lex V), ws (Read pron, th ident very eal ad) cb had Nyse Beda): Ges a) god (en a) ies wry ennot fo 2 he sound very interested in our proposalq ' 82 Analyzing English ‘ 3, unfortunately, he is very busy now 4 a quite ridiculously worded statement is he certain of our support Tam quite sure that hes certain to win a rather baffling description So, that makes it avkeward to find ‘stonishingly, he can walk very fast fe he was rather concerned that no-one should knoW immediately, 13. Clauses 1—Structure and types ‘The structure of clauses Syntactic units are normally composed of units directly below them in the hierarchy, and they function in units directly above them. So a phrase is composed fof words and functions in a clause; the word she is a definite article, which is a subclass of the word class ‘identifier’ and functions as a pre-modifier in a noun phrase, Clauses, then, are composed of phrases. And just as the description of phrases was in terms of the words and their function in various types of phrase, so the description of clauses isin terms of the kinds or tategories of phrase and their function in different types of clause. The categories of phrase are those deseribed in the previous three chapters, namely noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and prepositional phrase. Function of phrases ‘There re five possible functions that phrases ny ful in English clase structure: the se sbjet, verb, eject, complemen, and adj! (abbreviated 8V,0,C,A) | Mflsht'now etaming what Kind of function occur and which ntepris of phase dyer in cach function. ter uns ses pass may sometimes operate fn | sme of thse fnciony 108 coniderton of tone we shal tur tet Subject “The subject function is normally filled by # noun phrase. The noun or pronoun that is head of the subject noun phrase is said to ‘agree’ with the verb in number. In practice, apart from the verb be, this applics only to the third person singular of the simple present tense. Compare the following; The mice run up the clock, The mouse ‘runs up the clock; where -s is added in the case of the third person singular present | tense form of the verb. In the case of the verb be, there are three forms in the present tense (J am, helshelit is, youlwelthey are) and two in the past tense } Uhelshetit was, youlwelthey were). The subject normally precedes the verb in { statement clauses in English; English is basically a subject-erb-object (SVO) language. Verb ‘The verb function is always filled by a verb phrase; no other category of phrase ever ‘operates in this function. It is virtually a defining characteristic of a clause that it contains a verb, either of a finite or a non-finite kind. Clauses without verbs do ) ‘occasionally occur, but they may usually be regarded as derivations in some way84 Analyzing English from fuller clauses with verbs. For example, in the sentence Dinner over, they went ‘0 bed, dinner over could be considered to be a verbless clause; but itis presumably derived from When dinner was over ... oF from Dinner being over... which do ‘contain verbs. The most usual type of clause contains at least a subject and a verty (Gee clause types below), The common exceptions to this are imperative clauses eg Get out!, which are sometimes considered to haye a you subject ‘understood’, and non-finite clauses eg walking across the road ...., where the subject is ‘recoverable’ from the clause to which itis attached. Object ‘The object function may be filed either by & noun phrase or by a prepositional phrase, as for example in: Bill is expecting a big surprise, Bill is waiting for a big surprise. In fact this second example may be analyzed in two ways: as we have implied, it may be regarded as being composed of a subject: noun phrase, verb: verb phrase, and object: prepositional phrase, Alternatively, the preposition may be regarded as belonging to the verb, ie the verb is wait for, a prepositional verb, and the object is then a noun phrase. However, it may sometimes be useful in analysis to assign the preposition in such cases to the object rather than the verb, especialy if the preposition does not occur adjacent to the verb, as for example in ‘Mary blamed the poor result on adverse weather conditions Some clauses have two objects, and a distinction is sometimes drawn between direct and indirect objects. The indirect object normally refers to a person, more particularly the person who is recipient or who benefits from the action, For ‘example, in Jim gave his wife a yellow flower, his wife is indirect object and recipient, and the clause may be paraphrased Jim gave a yellow flower to his wife. in the clause Agatha knited her husband a yellow pullover, her husband is indirect ‘object and beneficiary, and the clause may be paraphrased Agatha knitted a yellow pullover for her husband. Sometimes the distinction between direct and indirect ‘object is not easily drawn. For example, in the clauses Jim sprayed blue paint on the kitchen wall and Jim sprayed the kitchen wall with blue paint, it is difficult to determine which of the kitchen wall and with blue paint could be called indirect ‘object. It is more satisfactory to talk in such cases of object 1 and object 2 Complement The complement function may be filled either by a noun phrase or by an adjective phrase eg Jim has become a qualified engineer, Jim seems quite pleasant, whete a qualified engineer and quite pleasant are complements. What distinguishes a complement from an object? A complement has the ‘same reference’ as the subject, as in the examples given, oFasthe object when itfollows this element, asin ite pleasant, That sto say, the subject and complement, or object and ‘complement, refer to the same person or thing, although without being identical or absolutely synonymous lexical items. This is not the case with subject and object, which are normally quite distinct in reference, unless the object is ‘reflexive’, as in Clauses 1—Structure and typos 85 Jim has cus himself or the object refers to a part ofthe subject, asin Jim has cut his finger. [As the previous paragraph implies, a complement may be cither a subject complement (with same reference as the subject) or an object complement (with same reference as the objet), Furthermore, a complement may refer either to a State, as in Harry seems il, 1 find Fred quite unpleasant, oF to a result, asin Harry has become il, That made Fred quite unpleasant. There isa limited subclass of verbs that may be associated with complements; within that subclass one group takes & state complement, while another takes a result complement. Adjunct Adjuncts, which are normally optional elements in clause structure and may be freely added to any clause, give circumstantial information about the action oF ‘event that the clause refers to eg information about time (when or how long), about place (position or direction), about manner, cause and s0 on. ‘The adjunet function is filled by an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase, or a noun phrase, For example, in Tony walked there very quickly, there and very quickly are adverb phrases functioning as adjunct; in Sue walked to the farm after lunch, 0 the farm and after lunch are prepositional phrases functioning as adjunct; and in Liz walked ten miles that aflernoon, ten miles and that afternoon are noun phrases functioning as adjunct. Obligatory and optional elements ‘When a subject, verb, object oF complement occur in a clause, their presence is usually necessary to render the clause grammatical or sensible; for example, to eave the complement out of Harry seems ill would render it ungrammatical or senseless—‘Harry seems’. Adjuncts, on the other hand, are usually optional clements; to leave the adjunct out of Harry seemed ill yesterday does not render the clause ungrammatical—Harry seemed ill. Subject, verb and complement are mostly obligatory; they must be present or the clause will be ungrammatical. Objects may sometimes be omitted, although some object is usually ‘understood’ when that is, the case; eg in the clause Jim is writing, it is understood that Jim is writing something (eg a letter) or somewhere (eg in his notebook). Adjuncts may sometimes be obligaiory; for example, in the clause The waiter put the soup on the table, the adjunct on the table cannot be omitted without rendering the clause ‘ungrammatical—The waiter put the soup’ veri 17 Analyze the following clauses ino phrase, inetng the fanetion snd category of each ase Ep "The bowler (S:NP) threw (V:VP) the ball (O:NE) athe stumps (AprepP) The jy (SNP) dound (V-VE) the prsoner(O:NP) pul (Ca) The portance (S3NB) lasted (V-VP) thee hours (A'NP) onortanatly (A: ay P) a 1, The farmer was eating his lunch in the cornAnalyzing English ‘The committee considers your proposals rather unworkable, ‘The transport manager could not decide on & new but Jim passed the salt down the table, ‘The delinquent received a reprimand from the magistrate. “The milk has gone sour Gordon sent his apologies tothe meeting. meween g ‘Types of clause (On the basis of the functions of phrases occurring in clause structure, a number of basic clause types may be recognized. In English there are seven such basic clause types, which are specified only by the obligatory elements, They are: 1. Subject verb (SV) The dog laughed 2. Subject verb adjunct (SVA) A policeman lives in that house 3, Subject verb complement (SVC) That sounds a good idea 4. Subject verb object (SVO) Everyone kicked the bucket 5. Subject verb object adjunct The government sent the envoy (svoa) 0 Africa 6. Subject verb object object They passed Aunty Ann the salt (svoo) 7. Subject verb object complement We imagined Uncle Bill much (svoc) fater. ‘Type 1 isan intransitive clause type, The verb refers to an action carried out by the subject that does not affect anybody or anything else. Also included in this group are the so-called ‘impersonal’ verbs eg I's raining, where the subject refers to a {otal environment rather than to some past of it Type 2 clauses may also be regarded as intransitive, although some linguists consider:them to be more similar to Type 3. The verbs involved here take an obligatory adjunct. These are mainly adjuncts of place, either of position as in the example above, of of direction, as in We went o the theatre. But a few verbs take obligatory adjuncts of time or of manner eg The performance lasted four hours, We live well, where four hours is an adjunct noun phrase of time (how lang) and well is an adjunct adverb phrase of manner. Type 3 is the intensive clause type. The complement and subject are said to be in an intensive relation: subject and complement are not distinc entities but refer tothe same ‘thing’, An intensive relation also oecurs when two noun phrases are in apposition eg Mr Plod, the Policeman; That idio, the shmonger. ‘Type 4 isa transitive clause type. For greater accuracy and to distinguish this clause {ype from Type 6, itis also called ‘mono-transitive". Transitive implies having an object, and monotransitive having only one object. This is probably the commonest clause type, both in terms of the number of verbs that enter it and in terms of frequency of occurrence in spoken and written language. ‘Type 5 is also a transitive clause type, but here with an obligatory adjunct in addition to an object. As in the case of Type 2, the majority of the idjuncts are of place, although other kinds of adjunct do occur, For example, in They treated the ‘Clauses 1—Structure and types 87 prisoner badly, badly is an obligatory adjunct of manner; and in This car cost me £600, £600 is an adjunct of extent (how much). ‘Type 6 is the distransitive clause type, ie having two objects. The two objects are sometimes distinguishable in terms of a direct object and an indirect object. The indirect object comes before the direct object and usually refers to an animate ‘thing’, It may rofer either to the recipient involved in the action, when the clause may be paraphrased by a subject—verb—direct object—i—indirect object struc- ture, as for example the clause above: They pasted the salt © Aunty Ann; or to the beneficiary of the action, when the clause is paraphrasable by a subject—verb —direct object—for—indirect object structure eg They saved me a seat—They saved 4 seat for me. ‘Type 7 is the complex-transitive clause type. ‘There is in effect only one element following the verb, but itis a complex of an object and a complement. An intensive relation exists between the object and the complement, of the same kind as exists between the subject and the complement in Type 3. Jn terms of the phrase functions making up clause structure, there are seven types. of clause, but we have given only five labels to them, since Types 1 und 2 fall together under the ‘intransitive’ label, and Types 4 and 5 fall together under the ‘transitive’ label, There is no separate label to refer to clause types with obligatory adjuncts. ‘The constant elements in all the clause types are the subject and the verb. It is what comes after the verb that varies. What follows the verb is called the complementa- tion of the verb; that is, the additional elements (phrases) which the verb requires for the clause in which it stands to be grammatical or sensible. Not every verb, therefore, may enter every clause type. Many verbs are restricted to just one clause type; for example, seem and became may enter only Type 3, elect only Type 7, sit only Type 2. Other verbs may enter more than one clause type, according to sense ‘and context; for example, find may enter Types 4 and 7, put Types 5 and 7, open Types 1 and 4. Each verb may therefore be specified for the clause types it may center, and in more detail stil for the categories of phrase that may be associated ‘with it in each clause type. This is part of the lexical description of a verb, and will bbe discussed further in Chapter 20, Exercise 18 "Analyze the following clauses in terms oftheir phrases, giving the function and eategory of tach phrase. Indicate which clause type each Belongs to, remembering that adjuncls may often be optional elements. fe All of them (S:NP) called (V:VP) Harry (O:NP) a fine fellow (C:NP). Type 7. ‘They (S:NP) crammed (V:VP) the clothes (O:NP) into the ease (A: prep P). Type 5. We (SINP) played (V:VP) snooker (O:NP) after dinner (A: prep P)- Type 4. ‘The old fellow forgot about Jim yesterday. [wouldnt make roe in that saucepan. ‘Your Madras curry smells appetizing, ‘You may not deposit your boots oa top of mine. They rolled the barrel into the courtyard. ‘You must not walk on the gras.cy 1 & 9. 0. Analyzing English They consider poor old Andcet insane. Barry sent Mary a bunch of carnations Your luggage weighs seventy kilos. The children played in the garden all yesterday afternoon 14, Clauses 2—Dependent clauses Dependent clauses In the previous chapter we considered the structure of clauses, ie simple sentences, in terms of the phrases that composed them. We shall now look at the other functions of clauses, that is, at clauses used other than as independent entities. We shall look, then, at dependent or subordinate clauses. We can distinguish three broad categories of dependent clause: nominal clauses, relative clauses, and adverbial clauses. Nominal clauses ‘Nominal clauses, as the name suggests, function in the same places as noun phrases We saw in the previous chapter that noun phrases function as subject of a clause, “object of a clause, or complement of a clause. Additionally a noun phrase may function as an adjunct, but nominal clauses do not function in this position. There are four types of nominal clause, two finite and two non-finite, The two finite types are that clauses and wh- clauses, and the non-finite types are infinitive clauses and participle clauses, the latter usually involving a present participle rather than a past participle. That clauses are So called because they are introduced by the conjunction that. They may function as either subject, object or complement, as in the following examples: ‘That Jim should take a bath amazed Penny (dhat clause as subject); Jim believes that baths are harmful to the personality (that clause as object); The possibilty is chat Jim is scared of water (that clause as complement). When a shar clause functions as subject, itis normally the case that a dummy i funetions in subject position, and the shar clause is extraposed cg in It amazed Penny that Jim should take a bath. Here the subject is the that clause, but it has been put after the rest of the clause (extraposed) and its position in the clause has been filled by if, whose only function isa place-holding one. English tends to consign long and. ‘weighty elements to the end of a clause, according to the principle of 'end-weight” (ee further Chapter 15.) Wh- clauses ate those introduced by wo, what, when, where, how, why, whether, if ‘They may be of two kinds, either an indirect question or « nominal relative clause. Indirect questions are relatable to direct questions eg / wonder f Bill has posted the lener may be related to Has Bill posted the lete?, He told me what happened is related to Wha, happened?. A nominal relative clause may be paraphrased by that Which... oF thé place where ... or by some similar phrase turning the wh- clause into a relative clause (See below) og What happened took Jim by surprise may have . ny90 Analyzing English the paraphrase That which happened ..... Nobody knows where he went is paraphrased by... . the place to which he went. Wh- clauses may function as subject, object or complement, as the following examples illustrate: Where Penny had gone did not interest Jeff (h- clause as subject), perhaps more commonly with extraposition—Ir did nor interest Jeff where Penny had gone; They don’t know whether the bus has already gone (wh clause as object); The question is what we do now (wh- clause as complement). [In infinitive clauses the infinitive form of the verb may be of two kinds: either a ‘o-infinitive or a ‘bare’ infinitive (ie infinitive without 10), eg 1 want you 10 goto the shops for me has a to-infinitive, while 1 saw him run down the road has a ‘bare infinitive (0 go and run respectively) Infinitive clauses may function as both subject and complement, eg To eat blackcurrant taris 1 experience the ultimate culinary delight, which illustrates both. But most commonly infinitive clauses function as object or as part of the object. Compare the following clauses T asked him t0 leave the roomil want him to leave the room. tn the first of these clauses, the infinitive clause is functioning as direct object, while him functions as indirect object. It is possible to question both of these elements, eg Whar did I ask hhim?, Who did 1 ask to leave the room. The verb want, however, which occurs inthe second clause, does not normally take two objects, and the questions applied to ask do not both fit; Who do f want to leave the room is allright, but “What do I want him is not possible, although What do 1 want i, ‘This implies that this second clause isto be analyzed as subject—verb—object (rather than SVOO), and the object isto be regarded as a complex clement made up of a noun phrase and an infinitive clause Partiiple clauses, inthis case mainly with present participle, may function as both subject and complement; eg Seeing is believing which illustrates both functions; Watching a wrestling maich makes me doubt the idea of civilization, where the subject is a participle clause. But, as in the case of the infinitive clauses, the most frequent function of a participle clause is as object or part of an object. In Elephants like eating roasted peanuts the participle clause is functioning, as object. In The keeper found the elephant munching peanuts the participle clause is functioning as part of the object, like the infinitive clause in J want hint to leave the room. Indeed, participle clauses never function like infinitive clauses in I asked him to leave the room, ie as a second object, unless they are introduced by a preposition. For ‘example, with They accused the keeper of giving the elephant peanuts its possible 10 question both objects: Who did they accuse of giving the elephant peanuts?, What did they accuse the keeper of Exercise 19 ‘Analyze the following clauses in terms of the phrases and dependent clauses that compose thom, indicating for each constituent its function and its catogo leg Taking that bend at 60 mph (S: participle el) explains (V: (©: whe!) ) how he left the road Clauses 2—Dependent causes 91 1t (dummy) disturbs (V:VP) me (O:NP) wo see so many people wasting thelr time (S: int el) 1. Thet people throw away money on gambling never ceases 10 amaze me, 2) Leannot imagine how the mistake could have happened 43. He docea't soem to suffer much 4 You cannot order me to jump into the river. 5. 1 think that you wil catch him stealing the apples. 6. They reported to the police wht the prisoner had ssi. 7, Ie disappointed the candidate that few people came to heat him, 8. We do not know who will be his successor Relative clauses Relative clauses function as post-modifiers in noun phrases eg the old elephant which we saw yesterday. They are linked to the head of the noun phrase by means of a relative pronoun. ‘The form of the relative pronoun is determined by two factors. Firstly, it is determined by whether the head noun (sometimes called the antecedent of the ive pronoun) is personal or non-personal. This factor basically determines the choice between who and which: who is used for antecedents that refer to persons, and which for antecedents referring to other than persons. Secondly, the form of the relative pronoun is determined by the function syntactically of the relative pronoun within the relative clause; for example, in the man whom I visited “yesterday, whom has the function object in the relative clause; in she elephant whose ear I tickled, whose has the function genitive; in the building to which I was referring, to which has the function prepositional object, Besides the relative pronouns already mentioned there isa further one, shat, which ‘may be used with both personal and non-personal antecedents eg she singer that 1 like most, the song that I ike most. Its the only relative pronoun that may be used alter all, anyihing, everything, cg everything that I've said, and after superlative forms of adjectives eg the last example that I gave. ‘Also used as relative pronouns are the words when, where, why ete, but obviously oly after the appropriate head nouns eg she time when food was cheap, the house where 1 was born, the reason why he kept quiet. Such noun phrases are often reduced by omitting the head noun, in which case they become nominal relative clauses eg when food was cheap, where I was born, why he kept quit. Adverbial clauses Adverbial clauses, like adverb phrases and prepositional phrases functioning as ‘adjunct, give circumstantial information about an action or event, that is informa- tion about time, place, manner etc, eg He always sings when he is in the bath, He always goes where he is not allowed to. Adverbial clauses are introduced by conjunctions which oi to the main clayse. The following are some further examples: Conditional clauses, introduced by if or unless, eg If it rains today, we won't play Jootball, Unless you come early you won't get a seat; the adverbial clause82 Analyzing English Comparison clauses, introduced by than oras.. as, egJane writes more neatly han Jim does, Jane sews as neatly as Jim verites; Reason clauses, introduced by because or since, eg We can't go on holiday because we haven't any money, Since we have no money, we can't go on holiday: Contrast clauses, introduced by though or although, eg Although Albert doesn't hhave any money he is stil going on holiday; Purpose clauses, introduced by so that, eg They've dug an air-raid shelter, 90 that they will be safe in the next war; Result clauses, introduced by so ... that, eg The pictures were so dusty that no-one could see what they were. {In the same way that nominal clauses can be regarded as functioning as subject and object in clause structure, so too adverbial clauses may sometimes be considered as functioning as adjunct in clause structure, If this were always the case, the clause would be the highest or largest unit in clause structure, since if two clauses occurred together one would be regarded as functioning as an element within the other. But it is not at all clear that adverbial clauses may always be considered to be functioning as adjunct within another clause. For example, with conditional clauses it is not a case of adding circumstantial information about an action or event, but rather of setting two actions or events in relationship to each other: one is conditional on the other, and each event is represented by a separate clause. Sentences ‘So we recognize a yet higher level than that of clause, that of sentence. Sentences, then, have a structure described in terms of clauses. And clauses may be related in two ways within sentences. They may be ‘co-ordinated’ by means of the co- ordinating conjunctions and, but and or, or by means of a conjunct adverb (eg yet, 50), and here the relationship isa simple one of conjoining eg Jim likes wallflowers, ‘but Penny likes magnolia. On the other hand, within a sentence one clause may be subordinated to another, giving the terms main and subordinate clause, or independent clause and dependent clause. Subordination is by means of a subor- inating conjunction such as since, if, so shay, because etc, And here itis not simply ‘case of conjoining but also of indicating a particular relationship, for example of. condition, or contrast, or purpose. Finally, a word must be said about the syntactic status of conjunctions. Conjunc- tions are words, but unlike other words they do not enter into the structure of phrases. Their function is to link clauses and so they function directly at the sentence level. In analysis, therefore, they are dealt with as separate items at the level of sentence (see the following two exercises). Byercse 20 ‘Analyze the following sentences in terms of clauses and phrases, | | | | (Clauses 2—Dependent causes 93 Figure 29: Examples of syntactic analysis ce Ifyou lke the book that he is talking about you should buy one — = | | \ome Saree | ey Barry likes 1 play fotball, but he doesn'c often have the opportunity. ——i _ en) —_- Se we Ores Si ve Dame 7 ve One i ery thee fo tno ber eden tony wer ‘Although Jim finds the work dificult, he continues to do his best. 1 2. The politician that T admire most i the one who sticks to his principles. 1, Since elephants lke peanvts, am surprised that they haven't learned to crack nuts 44. Ido sometimes wonder if al this education docsn't drive people crazy 5 Ltyou do not believe me, you should look atthe incidence of suicides among students. 66, The book sbout whict Iwas speaking costs more than I would want to pay. 7. While he was deciding what he should do next, the tiger reappeared on the spot where be had been standing, 8, Penny considers that such pastimes are puetile, but Jeff enjoys engaging in them. Summary Now, as a summary of what we have been discussing since Chapter 8 there follows review of the syntactic structure of English sentences. In analyzing the structure of sentences we recognize a hierarchy of syntactic levels sentence—clause—phrase—word. The normal relation between the levels is that units of one level function in the level next above and are composed of units from the level immediately below; eg phrases function in clauses and are composed of swords, So to deseribe the structure of a unit at any level, we have to specify what types or categories of unit from the level below are involved and what function they are performing, A sentence iseomposed of one or more clauses. A sentence composed of one clause is called a simple sentence, and its structure is the same as that of a clause. A sentence composed of more than one clause is called a complex sentence. In a4 Anayyzing English complex sentence, either two clauses may be co-ordinated, or one may be subordinated to the other. In the first case two independent clauses are involved, in the second one independent and one dependent; eg Jim came through the door and Bill went out ofthe window (co-ordinated), Because Jim came through the door, Bill went out of the window (frst clause subordinated to the second). Dependent clauses sometimes function dircetly in sentences, as described above (Conditional clauses, comparative clauses, concessive clauses etc), when they are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. Sometimes, however, they function directly in clause structure or in phrase structure eg that clauses, wi- clauses, infinitive clauses, relative clauses. Clauses are composed of phrases. Phrases may function in five possible ways in clause structure: as subject, verb, object, complement, adjunct (SVOCA). As $ may function: noun phrase, thar clause, wh- clause, present participle (ing) clause, infinitive clause. As V may function: verb phrase only, As © may function: noun Phrase, prepositional phrase, shat clause, wh- clause, -ng clause, infinitive clause. ‘As C may function: noun phrase, adjective phrase, har clause, wh- clause. As A. ‘may function: adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, noun phrase, adverbial clause. ‘O may sometimes be indirect object (Qi) or direct object (Od); as O1 may occur only: noun phrase, prepositional phrase with either 10 or for. O may sometimes be ‘complex, ie noun phrase + -ing clause or infinitive clause. ‘Clauses may be divided into seven basic types, according to the obligatory elements that may occur with specified verbs: (1) intransitive SV, (2) intransitive SVA, (3) intensive SVC, (4) mono-transitive SVO, (5) mono-transitive SVOA, (6) dix transitive SVOO, (7) complex-transitive SVOC. Phrases are composed of words. There are five kinds or categories of phrase: noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (prep P), adjective phrase (adj P), adverb phrase (adv P)—each with a different structure. NP is composed of pre-modification—head—post-modifcation. As pre-modification may function: pre-determiner—identifier or NP_genitive—quantifieinumeral—adjective—noun ‘modifier. More than one adjective or quantifier may occur, in whieh case there is a specific order within these groups of words. As post-modification may funetion: prepositional phrase, participle clause (ing or -ed clause), relative clause, infinitive clause. As head may function: noun, pronoun, demonstrative, possessive. With all ‘except noun there are restrictions on the modification that may occur. ‘VP is composed of; modifiers—head. As head may function a lexical verb only. As ‘modifiers may function: auxiliary verbs, negative particle. Up to four auxiliary verbs may occur; the first one is called the operator. The negative particle (not) comes after the operator. Auxiliaries occur in the order: modal—have (perfec tive)—be (progressive)—be (passive). The operator inverts with the subject in polar questions, takes the negative particle immediately following, and is repeated In tag questions. If no other auxiliary is present, then for these operations do is the obligatory auxiliary. Prep P is composed of a preposition and a noun phrase (the structure of which is described above). Adj P is composed of modifier and head. As head may function | | CClausos 2—Dopendont clauses 95 an adjectives as modifier may function an intensifying adverb. The adjective may be followed by & complement (post-modifier), which may be: Prep P, infinitive clause, that clause. Adv P is composed of a modifier and a head. As head may function an adverb, as modifier an intensifying adverb. ‘Words are divided into clastes on the basis of common form, common function and common reference. It is possible to recognize nine word classes in English: noun, vvorb, adjective, adverb, numerals, determiner, pronoun, preposition, conjunction. Nouns rofor to ‘things’. They are subdivided into proper (names of unique things) and common nouns, into mass (or uncountable) and countable nouns, and into concrete and abstract nouns. ‘Verbs refer to actions and events, They are subdivided into auxiliary and lexical verbs, Ausiliary verbs are subdivided into primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) and modal auxiliaries (can, may, will, must etc). Lexical verbs may be subdivided according to meaning or aecording to syntactic operation, ie which clause types they may enter. Adjectives refer to “qualitics’. They are subdivided into attributive and predicative ‘adjectives (most may be both), and into inherent and non-inherent adjectives. ‘Adverbs refer to circumstantial information (place, time, manner etc)."They may be subdivided into intensifying and non-intensifying adverbs: the two groups do not overlap, and the group of intensifiers i a fairly small one. Numerals are used for counting, They are subdivided into ordinals (first) and cardinals (one). Determiners indicate the contextual status of a noun. They are subdivided into identifiers and quantifiers. Identifiers are further subdivided into: articles (definite tnd indefinite), demonstratives, possessives. Quantifiers refer to expressions of indefinite quantity. Determiners also includes the small group of pre-determiners (all, both, half etc. Pronouns replace nouns. They are subdivided into: personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns. Prepositions are relational words. Sometimes they mean some specific relation, such as ‘place at which’, ‘direction’, ‘time when’, ‘cause’. Other times they are simply relational syntactically especially after verbs, adjectives and nouns. Conjunctions are also relational words, but they relate clauses rather than phrases. ‘They usually mean something specific, eg time’, ‘condition’, ‘concession’, ‘reason’. Exercise 24 “Make & complete syntactic analysis, from sentence to word, ofthe following sentences:96 Analyzing English Figure samples of complete syntactic analysis eg Afer visting Mila they decided that they must see Naples. ee ie ver fron alg They After visiting Mion 4? decided th x Although the patient seems much improved she will have 1o rest quely for a few more days During the years tha followed these three men found their destinies inevtricaby linked. i ieee a ae ag ae AN f er ne dhe thy hee fe\A\\\\ 1. You must return that overdue book to the library tomorrow morning. 2. Irthe club seeretary wishes to contae! the oppesing team, he should write letter tothe address. 3 ‘old Duke of York had ten thousand men ‘ ‘boy was quite sure that his father had told him thatthe earth was fat 5. The old grey cat loved being swung through the ait 6. His younger daughter has grown very sullen Itely, 7. You can tell me whether the 9-30 train has left yet 8 9. 0. The black pen that l accidentally left oa the bus yesterday belonged to my uncle's sister. Hiowever great may be his fults, he has achieved some notable sucesses in his lifetime. ‘Alter the snow shower had passed the weary travellers continued trudging through the deserted landscape 14, Items tat the goverment f unaware ofthe ifcies which are beng caused by ts policies, 12, All the fitteen bomber planes ofthe squadron recrossed the channel safely that night. 15. Text 1—Rearranging items So far all our considerations of the syntactic structure of English have been concerned with what happens within sentences, and more particularly within clauses, But we rarely speak or write in isolated clauses or sentences. Exceptions to this statement are perhaps signs and warnings eg Keep off the grass, Danger, overhead cable, Usually, however, whether in the interchange of conversation or in connected prose, a number of sentences occur. Sentences in sequence compose texts, and this term includes spoken sequences as well as written sequences of sentences, Within texts sentences are not totally independent entities; they are connected in various ways with the sentences that adjoin and surround them. Textsyntax is concerned with the means of connection between sentences, usually between a Sentence and what precedes, but also sometimes between a sentence and what follows. Quite obviously, we eannot account for the structure of texts in the same way that we described the structure of sentences or clauses, by isolating each Clement, in this case sentences, and giving ita fuhetion and a category label. The Symtax of texts not the same asthe syntax of sentences: itis concerned with the ‘ways in which sentences connect with each other, and not withthe strueture of tex{s as suc, ‘Textsyntax is concerned with the description of two kinds of phenomenon. Firstly, it describes the way in which the clements of a sentence become rearranged in order to bring particular elements into positions of focus or prominence as demanded by the other sentences in its immediate context. And secondly, it deseribes the various devices that are used to link one sentence implicitly or ‘explicitly with (usually) the preceding one: these are known as devices of cohesion. In this chapter we shall consider the ways in which sentence elements may be rearranged, and in the following chapter the cohesive devices operating in English Rearrangement of eléments ‘There are @ number of ways in which the basic order of elemeits in'a sentence or clause (subject—verb—object etc) may be rearranged, and two principles of a textual natyre influence, such rearrangements. One of these is the principle of ‘end-foeus, which refers to the tendency in English to put new information towards the end of the sentence, which is a position of prominence: the nucleus of a tone-group falls on the last lexical item in tone-group without contrastive intonation. Compare these two sentences: I gave John a bookil gave the book 10 John. Elements early in @ sentence are usually ‘given information’; they have been ‘mentioned in the preceding text or contest.88 Analyzing English ‘The other principle operating in the rearrangement of sentence elements is that of ‘end-weight, which refers to the tendency in English to reserve the final parts of a ‘clause or sentence for the weightier, more complex elements. We wold be more likely to say I gave it 10 the fat boy than to say J gave the fat boy it Passive transformation ” ‘One common way of rearranging the elements in a sentence isto transform a basic ‘active sentence into the passive; eg Jim gave Mary a flower becomes in the passive Mary was given a flower by Jim or A flower was given to Mary by Jim. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence, so taking up first Position, and the subject of the active sentence may be transformed into a b)- Phrase and take up final position in a passive sentence, ‘There are two principal reasons for choosing the passive form of a sentence, in preference to an active one. On the one hand, itenables the agent (= subject) to be Put into the end-focus position; so that in answer to the question Who won the battle of Waterioo? it would be normal to say The bautle of Waterloo was won by Wellington. On the other hand, the passive form of a sentence enables the agont to bbe omitted from the sentence altogether, either because the agent is not known or needs to be suppressed, or because there is no identifiable agent; og My favourite record has been damaged, Hundreds of people are killed on the road every year. Theme We have said that the final position in a clause or sentence is one position of prominence (end-focus). The frst position in a sentence is the other. What occurs initially is usually the theme, that is, what the sentence is about, In an ordinary active declarative clause, such as we have mostly been investigating, the theme is identical with the subject of the clause: the subject is the unmarked theme in an active declarative clause eg The boy ate four apples. In yes/no questions, the lunmarked theme is the operator, eg. Did you recognize Jim?. In wh-questions itis the wh-word, eg Who did you see?. There are 2 number of ways of rearranging a clause so that the theme is marked, that is, an element not normally expected as ‘theme for that particular kind of clause. This can be achieved by a simple inversion of elements, eg Peanuts J like, but crisps I can’t stand, which has a direct object as theme in both clauses, or Poor 1 may be, but I’m still happy, which has a complement as theme in the first clause ‘There are two special constructions for giving thematic and focal prominence to a particular element in the clause. One of these is the eleft sentence, which has the Structure: it—be—focus—telative clause. Jim found Penny last night in the casino ‘may have the following cleft sentences: Ut was Penny that Jim found last night in the casino, 11 was last night that Jim found Penny in the casino, was in the casing that Jim found Penny last night, and It was Jim who found Penny last night in the casino. ‘The cleft construction is used particularly in written English, because it marks ‘Text 1—Rearranging tems 99 unambiguously the focus of information. In speech this can usually be done by ‘means of contrastive stress and intonation, but these cannot normally be rep- resented in writing except by resorting to italicization, underlining and the like. he other special construction for giving thematic and focal prominence is the pscudorcleft sentenee, which has the structure: Subject—verb—complement, where either the subject or the complement (more usually the subject) is # nominal relative clause; eg What seems most likely is a good English compromise. The subject represents the theme, and the complement is the element of focus. The verb ‘may also be focussed in a pseudo-cleft sentence, which is not possible with a cleft construction eg What he's doing is sharpening the knife. ‘The most usual kind of Iwh-elauses to occur are those introduced by what. Clauses with who, when and where are also found, but they are more likely to occur as complement than as Subject; eg The man in the bowler hat is who I mean, The Bavarian forest is where we often g0. ‘There is one further quite interesting transformation worth-noting in connection with marked theme. In clauses with the structure: subject: nominal clause—be—complement (eg To teach them is a pleasure), which are normally realized as: It—be—complement—nominal clause (egit is a pleasure to teach them), the object of the nominal clause may be taken out of the nominal clause and made the subject of the main clause, replacing i, eg They are a pleasure 10 teach. ‘The theme of a clause is usually ‘given’ information; it links with something that ‘occuts in the preceding text or context. A subject noun phrase as theme typically has a definite identifier (eg the), which marks the noun phrase as already referred to". Sometimes, however, the subject of a clause may be ‘new’ information, and itis inappropriate for it to occur as theme. What often happens, therefore, is that an ‘empty’ theme is substituted, and the new subject does not come intially. The most ‘common empty theme is the so-called existential ‘there’ eg There isa further point ‘of view to be considered, detived from A further point of view is to be considered. Existential sentences are derivable only from sentences that have an indefinite subject, and have a form of the vel be (either as a lexical verb or as an auxiliary) in their verb phrase; eg Many fine pots have been discovered on this site may be transformed into There have been many fine pots discovered on this site. In more formal or literary usage other verbs than be may occur, eg There may come a time when England is ruled by a dictator. Postponement Besides having means for bringing elements into thematic prominence, English also hss means for waraering elements to the end of causes and sentences, in Accordance wih th pringiples of end-focus and end-weight. These are called devon of potponement rhaps the most important device of postponement i that of exraposton, when secrcpact (ually nominel elause) placed atthe end of a clause ands postion in he clauses filed by a dummy or substitute clement (normally). The most ommon kind ofextaposton shat ofa caus sbject; eg amuses me 0 watch100 Analyzing English children playing their games, derived from To waich children playing their games ‘amuses me; It doesn’t mauer what the result is, derived from What the result i doesn't maiter, Causal objects may also be extraposed, and a dummy it replaces them too; eg find it amusing that children take their games so seriously. Obviously the extraposition of a clausal object may take place only if there is an element in addition to the clausal object (complement, adjunct, or another object), after which the clausal object may be extraposed; eg Jim wes it 1 Penny that he is always so neatly wrned out, where extraposition seems almost obligatory. ‘Another kind of postponement is that of a direct object in a clause with one of the following kinds of structure: subject—verb—object—complement; subject—verb—object—adjunct; subject—verb—direet object—indirect object. ‘This happens if the, direct object is particularly weighty or complex eg They elected ‘chairman the man who had worked althis life for the honour, They foundinamud hutall five of the lost children, Jim gave to Penny the last of the spring flowers. A further kind of postponement affects the postmodification of a noun phrase, If the postmoditication is clause, rather than a prepositional phrase, then it may be moved to the end of the clause; eg The time has come to close the meeting, The eggs ere bad that you sold me last week, They found the children in Cornwall who had disappeared the previous week. Obviously in cases like the last example there has to be an unambiguous connection between the relative pronoun and the antecedent hhead noun. Noun phrases where the postmodification is postponed are said to be discontinuous, Another kind of discontinuity involving postponement is that of comparative clauses, where postponement seems to be the norm, if not the only possibilty. For example, He has Been less fortunate in his business deals than other entrepreneurs is derived from He has been less fortunate than other entrepreneurs in his business deals, which also sounds acceptable. But ‘More people than used to years ago own. houses’ scemss to need transformation to More people own houses than used to years ago. Al the devices discussed in this chapter are means of rearranging the elements in bab pikbfa av 0 avs C4i:] 3. fhutdgu wont] 4, [hv wap feptge RPM) 5: [his fit sevony fe1p ph kf2e) Byercise 7 1. fo didgu : Set 112 not sm woz) 2. [ot disks Or at dio I av at :vonz las fu iz) 3, [r'dign Ham to 8a Tekisfo 19:1 wod 2 nov in) 4 5. [ber Kemp bar : 69 Jive J on Bt abo sald) [9 mask grmmon ed Or ostds 2k gampror: nh] Bxerese 8 (One exemple only for each of the combinations is given. (sm) smell soy sift Ia stuck il skip ‘sph spel ‘s0 —sphere dw dwell ow! thwart iw) twenty fd drive thread i tree ‘ew! queen ‘ksi crear iky lod pat prune ifs) trend Yori break ‘gh grave pv play iW float oy blade fv lad de shred (sw) swim ‘sv sleep. ‘spl spi ‘spl spray ‘stt)_—sphragisics ‘sti Sraight = iskey_—_serape kw! squeal Exercise 9 1. ma’chine 2 ‘female 3. sma go'zine 4. quan ty 5. ‘telephone 6. hto ce ros 7. ward Ui ness 8. sa tfc to ry 9. infer my 410: persorni cation VL. yuri tera lism Exercise 10 1. cTHAT, 2. YESterday 3. THAT 4. ‘nDleulons 5. ‘CANT 6. ‘alRIGHT. 1. TALKED 8. "ME or “THERE 9. junderSTAND 10. ‘NEVer140 payee Ent kayo orcene 181 echo 1 9 1 ee _—F ao pe ee ' eon le iw Ae A An 0 = a i SOLA Aa am © * ‘wns’ WS an “ond so” we We Tot ef wh 5 bere 12 Thon con) Ape wits (ep) his (4) oot a showers (Nh (peed (V) Ses ea ha hie aos np Gap amen! re) Mars (8 2. Many (ay) knowing (V) Wee Cee) abe (ae) (V), she (ron) picked up (Y) a (det) little (adj) (quant) bit (N) of (prep) (or: a little bit of (quant)) stick (N), and (conj) be hheld (¥) it (pron) out (adv) to (prep) the (det) puppy (N). +3. Alice (N) looked (V) at (prep) the (det) jury-box (N), and (conj) saw (¥) that (conj), in (prep) her (det) haste (N), she (pron) had (V) put (V) the (det) Lizard (N) in (adv) head Re edaendee ah God Gane ny or AN (aay ee a ea (¥) its (det) tail (N) about (adv) in (prep) a (det) melancholy (adj) way (N), being (V) ‘quite (adv) unable (adj) to move (V). 4. To gain (V) the (det) maximum (adj) amount (N) of (prep) fruit (N) from (prep) a (det) 5. ‘strawberry (N) bed (N) a (det) eortain (adj) amount (N) of (prep) attention (N) is (V) Bee tong) By ee Als GS ne (8) of re) ya S) mot (eon of) von x (¥) viewing (V) our (det) flower (N) borders (N) with (prep) a (det) fairly (adv) critical (adj) Re fe lar her ated os Gr et ere 13 6. 1. five (num) green (adj) bottles (head) 5 By Gam ee tats Cs et) 5 Ge eth nea asp a end) Fa eee a a ea $a Geet Gen a (ces) ero ln a & Bali ot Ge me a vat (cima (ead - Fee eee ee ea a ato ad; Uni a ater ned eee te 4 motuend eres tap ease he (ed Fee ea a a el aay re ae ee a ge De our usp a el tan 1 ‘ \ PECAN ce ee Fee ee et oa et tai fj a - area aa 3. the (ident) third (nur) unpleasant (adj) task (head) to be assigned to me (post mod. Wee wee We nomine)142 Analyzing English dent) fourth (oun) place (head) Behiod Fm (post med prep P) eat) major (ad) upset (Read) ofthe year (post mod prep) i) clearest (ad) instructions (hea) that anybody could have been given (post trod ree) this ident) sudden (ad disaster (bead) approaching us (post mod nonin el) Ail (preset the (Went) eighty (nam) eldery (od) passengers (head) inthe Rist coach (post mod prep P) 7 9, several (quan) Irate (ad) gentleman (N mod} Yarmers (head) wating for th Prime Minster (post med non-fn 10, a {ident poor (ad) lite (ad) boy (head) who Seems to be lst (post mod rele) Exercise 15 1 may (modal) have (perfective) sat (lexical past part) 2, ean (modal) not (neg) have (per!) been (progressive) singing lxieal pres part) 3, have (pert) been (preg) drinking (Lexical pres part) 44. are (prog) being (passive) stopped (lexical past part) 5, does 'do") not (nex) know (lexical infinitive) 6, would (modal) not (neg) have (perf) been (Passive) caught (lexical pest part) 7. ean (modal) not (neg) have (pert been (prog) being (pass) executed (lexeal past part) 8, have (perf) not (neg) finished (lexieal past part) 5. might (modal be (pass) seen (lexical past part) 10, has (pert) been (prog) being (pass) heated (Iexieal past par). Exercise 16 1. NP; (ident) very earnest (adj P) look (head); very (intens adv) earnest (head ad) 2. he (NP) sounds (VP) very interested in our proposal (adj P); he (head N) sounds (lex V) ‘ery (intens adv) interested (head ad)) in Our proposal (comp prep P); in (prep) our proposal (NP); our (ident) proposal (head N) 5, unfortunatly (adv P dis) he (NP) is (VP) very busy (adj P) now (adv P adj); very (intens adv) busy (head adj) 4, NP; a (ident) quite ridiculously worded (adjP) statement (bead N); quite ridiculously (adv P) worded (heed ed); quite intens adv) ridiculously (head adv) 5, 1s (VP) he (NP) certain of our support (ad); certain (head adj) of our support (comp prep FP}; of (prep) our support (NP); our (ident) support (head N) 6, 1(NP) am (VP) quite sure that he is certain 10 win (aj P); quite (ntens adv) sure (head fad) that he is certain to win (comp that); that (coa)) he (NP) is (VP) certain to win {2cj PJ; certain (head ad) to win (comp inkl) 17. NPj a (ident) rather baling (adj P) description (head N); rather (intens adv) battling head adj) 8, 50 (adv conju) that (NP) makes (VP) it (NP) awkward to find (adj P); awkward (head ‘to find (comp inkl) 9, astonishingly (adv csi) he (NP) can walle (VP) very fast (ady P); ean (modal) walk (lex Vy very (intens adv) fest (head adv) 10, he (NP) was (VP) rather concerned tht no one should know immediately (adj P); rather (inten adv) concerned (head adj) that no one should know immediately (comp thats); that (conj) no one (NP) should know (VP) immediately (adv P); should (modal) know (lex V) Exercise 17 1. The farmer (S:NP) wos eating (V:VP) his lunch (O:NP) inthe cornfield (A:prep P). 2. The committee (S:NP) considers (V:VP) your proposals (O:NP) rather unworkable (Ciad} P) 53, The transport manager (S:NP) could not decide on (V:VP) a new bus (O:NP)—or: ould not decide (V:VP) on a new bus (O:prep P) 4. Tim (S:NP) passed (V:VP) the salt (O:NP) down the table (A:prep P), Key to exorcisos 143 5. The delinquent (S:NP) received (V:VP) « reprimand (O:NP) from the magistrate (Orprep P), 6. The milk (S:NP) has gone (V:VP) sour (Ciadj P). 7. Gordon (S:NP) sent (V:VP) his apologies (O:NP) to the meeting (O oF A:prep P) Exercise 18 1. ‘The old fellow (S:NP) forgot about (V:VP) Jim (O:NP) yesterday (A:NP). Type 4 1(SiNP) wouldn't make (V:VP) rice (O:NP) in that saucepan (A:prep P). Type 4 ‘Your Madras curry (S:NP) smells (V:VP) appetizing (C:adj P). Type 3. You (NP) may not deposi (V:VP) yor hots (GNP) on fp of mine (A:pepP). ype ‘They (S:NP) rolled (V:VP) the barrel (O:NP) into the courtyard (A:prep P). Type 4. ‘You (S:NE) must not walk (V:VP) on the grass (A:prep P). Type 2, ‘They (S:NP) consider (V:VP) poor old Andrei (O:NP)insaae (C:adj P). Type 7, Barry (SNP) sent (V:VP) Mary (Oi:NP) a bunch of carnations (Od:NP), Type 6. ‘Your luggage (S:NP) weighs (V:VP) seventy kilos (A:NP). Type 2, The children (S:NP) played (V:VP) in the garden (A:prep P) al yesterday afternoon (ANP). Type 1. Exercise 19 1. That people throw away money on gambling (Sithatel) never (A:adv P) ceases (V:VP) to amaze me (O:inf el). 2. (S:NP) cannot imagine (V:VP) how the mistake could have happened (O-wh-<) 3. He (S:NP) doesn’t seom (V:VP) to suffer moch (Cinf cl), 4 You (S:NP) eannot order (V:VP) me (OLNP) to jump into the river (O:inf el, 5 6 1 I(SINP) think (V:VP) that you wall each him stealing the apples (O:that-<) ‘They (S:NP) reported (V:VP) to the police (Orprep P) what the pritoner had said (Odiwb<) 7. (du) dsapointed(V:VP) he candidat (OFNF that few pope cme hea hin Sithat!) 18, We (S:NP) do not know (V:VP) who will be his successor (O:wh-l), Exercise 20 1 L VD Ll ets, Tikees\ Ltrr; Ror vat fh 3 on a ea see ITT | east Key to exercises 147 im 12, Exercise 22 1. eg For his fist birthday the old man sent his “To his favourite grandson the old man sent eas a wooden lorry that the old man sent et. 2, eg That Jim would do such thing I can’t believe: ‘What Fean't do is believe that Jin 3. 6g They found guilty the man who had a scar on his cheek; ‘They found the man gully who had a sear... twas the man who had a scar on his cheek that 4.0 In the clearing hundreds of elephants were gather 1K yas i the clearing that hundreds of elephants ‘What the bundreds of elephants were doing was g ‘5. eg It no easy task for a woman to change a car wheel; For a woman its no easy task to change ‘What is no easy tsk for a woman is changing .. ete Exercise 23 “lu was dreadfully cold, sowing, and turning dark. It was she last evening of the year, New ‘Year's Eve. In chs cold and darkness walked litle girl. She was poor and both fer head and feet were bare. Oh she had had a pair of slippers when she let home; but they had been (00 big for her—in truth, dey had belonged to her mother. The litle one had fst them while hurrying norons de sieeet to get out ofthe way of tvo carriages that had been driving along awfully fast One ofthe slippers she could not find, and she other had been snatched by a boy ‘who, laughingly, shouted that he would use i as a cradle when he had a child of his own, "Now the litle pict walked barefoot through the streets. Her fet were swollen and red from ‘the cold, She was carrying alte bundle of matches in her hand and had more in her apron pocket. No one had bought any all day, or given her so much as @ penny. Cold and hungry, the weiked through the eity; cowed by life the poor thing!148 Analyzing English “The snowflakes fel on her long yellow bait that curled so prettily at the neck, But to suet ‘things she never gave a thought. From every window of every house, light shone, and one ‘could smell he geese roasting all the way out inthe sreet. Ita, afer all, Now Year's Eve; tnd this she dil think about Rxercse 24 evening: lexical eohesion (collocation) with dark. x {hs cold and darknest: reference + lexical cohesion (reiteration). she, her: reference Ob: Yeonjunetion she: reference. Slippers: lexical cohesion (collocation) with feet. ‘he! reference. ‘nut they: conjunction + reference. her: reference. in ruth they: conjunction + reference. her reterence. the litle one: reference + lexical cobesion (reiteration) + substitution, them reference. ‘one ofthe slippers: reference + lexical cobesion (reiteration). ‘he: reference. the other.» reference + ellipsis he, te, hss reference. Exercise 25 ‘un—not; decide; d-past tenselpast participle ‘devolve; ton--change verb to noun. fate); al—change noun to adjective; igy—change adjective to noun, {im-—not; penetrate); abl(e)—verb to adjective; fy—adjective to noun, re—again; introduc(e);tion—verb to noun, ‘makes s—3rd person singular present tens lta —04; interest ing-—present partiiplenoun to adjective, revenge; fl—noun to adjective, ‘wal flower; s—plural 10, dis—not; establish; ed tenselpast participle. Exercise 26 ‘pre: (D) determine -d (1) te: (D) interpre ng (1) i (D) resis ibe (D) Pins (D) fae) ation (D) 5 (0) 5: cane ent (D) tal (D) {ogane (1D) ber -es (1) tie (D) verbal ee (D) (1) deaf-en (D) ed . hope fal (D) ty (D) 10. ironmonger y (0) xercise 27 suffi 2! sl Su) “zero vowel change 1 t 5. vowel hang fe oe vowel hang fa to Und off son 8. vowel change ul to 9. sulfix -9n! 10, sullx 2! and voicing of final consonant of root. 11, sutfie 2) and voieing of final consonant of root. Brercise 28 ast tense 1, sulfa) 2, Suffix 0 3. suffix ud 4 suttix 1) 5. vowel change to (a! 6. vowel change /at/ to fav! 7. vowel change af to /92/ 8. vowel change fi! to Jai 9. vowel change ‘to J 10, root final consonant change /6 10 11. vowel change ft 7 and fin ‘eonsonant 10 12, Sowel ehange fe to fav! and sulix 13, vowel change /U to, final consonant devoiced, six 14, suff 15. vowel change toi, suffix 16. complete change (suppletion) Exercise 29 Koy to exercles 149 Past pariciple suffix /-d! ” sulixa lic 4 utc Yoel ange 0 fa ‘owe change at a0! Sulla and vowel change ie! to /s3/ Vowel change I (0 ili Toot-fnal consonant hanged 0 0 vowel change fe! to and final ononant 10 7 Sows ebnge tof and sux! Yoel change Ii (0, final onmoant devoied, sfx 5 sul towel change ft a, sufi Yowel change 9010 su 1. the break of day; 2. bite fram frost; 3. wood shar drifts; 4. corn shat has popped 5. a shake by the hand} 6, figuratively’, a washing ofthe brain; 7.one who makes matches; 6 neat that has been minced; 9. water for drinking: 10. paper for typing on 11. walking in ‘one's sleep; 12. one who bathes in the Sun; 13. work done ar home; 14. bench or working a; 415 eyele powered by a motor; 16, worm tha produces silk; 17. dust produced by sawing: 18. knob.on a door; 19. tape used for measuring; 20. man who is handy’; 21. drum shaped ike = kettle, 22 lake of soapy 23, shed for cows; 24 ‘iguratively’ ike someone with butter on thet fingers; 25, “igurtively, lke someone with & high brow. Berese 30 ‘ale Merk! v (1) SVS V O “to (cause 0) cook using dry heat in an oven'—o bake bread, the bread is baking 2) SV; 8 V 0 0 (cause to) become hard by heating!—In former times, bricks were baked {in the sun unt they became hard (3) S'V infml “to become hot—Open a window, F'm baking in here baker /"betka/ n person who bakes bread and eakes, esp. professionally’ bakery bet ko ena place where bread and sometimes cakes are baked andior sold’ ‘mislead /mts'itl w past tense/past part mised misled! S'VONP (O: into—NP, ing -

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