What Is Mechanical Engineering?

Technically, mechanical engineering is the application of the principles and problem-solving

techniques of engineering from design to manufacturing to the marketplace for any object.
Mechanical engineers analyze their work using the principles of motion, energy, and force —
ensuring that designs function safely, efficiently, and reliably, all at a competitive cost.

Mechanical engineers make a difference. That’s because mechanical engineering careers centeron
creating technologies to meet human needs. Virtually every product or service in modern life has
probably been touched in some way by a mechanical engineer to help humankind.

This includes solving today’s problems and creating future solutions in health care, energy,
transportation, world hunger, space exploration, climate change, and more.
Being ingrained in many challenges and innovations across many fields means a mechanical
engineering education is versatile. To meet this broad demand, mechanical engineers may design a
component, a machine, a system, or a process. This ranges from the macro to the micro, from the
largest systems like cars and satellites to the smallest components like sensors and switches. Anything
that needs to be manufactured — indeed, anything with moving parts — needs the expertise of a
mechanical engineer.

What do mechanical engineers do?

Mechanical engineering combines creativity, knowledge and analytical tools to complete the difficult
task of shaping an idea into reality.

This transformation happens at the personal scale, affecting human lives on a level we can reach out
and touch like robotic prostheses. It happens on the local scale, affecting people in community-level
spaces, like with agile interconnected microgrids. And it happens on bigger scales, like with advanced
power systems, through engineering that operates nationwide or across the globe.

Mechanical engineers have an enormous range of opportunity and their education mirrors this breadth
of subjects. Students concentrate on one area while strengthening analytical and problem-solving
skills applicable to any engineering situation.

Disciplines within mechanical engineering include, but are not limited to:

 Acoustics  Design
 Aerospace  Energy
 Automation  Ergonomics
 Automotive  Human health
 Autonomous Systems  Manufacturing and additive manufacturing
 Biotechnology  Mechanics
 Composites  Nanotechnology
 Computer Aided Design (CAD)  Production planning
 Control Systems  Robotics
 Cyber security  Structural analysis

Technology itself has also shaped how mechanical engineers work and the suite of tools has grown
quite powerful in recent decades. Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is an umbrella term that covers
everything from typical CAD techniques to computer-aided manufacturing to computer-aided
engineering, involving finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). These
tools and others have further broadened the horizons of mechanical engineering.

What careers are there in mechanical engineering?

Society depends on mechanical engineering. The need for this expertise is great in so many fields, and
as such, there is no real limit for the freshly minted mechanical engineer. Jobs are always in demand,
particularly in the automotive, aerospace, electronics, biotechnology, and energy industries.

Here are a handful of mechanical engineering fields.

In statics, research focuses on how forces are transmitted to and throughout a structure. Once a system
is in motion, mechanical engineers look at dynamics, or what velocities, accelerations and resulting
forces come into play. Kinematics then examines how a mechanism behaves as it moves through its
range of motion.

Materials science delves into determining the best materials for different applications. A part of that is
materials strength — testing support loads, stiffness, brittleness and other properties — which is
essential for many construction, automobile, and medical materials.

How energy gets converted into useful power is the heart of thermodynamics, as well as determining
what energy is lost in the process. One specific kind of energy, heat transfer, is crucial in many
applications and requires gathering and analysing temperature data and distributions.
 Fluid mechanics, which also has a variety of applications, looks at many properties including pressure
drops from fluid flow and aerodynamic drag forces.

Manufacturing is an important step in mechanical engineering. Within the field, researchers

investigate the best processes to make manufacturing more efficient. Laboratory methods focus on
improving how to measure both thermal and mechanical engineering products and processes.
Likewise, machine design develops equipment-scale processes while electrical engineering focuses on
circuitry. All this equipment produces vibrations, another field of mechanical engineering, in which
researchers study how to predict and control vibrations.

Engineering economics makes mechanical designs relevant and usable in the real world by estimating
manufacturing and life cycle costs of materials, designs, and other engineered products.

What skills do mechanical engineers need?

The essence of engineering is problem solving. With this at its core, mechanical engineering also
requires applied creativity — a hands on understanding of the work involved — along with strong
interpersonal skills like networking, leadership, and conflict management. Creating a product is only
part of the equation; knowing how to work with people, ideas, data, and economics fully makes a
mechanical engineer.

What tasks do mechanical engineers do?

Careers in mechanical engineering call for a variety of tasks.

 Conceptual design  Measurements

 Analysis  Data Interpretation

 Presentations and report writing

 Developmental design

 Multidisciplinary teamwork  Research

 Concurrent engineering  Analysis (FEA and CFD)

 Benchmarking the competition Working with suppliers

 Project management  Sales

 Prototyping  Consulting

 Testing  Customer service

How much do mechanical engineers earn?

Like careers in many other engineering fields, mechanical engineers are well paid. Compared to other
fields, mechanical engineers earn well above average throughout each stage of their careers.
According to salary.com, the median starting salary for a Mechanical Engineer I in the United States
is just under $63,000, with the top ten percent earning close to $75,000.

The future of mechanical engineering

Breakthroughs in materials and analytical tools have opened new frontiers for mechanical engineers.
Nanotechnology, biotechnology, composites, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and acoustical
engineering have all expanded the mechanical engineering toolbox.

Nanotechnology allows for the engineering of materials on the smallest of scales. With the ability to
design and manufacture down to the elemental level, the possibilities for objects grows immensely.

Composites are another area where the manipulation of materials allows for new manufacturing
opportunities. By combining materials with different characteristics in innovative ways, the best of
each material can be employed and new solutions found. CFD gives mechanical engineers the
opportunity to study complex fluid flows analyzed with algorithms. This allows for the modeling of
situations that would previously have been impossible. Acoustical engineering examines vibration and
sound, providing the opportunity to reduce noise in devices and increase efficiency in everything from
biotechnology to architecture.
Difference between 2 stroke and 4 stroke Engine

 In the 2 stroke engine it consists of one cycle with one rotation

 In the 4 stroke engine it consists of one cycle with two rotations.
 The inlet and the exhaust valves of the 4 stroke engine are replaced by 3 ports in a 2 stroke
engine.
 In 2 stroke engine the lubrication oil must be mixed with the petrol
 In case of 4 stroke engine the lubrication and the fueling must take place separately
 In the 2 stroke engine due to the presence of the lubrication oil, some of the lubrication oil
must be combusted during the time of heat addition. Hence there is more friction and loss of
work in 2 Engine
 The power available in the 2 stroke engine is only 70% of the calculated power
 In 4 stroke engine the power available is 90% of the calculated power

 In 2 stroke engine the transfer port and the exhaust port are opened at the same time. Hence
some fresh air fuel mixture will be escaped out of the engine cylinder, due to which there is
loss of fuel.
 For single cylinder engine the size of the flywheel is bigger than the 4 stroke engine.
 Due to the above reason the 2 stroke engine on the roads are replaced by the 4 stroke engine
 The overall efficiency of a 4 stroke engine is much higher than that of a 2 stroke engine.

Forging Process
Forging process is perhaps the oldest metal working process and was known even
during prehistoric days when metallic tools were made by heating and hammering.
Forging is basically involves plastic deformation of material between two dies to
achieve desired configuration. Depending upon complexity of the part forging is
carried out as open die forging and closed die forging.
In open die forging process, the metal is compressed by repeated blows by
a mechanical hammer and shape is manipulated manually.

In closed die forging, the desired configuration is obtained by squeezing the

workpiece between two shaped between two shaped and closed dies.

In forging process the forces are applied on the raw material such that the stresses
induced are greater than yield and less than ultimate so that material is experiencing
plastic (or) permanent deformation to get required shape. But in forging operation
force applied can be either continuous or intermittent impact loads.

Types of forging methods:

1 Based on the method of force application

1. Hand forging (Drop hammer type)

2. Machine forging (Mechanical or hydrostatic forging)

1.1 Hand forging:
Hand forging always uses drop hammer type. Because the continuous force by the
human hand, it is not sufficient to produce the deformation in work piece.

1.2 Machine forging:

In machine forging because the required force is obtained from machine it is
possible to use either continuous force application or intermittent impact load
application.

2. Based on method of shape obtained

1. Open die forging

2. Closed die forging

3. Semi die forging

2.1 Open die forging

 In open die forging operation only drop hammer type of force application will be used.

 Press forging is not used since there is no time fr changing the position of component.

Features of open die die forging:

 Repeated impact blows are given on the work.

 Less dimensional accuracy.

 Suitable only for simple shapes of work.

 Requires more skill of the operator.

 Usually used for a work before subjecting it to closed die forging (to give approximate
shape.

 Dies are simple and less expensive.

 It can be analyzed much easily.

 it is the simplest of all forging operations.

2.2 Closed die forging

 Closed die forging is also called as impression die forging because the shape of the dies is
impressed on the component.
  In this the type of forging force application may be either press forging type or drop hammer
type will be used.

Features of closed die forging:

 Closed die forging involves two or more steps:

1. Blocking die: Work is rough forged, closed to final shape.

2. Finishing die: Work is forged to final shape and dimension.

 Both blocking die and finishing die are machined into the same die block.

 More number of dies are required depending on the complexity of the job.

 Two die halves close-in & work is deformed under high pressure.

 High dimensional accuracy/close control on tolerances.

 Suitable for complex shapes.

 Dies are complex and more expensive.

 Large production rates are necessary to justify high costs.

2.3 Semi closed die forging operation

 Only drop hammer type of force application is possible.

 In case of open die and closed die forging operations the volume of raw material required is
remaining same as that of the volume of final finished component. But in case of closed
die forging operation the volume of the raw material is about 10% to 20% more than final
component to be obtained.

 To accommodate the excess volume of material it is required to provide some open space
dies also called gutter.

 Because of provision of gutter the flash is produces in the forged component.

 This flash is unwanted material which has to be removed by trimming operation.

 Flash and gutter is used only in case of closed die operation but not in open die or semi
closed die forging operation.
Advantages of forging:
Some common advantages of choosing forging operation are listed below:
1. Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance to impact and
fatigue loads.

2. Forging refines the structure of the metal.

3. It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as compared to the

production process of similar item by cutting from a solid workpiece and then shaping
it.

4. Forging distorts the previously created unidirectional fiber as created by rolling

and increases the strength by setting the direction of grains.

5. The forged parts can be welded easily.

6. Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so have high reliability.

7. High accuracy may be obtained in forging operation.

Disadvantages of forging:
Few disadvantages of choosing forging operation are listed below:
1. Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature results in scaling which
wears the dies.

2. It is difficult to maintain close tolerances in forging operations.

3. Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts having undercuts etc.

4. Some materials are not readily worked by forging.

5. The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is high.

6. The metals gets cracked or distorted if worked below a specified temperature limit.

7. The maintenance cost of forging dies is also very high.

Safety Precautions in Forging Shop

Some safety precautions in forging shop to followed while performing forging operation to avoid
injuries and accidents are listed below:

1. Always avoid the use of damaged hammers.

2. Never try to strike a hardened surface with a hardened tool.

3. No person should stand in line with the flying objects.

4. Always use the proper tongs tool to grip and lift objects according to the type of work.

5. The anvil should always be clean and free from moisture and grease while in use.

6. Always wear proper clothes such as apron, foot-wears and goggles.

7. The handle of the hammer should always be tightly fitted in the head of the hammer.

8. Always put out the fire in the forge before leaving the forging shop.

9. Always keep the working space clean and tidy.

10. Proper safety guards should be provided on all revolving parts.

11. Head of the chisel should be free from burrs and should never be allowed to spread.

12. During machine forging, always observe the safety rules prescribed for each machine.

13. One must have the thorough knowledge and working of the forging machine before
going to operate it.

Super chargers
Super charger acts as an air compressor. It is used to increase the density and pressure of the air that is
supplied to the internal combustion engine. In the engine, during the intake of the cycle it takes more
oxygen and burn more fuel to accomplish the work. This is due the power increase.
By using the belts, gears, shafts, chains all of these are connected to the engines crank shaft to
produce super charge.

We can see two types of the super chargers. To that matter after super charging, the air enters into the
engine. After compression the pressure in the air is compressed and it super charges the system by 1.5
to 2 times to increase the entry of the pressure.

In one type of the super charger the engine shaft is mechanically linked to the shaft. The shaft energy
must turn into useful work input for the super charger.

In another type of the super charger the compressor is attached to the turbine. Exhaust gas must be
allowed to enter into the turbine. The turbine drives the super charger; this type of super charger is
known as the turbo

Super charger drive types:

They are divided into mechanical, exhaust gas turbine and other types:

Mechanical drives are divided into four types they are belt drive, chain drive, direct drive and gear
drive.

Exhaust gas turbines are divided into two types they are radial turbine and axial turbine.

And the other type of the drives is electrical motor and auxiliary power unit.

Advantages of supercharger:

 The work output and the overall efficiency of the engine must be increased by 50% of the
supercharger.
  At the higher heights, the low density air is converted into the normal density air.
 In the supercharge engine the specific fuel consumption is saved
 In the volumetric efficiency of the super charger engine will be higher
 To run the super charger, exhaust gas must be re-circulated in the engine. In this case the
work input will be increases.
 In the super charged engine the scavenging is improved.

Disadvantages of supercharger:

 On the engine, different moving parts are observed like the thermal stress, mainly on the
bearing of the engine shafts.
 So it results in the wear and tear in the moving parts
 We need to replace the parts frequently in the engine
 During the time of compression stroked by the piston there is a leakage of the air in the super
charge engine
 Due to the super charging, the temperature of the air entering the engine cylinder will be
higher.
 The detonation tendency of the engine increases.
 In the petrol engine, the detonation reduces so inter coolers are used to increases the size of
the engine.

Types of Mechanical Forces

A force exerted on a body can cause a change in either the shape or the motion of the body. The unit
of force in SI system is the newton (N) and CGS system is dyne. No solid body is perfectly rigid and
when forces are applied to it, changes in dimensions occur. Such changes are not always perceptible to
the human eye since they are negligible. For example, the span of a bridge will sag under the weight of
a vehicle and a spanner will bend slightly when tightening a nut. It is important for civil engineers and
designers to appreciate the effects of forces on materials, together with their mechanical properties of
materials.

There are three main types of mechanical forces that can act on a body. They are:

1. Tensile force

2. Compressive force and

3. Shear force

1. Tensile force
Tensile force that tends to stretch a material, as shown in the figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Tensile force

For example,

1. Rubber bands, when stretched, are in tension.

2. The rope or cable of a crane carrying a load is in tension.

3. When a nut is tightened, a bolt is under tension.

A tensile force will increases the length of the material on which it acts.

Types of Loads

Different types of loads in engineering mechanics are compression, tension, torsion and bending.

Compression:
Compression loading is an effect in which the component reduces it size. During compression load
there is reduction in volume and increase in density of a component.

Tension:

Tension is the act of stretching rod, bar, spring, wire, cable etc. that is being pulled from the either
ends.

Torsion:

Torsion is the act of twisting of an rod, wire, spring etc. about an axis due to applied couple (torque).

Bending:

Bending is act of changing component from straight form into a curved or angular form.

Air-cooling System in Reciprocating Engine

In an air-cooling system, the outer surface of the cylinder and cylindrical head in reciprocating engine
is cooled by air flowing over them. To increase the heat transfer rate from the surface, the metallic fins
are cast on the cylinder and cylinder head. These fins increases the heat transfer area and thereby heat
transfer rate.

Air cooling system is a very simple, reliable and maintenance-free cooling system, with no operating
cost. It is very suitable for small engines of automobiles.
Applications of Air-cooling System:

1. Air-cooling system is used in small engines, i.e., motor cycles, scooters,

mopeds, airplanes and combat tanks, where speed of the vehicle gives a good velocity to
the air to cool the engine.

2. It is also used in small stationary engines used for agriculture and industries.

Advantages of Air-cooling System:

 The design of the engine becomes simpler with use of an air-cooling system.

 There is no cooling pipe radiator, fan pump and liquid cooling jacket and hence the engine
has less weight.

 In an air-cooled engine, the cylinder wall temperature is relatively higher. Thus there is more
power output from the engine.

 No danger of coolant leakage, coolant freezing, etc.

 Installation, assembly, dismantling of the engine are quick and simple.

 The weight per kW of air-cooled engine is less than that of a water-cooled engine.

 The engine is almost maintenance free.

Disadvantages of Air-cooling system:

 Engine is cooled non-uniformly.

 The compression ratio of the engine is limited due to high wall temperature.

 The volumetric efficiency of the engine is less than a water-cooled engine.

 It produces aerodynamic noise.

 It can be used for only small-sized engines due to its small capacity of heat dissipation.

Internal Combustion Engines:

Introduction

The internal combustion engines are the engines in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an
oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.
In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases
produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied
typically to pistons, turbine blades or a nozzle.

Principle of operation:

Air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber is ignited, either by a spark plug (in case of SI Engines) or
by compression (in case of CI engines). This ignition produces tremendous amount of heat energy and
pressure inside the cylinder. This induces reciprocating motion in the piston.

Power of the piston is transmitted to a crankshaft which undergoes rotary motion. The rotary motion is
ultimately transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle, via a transmission system to produce propulsion in
the vehicle.

As the combustion takes place internally inside the cylinder (a part of working fluid circuit) the engine
is called internal combustion engine.
Governor Types – Centrifugal Governor and Inertia Governor

Governor is a device used to maintain the speed of an engine within specified limits when the engine
works in varying of different loads.

Based on the source of controlling force, the governors can be classified into two types. Governor
types are centrifugal governors and inertia governors.

Centrifugal Governors :

In centrifugal governors, multiple masses know as governor balls, are responsible to revolve about the
axis of a shaft, which is driven through suitable gearing from the engine crankshaft. Each ball is acted
upon by a force which acts in the radially inward direction and is provided by dead weight, a spring or
a combination of two. This force is commonly called as the controlling force and it will increase as the
distance of the ball from the axis of rotation increases. The inward or outward movement of the ball is
transmitted by the governor mechanism to the valve which controls the amount of energy supplied to
the engine.

Inertia Governor :
In inertia governors, the balls are arranged in manner that the inertia forces caused by angular
acceleration or retardation of the governor shaft tend to change their position. The obvious advantage
of inertia governor lies in its rapid response to the effect of a change of load. This advantage is small,
however by the practical difficulty of arranging for the complete balance of the revolving parts of the
governor. For this reason Centrifugal governors are preferred over the inertia governors.

Methods of Inspection inCasting

In casting process, first few castings will be inspected dimensionally and the pattern is qualified
afterwards, only few random inspection will be done. Every casting must be inspected for finding out
the defects in casting process.

Different methods of inspection for finding out defects in casting process are discussed below

1. Visual Inspection

2. Hydrostatic Pressure Test

3. Magnetic Particle Inspection

4. Radiographic Examination

5. Ultrasonic inspection

6. Dye Penetrant Inspection

7. Coin Testing

1. Visual Inspection

Common defects such as surface roughness, obvious shifts, omission of cores and surface cracks can
be detected by a visual inspection of the casting. Cracks may also be detected by hitting the casting with
a mallet and listening to the quality of the tone produced.
2. Hydrostatic Pressure Test

 The Hydrostatic pressure test is conducted on a casting to be used as a pressure vessel.

 In this test, first all the flanges and ports are blocked.

 Then the casting is filled with water, oil or compressed air, Thereafter, the casting is
submerged in a soap solution when any leak will be evident by the bubbles that come
out.
3. Magnetic Particle Inspection

The Magnetic particle test is conducted to check for very small voids and cracks at or just below the
surface of a ferromagnetic material. The test involves inducing a magnetic field through the section
inspection. this done, the powdered ferromagnetic material is spread out onto the surface. The presence
of voids or cracks in the section results in an abrupt change in the permeability of the surface; this, in
turn, causes a

leakage in the magnetic field. The powdered particles accumulate on the disrupted magnetic field,
outlining the boundary of a discontinuity.

4. Radiographic Examination

The radiographic method is expensive and is used only for subsurface exploration. In this, both X-rays
and γ-rays are used. With γ-rays, more than one film can be exposed simultaneously; however, x-ray
pictures are more distinct. Various defects, like voids, nonmetallic inclusions, porosity, cracks and
tears, can be detected by this method. The defects being less dense, film appears darker in contrast to
the surrounding.

5. Ultrasonic Inspection
In the Ultrasonic method, an oscillator is used to send an ultrasonic signal through the casting. such as
signal is readily transmitted through a homogeneous medium. However, on encountering a
discontinuity, the signal is reflected back. This reflected signal is then detected by an ultrasonic detector.
The time interval between sending the signal and receiving its reflection determines the location of the
discontinuity. the method is not very suitable for a material with a high damping capacity (e.g. cast iron)
because in such a case the signal gets considerably weakened over some distance.

6. Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)

 The dye penetrant inspection method is used to detect invisible surface
defects in a nonmagnetic casting. The casting is brushed with, sprayed
with, or dipped into a dye containing a fluorescent material. The surface
to be inspected is the wiped, dried and viewed in darkness. The
discontinuous in the surface will then be readily discernible.

7. Coin Testing

By hitting with coin on to the component and by hearing the sound coming from the casing, the presence
of defect can be estimated.

Basic Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a Greek work Thermo, which means heat and dynamic force. It is a branch of
physics which deals with the temperature and their relationship between the work and energy. It
defines the variables like Entropy, enthalpy and equilibrium. The thermodynamics deal with the
system in equilibrium.

Classification of Thermodynamics:

Thermodynamics are classified into two types they are

  Equilibrium Thermodynamics
 Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

Equilibrium thermodynamics are further divided into three types they are

 Classical Thermodynamics
 Kinetic Theory
 Statistical Thermodynamics

Classical Thermodynamics:

Classical thermodynamics is a science which deals with the large-scale and microscopic properties of
matter. Common parameters are coefficient of expansion, specific heat capacities, compressibility,
magnetic and dielectric coefficient, heat transformations etc., are established with the help of the
classical thermodynamics. We cannot determine the actual magnitude with the help of the classical
thermodynamics.

Kinetic Theory:

Kinetic energy is used to identify the numerical values of the individual quantities. It deals with the
molecular models in which, an individual molecule monitor the laws of mechanism.

Statistical Thermodynamics:

Statistical thermodynamics ignores the detailed consideration of molecules as individuals and the
statistical considerations are applied to find the distribution of a large number of molecules that make
up a macroscopic piece of matter over their energy states.

Non-equilibrium thermodynamic is also known as irreversible thermodynamics.

Irreversible thermodynamics is also another branch of thermodynamics, which deals with the non-
equilibrium irreversible processes.

Classical Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamic system:

“A thermodynamic system is defined as the quantity of the matter or a region in the space upon
which attention is concentrated in the analysis of a problem”.

The quantity of the matter can vary as solids, liquids or gases, electric field, magnetic field or even
photons.

System are classified into three types they are

 Open system
 Closed system
 Isolated system

Closed system:

In a closed system, there is no mass transfer but the energy transfer takes place.

Open system:

In an open system, there is both mass and energy transfer that takes place. The boundary line is
observed in broken or dotted lines.

Isolated system:

In an isolated system, there is no mass and energy transfer across the boundary.

Boundary:

The separation between the system and the surroundings is known as the boundary. The boundary
may be real or imaginary. The shape and size may increase or decrease.
Surroundings:

The entire space around the system is known as the surroundings. By using different types of walls,
the system and the surrounding are divided. The walls are classified as diathermal, rigid wall, and
adiabatic walls.

Diathermal Wall: With the help of the diathermalwall the system is supposed to communicate
thermally with its surroundings. If two systems are separated with the help of the diathermal wall then
it is known as the thermal contact.

Rigid walls: The rigid walls restrict to bring changes in the volume of the system

Adiabatic Wall: It is the one that is impermeable to the thermal energy. With the help of the wall
between the system and the surrounding, the thermal interaction is restricted cut off.

Properties:

We can see two properties they are intensive property and extensive property

Intensive Property:

The system which is independent of the size is known intensive property. Pressure and temperature
are the properties of the intensive system.

Extensive properties:
Extensive property depends upon the size of the system. The volume of the system is an example of
the extensive property.

The ratio of mass to the extensive property or the property for unit mass or mole is known as specific
property.

The ration of an extensive property to the number of moles of the substance, within a system or the
property per mole of the substance is known as the molar property.

Energies associated with the thermodynamic processes:

Potential energy:

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position is known as the potential energy.

PE = mgh

where,

m= mass of the body,

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ) and

h = height from the ground

Kinetic Energy:

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as the kinetic energy.

KE = 1/2

where,

m = mass of the body and

v = velocity of moving particle

A thermodynamic system consists of a fluid; it may possess both the potential energy and kinetic
energy. The potential energy plus the kinetic energy are expressed in macroscopic terms, and the
quantities are measured directly. The thermodynamic system may possess constitute macroscopic
form of mechanical energy. The potential energy and kinetic energy are in the form of inter-
convertible. Matter is composed of molecules or atoms which have the capacity to rotate, translate and
vibrate. With respect to the motion of electrons, intra-atomic interactions, spin of electrons are
associated with the energy. Molecules which are in inter-molecular interaction are in electromagnetic
nature mainly at short intermolecular separation distance.

All the energy is in the microscopic form, and are not readily to estimate in terms of macroscopic
measurable properties of matter. The microscopic form of energy is different from the kinetic energy
and the potential energy of a system, or body and they are normally independent of the velocity or
position of the body. Due to the macroscopic mode the energy possessed by the matter, the motion is
referred as an internal energy. The microscopic transformation is observed in the thermodynamic
system. In the thermodynamic system and its surroundings, the exchange may take place through the
system boundary as either work or heat or both.

Laws of Thermodynamics:

Thermodynamic laws are divided into four types they are

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics

 First law of thermodynamics
 Second law of thermodynamics
 Third law of thermodynamics

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If the two systems are in thermal equilibrium with the third system then it known as the zeroth law of
thermodynamics. And the two systems are thermal equilibrium with each other.

First law of thermodynamics:

According to the first law of thermodynamics the energy can be transformed, but the energy cannot be
destroyed or created. The energy must pass in the form of heat, work, or matter into the system or
outside of the system.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

According to the natural thermodynamic process increase in the participating thermodynamics

system, takes place with the sum of the entropies.

Third Law of Thermodynamics:

The third law of thermodynamics introduces the absolute entropy concept. When the total entropy of
the pure elements approaches zero degrees, as the absolute temperature elements zero degrees.

Heat Treatment Processes

Summarizes and definitions of the some common heat treatment processes like annealed, normalized,
quench hardened and tempered are given below.

Annealed:

Annealed is the condition of a metal that has been heated above a specific temperature, depending upon
its composition and then cooled down in the furnace itself or by burying it in ashes or lime. This
annealing process makes the metal very soft and ductile. Annealing usually precedes flow-forming
operations such as sheet metal pressing and wire tube drawing.

Normalized:

Normalizing is the condition of a metal that has been heated above a specific temperature, depending
upon its composition and then cooled down in free air. Although the cooling is slow, it is not as for
annealing so the metal is less soft and ductile. This condition is not suitable for flow forming but more
suitable machining. Normalizing is often used to stress relieve castings and forgings after rough
machining.

Quench hardened:
Quench hardened is the condition of a metal that has been heated above a specific temperature,
depending upon its composition and then cooled down very rapidly by immersing it in cold water or
cold oil. Rapid cooling is called quenching and the water or oil is called the quenching bath. This rapid
cooling from elevated temperatures makes the metal very hard. Only medium-carbon steels and high-
carbon steels can be hardened in this way.

Tempered:

Quench-hardened steels are brittle as well as hard. To make them suitable for cutting tools they have to
be reheated to a specified temperature below 200 to 300°C and again quenched. This makes them
slightly less hard but very much tougher. Metals in this condition are said to be tempered.

Types of fluids

Fluids are divided into five types they are:

 Ideal fluids
 Real fluids
 Newtonian fluids
 Non-Newtonian fluids
 Ideal plastic fluids
Ideal Fluids:

An ideal fluid is defined as a fluid which is in-compressible and the one that does not have viscosity.
Ideal fluids are imaginary fluids. This exist some viscosity.

Real Fluids:

A real fluid is defined as a fluid which possesses viscosity. In actual state all fluids are real fluids.

Newtonian fluids:

In a real fluid the shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient or shear strain, which is
known as Newtonian fluids.

Non-Newtonian fluids:

In a real fluid the shear stress is not proportional to the velocity gradient or shear strain, which is
known as Non- Newtonian fluids.

Ideal plastic fluids:

In a fluid the shear stress is more than the yield value. The shear stress is proportional to the rate of
velocity gradient or shear strain is known as ideal plastic fluids.

Thermodynamic properties:

Fluid consists of either liquid or gases. In case of gases they are compressible fluids. The
thermodynamic properties play an important key role. Due to the change in temperature and pressure
the gases undergoes high variation in densities. So the relation between the absolute temperature,
absolute pressure and specific volume is

= RT

= RT
P= Absolute pressure of a gas

R = gas constant

T= Absolute temperature in kelvin

ρ = Density of a gas.

R Dimension

The gas constant R value must be depends on the particular gas.

In MKS Unit R value is

In SI units

Isothermal Process:

At constant pressure the change in density occurs then the process is known as isothermal process.
The relation between pressure and density is:

p/ρ= constant

Adiabatic process:

The change in the density must be occurs without heat change to and fro the gases is known as
Adiabatic process.

Due to friction there is no heat generation in the gases, so the relation between the density and
pressure is
K value for air is 1.4

Universal gas constant:

It is also known as gas constant, ideal gas constant, molar gas constant. It is denoted by the letter R.

In SI units R value is 8314 J/kg-mole.

Compressibility and bulk modulus:

The reciprocal of bulk modules of elasticity is known as compressibility. It is defined as the ratio of
compressive stress to volumetric strain.

Consider a cylinder and piston is inserted into it, when the force is applied on the piston then the
pressure is increased to p+dp. Then the volume present in the cylinder is decreased
to to .

Volumetric strain must be =

Bulk modules = K = increase in pressure / volumetric strain

Compressibility = 1/ K

For gases relation between Bulk modulus and pressure:

K=pk
Fluid Mechanics and Its Properties

Fluid mechanics is a branch of science, which deals with the fluids behavior in the
rest position and in the motion too. The study of science deals with the kinematics,
dynamics and statists. The fluids at the rest position are known as fluid statics. If
the fluid is in motion without considering the pressure forces then it is known as
fluid kinematics. In that study if we considered the pressure and the fluid is in
motion then it is known as fluid dynamics.

Properties of the fluids:

Density

Specific weight

Specific volume

Specific gravity

Density
Density is also known mass density. It is defined as the ratio of mass of the fluid to
volume of the fluid. Density is defines as the mass per unit volume of the fluid.
The symbolic representation is ‘ρ’. In liquids density of the liquids are constant but
in case of gases we can notice the variation in the temperature and the pressure.

ρ = Mass of the fluid/ volume of the fluid

In SI units they are measured in

Water density is 1000 kg/ or 1

Specific weight
Specific Weight is also known Weight density. It is defined as the ratio of the
weight of the fluid to volume of the fluid. The weigh per unit volume of a fluid is
known as specific density. The symbolic representation is ‘w’.

w = weight of the fluid/ volume of the fluid

= (Mass of fluid) X Acceleration due to gravity/ volume of fluid

= Mass of fluid X g/ volume of fluid

=ρXg

W = ρg

Specific density of water is 9.81 X 1000 the units are in SI units.

Specific volume
Specific volume is defined as the ratio of volume of the fluid to mass of the fluid.

Specific volume = Volume of the fluid/ mass of the fluid

Reciprocal to the mass density is known as specific volume. The

units are . thespecific volume must be applied to gases substance.

Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity is also known as relative density. It is defined as the ratio of the
weight density of the fluid to the weight density of the standard fluid. The standard
fluid for liquids is water and standard fluid for gases is air. It is denoted with the
symbol ‘S’.

For liquids specific gravity is S= weight density of the fluid (liquid)/ weight
density of the standard fluid (Water)

For gases specific gravity is S= weight density of the fluid (gas)/ weight density of
the standard fluid (air)

Density of liquid = specific gravity X Density of Water

= S X 1000

Weight Density of a liquid = specific gravity X Weight density of Water

= S X 1000 X 9.81

Density of mercury must be = 13600 .

Viscosity:
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer to another layer of the fluid. If the fluid is separated by a
distance “dy” and they are moving with different velocities ‘u’ and ‘du’ the
viscosity together with the relative velocity bases shear stress performing between
the fluid layers. On the adjacent lower layer the top layer causes a shear stress but
the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. The shear stress
must be proportional to the change of velocity with respect to the y. the symbolic
representation of Viscosity is τ.

τ proportional (du/dy)

τ= μ (du/dy)

μ = τ/ (du/dy)
Units of Viscosity:
SI units =

M.K.S. =

C.G.S. = poise =

1 poise = 1/10 N.S/m

Kinematic Viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid. It is represented by the letter ν.

ν = Viscosity/ density = μ/ρ

Units
S.I. Units =

M.K.S. Units =

C.G.S. Units = stoke =

1 stoke = 10-4

Newton’s law of Viscosity:

According to the newton’s law of viscosity the shear stress on the fluid element
layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.

τ = μ(du/dy)

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A thermodynamic system is said to exist in state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in
any macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
An isolated system always reaches in course of time a state of thermodynamic equilibrium and can
never depart from its spontaneously.
Therefore, there can be no spontaneous change in any macroscopic property if the system exists in an
equilibrium state.
A thermodynamic system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if the system is the state of
Mechanical equilibrium, Chemical equilibrium and Thermal equilibrium.

1. Mechanical equilibrium: The criteria for Mechanical equilibrium is the equality of

pressures.

2. Chemical equilibrium: The criteria for Chemical equilibrium is the equality of chemical
potentials.

3. Thermal equilibrium: The criteria for Thermal equilibrium is the equality of

temperatures.

Brake System Classification

Brake system is used in automobiles to slow down or stop vehicle by converting its kinetic energy
into heat energy.
Classification of Brake system:

1. On the basis of mode of actuation:

1. Foot brake (also called main brake) operated by foot pedal

2. Hand brake – it is also called parking brake operated by hand

2. On the basis of mode of operation

1. Air brakes

2. Electric brakes

3. Hydraulic brakes

4. Mechanical brakes

5. Vacuum brakes

3. On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels

1. Front-wheel brakes

2. Rear-wheel brakes

4. On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact

1. Externally – contracting brakes

2. Internally – expanding brakes

Differences Between Centrifugal and Axial Flow Compressors

S.no Centrifugal Compressors Axial Flow Compressors

In centrifugal compressors air flows In Axial flow compressors air flows

1
radially in the compressor parallel to the axis of shaft

2 Low maintenance and running cost High maintenance and running cost

3 Low starting torque is required Requires high starting torque

4 Not suitable for multi staging Suitable for multi staging

 5 Suitable for low pressure ratios up to 4 Suitable for only multi staging ratio of 10

For given mass flow rate, it requires a For a given mass flow rate, it requires less
6
larger frontal area. Frontal area.

7 Isentropic efficiency is 80 to 82% Isentropic efficiency is 86 to 88%

8 Better performance at part load Poor performance at part load

Comparison between centrifugal compressor and axial flow compressors can be done in aspects like air
flow direction, maintenance cost, torque requirement, multi staging suitable or not, pressure
ratios conditions, frontal area, isentropic efficiency and performance at part load.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The application of first law of thermodynamics process led to the establishment of a new property
named internal energy (U), the application of the second law to a process leads to the establishment of
another new property names as entropy (S).

Entropy is defined as follows

For a reversible thermodynamic process between two states, from state 1 to state 2 in an open system,
the change in entropy is given by
It is found by applying Clausius inequality that for an irreversible process from state 1 to state 2, the
change in entropy is given by

Law of Degradation of Energy

The available energy of a system decreases as its temperature or pressure decreases and approaches
equilibrium to the surroundings. When the heat is transferred from a system, its temperature decreases
and hence the quality of its energy deteriorates. The degradation is more for energy loss may be the
same, but quality wise the losses are different. While the first law states that energy is always conserved
quantity wise, the second law emphasizes that energy always degrades quality wise.
When a gas is throttled adiabatically from a high pressure region to low pressure region, the enthalpy
(or energy per unit mass) remains constant, but there is a degradation of energy or available work. The
same holds good for pressure drop due to friction of a fluid flowing through an insulated pipe. If the first
law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy, the second law of thermodynamics is
also know as the law of degradation of energy.

Gas Laws

Gas Laws explain the behavior of an ideal gas in terms of temperature, pressure, volume.
The following are the some of the important gas laws:

 Boyle’s Law

 Charles Law

 Gay-Lussac’s Law

 Avogadro’s law

 Universal Gas Law

Boyle’s Law:

Boyle’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas (V) is inversely proportional to its absolute
pressure (P), provided the temperature of the gas (T) remains constant.
Boyle’s law formula

Charles Law:

According to Charles law, the volume of a given mass of gas (V) is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature (T), when its pressure remains constant.
Charles law formula

Gay-Lussac’s Law:

Gay-Lussac’s Law is also know as Amontons’ law. It states that if the volume of a given mass of a
gas (V) is kept constant, then the pressure of the gas (P) is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (T).
Gay-Lussac’s Law Formula
Avogadro’s Law:

Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of different perfect gases, at the same temperature (T) and
pressure (P), contain equal number of molecules (n).
Avogadro’s law equation

Universal Gas Law:

Combined Gas law is derived from the three gas laws Boyles law, Charles law and Gay-Lussacs law.
Universal Gas Law Formula

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If an object with a higher temperature comes in contact with an object of lower temperature, it will
transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The objects will approach the same temperature and in
the absence of loss to other objects, they will maintain a single constant temperature. Therefore,
thermal equilibrium is attained.

The Thermodynamics Zeroth Law states that if two systems are at the same time in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, they are in equilibrium with each other.
.

If objects A and C are in thermal equilibrium with B, then object A is in thermal equilibrium with
object C. Practically this means all three objects are at the same temperature and it forms the basis for
comparison of temperatures.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that:-

Two system which are equal in temperature to a third system are equal in temperature to each other.

Super Alloys

Super alloys are important in high temperature applications; hence, they are also known as heat-resistant
or as high-temperature alloys.

Applications:
Major applications of this alloys are in reciprocating engines, in rocket engines, in tools and dies for
hot-working of metals and in the nuclear, chemical and photochemical industries.

Properties:

They generally have good resistance to corrosion, to mechanical and thermal fatigue, to mechanical and
thermal shock, to creep and to erosion at higher temperatures.

Composition:

These alloys are referred to as iron-base, cobalt-base or nickel-base super alloys. They contain nickel,
chromium, cobalt and molybdenum as major alloying elements; Most super alloys have a maximum
service temperature of about 1000°C for non-load bearing components.

Iron base super alloys generally contain composition of 32% to 67% iron, from 15% to 22% chromium
and from 9% to 38% nickel.

Cobalt-base super alloys generally contain composition of 35% to 65% cobalt, 19% to 30% chromium
and up to 35% nickel. Cobalt (Co) is white-colored metal that resembles nickel. These super alloys are
not as strong as nickel-base super alloys in this they retain their strength at higher temperatures.

Nickel-base super alloys are the most common of the super alloys and they are available in a variety of
compositions. The composition of nickel is from 38% to 76%; they also contain up to 27% chromium
and 20% cobalt. Common alloys in this group are the Hastelloy, Inconel, Nimonic,
Rene, Udimet, Astroloy and Waspaloy series.

Refrigerant
A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration cycle
that can extract heat from another body or substance. Ice, cold water, cold air etc. can be treated as a
refrigerants.

Desired Properties of a Refrigerant:

1. Vapor density:

To enable use of smaller compressors and other equipment the refrigerant should have
smaller vapor density.

2. Enthalpy of vaporization:

To ensure maximum heat absorption during refrigeration, a refrigerant should have high enthalpy of
vaporization.

3. Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity of the refrigerant should be high for faster heat transfer during condensation and
evaporation.
4. Dielectric strength:

In hermetic arrangements, the motor windings are cooled by refrigerants vapor on its way to the suction
valve of the compressor. Therefore, dielectric strength of refrigerant is important property in
hermetically sealed compressor units.

5. Critical temperature:

In order to have large range of isothermal energy transfer, the refrigerant should have critical
temperature above the condensing temperature.

6. Specific heat:

To have minimum change in entropy during the throttling process, the specific heat should be minimum.
For this, liquid saturation line should be almost vertical.

7. Leak tendency:

The refrigerant may leak out of the system. The problems with leakage are wearing out of joint or the
material used for the fabrication of the system. A denser refrigerant will have fewer tendencies to leak
as compared to higher density refrigerant. The detection of leaks should be easy to loss of refrigerant.
Leakage can be identified quickly if the refrigerant has distinct color or odour.

8. Toxicity:

The refrigerant used in air conditioning, food preservation etc. should not be toxic in nature as they will
come into contact with human beings. refrigerants will affect human health if they are toxic.

9. Cost of refrigerants:

The quantity of refrigerant used in industries is very less. The cost of the refrigerants is generally high
when compared to other chemicals in the industry. Very low industry professional will not take
necessary action to control the leaks.

10. Availability:

Refrigerants should be available near the usage point. It must be sourced and procured within a short
period to enable the user in case of leaks, maintenance schedules etc.
Mechanical Properties of Metals

Often materials are subject to external force when they are used. Mechanical Engineers calculate
those forces and material scientists how materials deform or break as a function of force, time,
temperature, and other conditions. Materials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by
testing materials.

Some of the important mechanical properties of a metals are Brittleness, Creep, Ductility, Elasticity,
Fatigue, Hardness, Malleability, Plasticity, Resilience, Stiffness, Toughness, Yield strength. Above
mechanical properties of metals are explained below in brief.

Brittleness:

Tendency of a material to fracture or fail upon the application of a relatively small amount of force,
impact or shock.

Creep:

When a metal is subjected to a constant force at high temperature below its yield point, for a
prolonged period of time, it undergoes a permanent deformation.

Ductility:

Ductility is the property by which a metal can be drawn into thin wires. It is determined by percentage
elongation and percentage reduction in area of a metal.

Elasticity:
Elasticity is the tendency of solid materials to return to their original shape after being deformed.

Fatigue:

Fatigue is the of material weakening or breakdown of material subjected to stress, especially a

repeated series of stresses.

Hardness:

Hardness is the ability of a material to resist permanent change of shape caused by an external force.

Malleability:

Malleability is the property by which a metal can be rolled into thin sheets.

Plasticity:

Plasticity is the property by which a metal retains its deformation permanently, when the external
force applied on it is released.

Resilience:

Resilience is the ability of a metal to absorb energy and resist soft and impact load.

Stiffness:

When an external force is applied on a metal, it develops an internal resistance. The internal resistance
developed per unit area is called stress. Stiffness is the ability of a metal to resist deformation under
stress.

Toughness:

When a huge external force is applied on a metal, the metal will experience fracture. Toughness is the
ability of a metal to resist fracture.

Yield strength:

The ability of a metal to bear gradual progressive force without permanent deformation.

Cutting Fluids: Functions, Properties

Various functions of cutting fluids

1. Cutting fluid cools the work piece and tool by carrying away the heat generated during
machining.

2. It acts as lubricant at the friction zones, hence tool life increases.

3. As friction get reduced, the forces and electricity power consumption decreases.

4. Using cutting fluids produces better surface finish to the work piece.

5. It causes to break the chips into small pieces.

6. It washes away the chips from the tool.

7. It prevents the corrosion of chips and machine.

8. Improves dimensional accuracy and control on the work piece.

9. It permits maximum cutting speed hence the time for machining reduce and cost of
manufacturing increases.

Properties to be possessed by the cutting fluids

1. Cutting fluids should have low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.

2. It should posses good lubricating properties.

 3. It should have high specific heat, high heat conductivity and high heat transfer
coefficient.

4. It should be non-corrosive to work and machine.

5. It should be non-toxic to operating person.

6. It should be odourless.

7. It should stable in use and storage.

8. It should be safe.

9. It should permit clear view of the work operation.

Most commonly used cutting fluids are

1. Cast Iron: No cutting fluids are used.

2. Steels: Lord oil with mineral oil is used.

3. Alloy steel: Sulphur brass oil with mineral oil is used.

4. Copper: Soluble oil with 90 to 95% of water is used.

5. Aluminium: Mineral oil with soluble oil cutting fluids are used as cutting fluids.

Properties of Good Lubricants

A lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce frictional force and heat generation between the
surfaces in mutual contact, when the surfaces move.
A good lubricating oil generally possess the following characteristics:

1. Suitable Viscosity: The viscosity of oil should not change with rise in temperature.

2. Oilness: It ensures the adherence to the bearings and spread over the surface. This
property makes oil smooth and very important in boundary lubrication.

3. Strength: The lubricant must have high strength to avoid metal contact and seizure under
heavy loads.

4. Chemical Stability: The lubricant should not react with surfaces and any deposit in the
cylinder.

5. Pour Point: It should be low to allow the flow of lubricant at low temperature to the oil
pump.

6. Flash Point and Fire Point: The lubricating oil should not burn inside the cylinder,
otherwise it will leave heavy deposit and poisonous exhaust. Therefore, the flash point
and fire point of the lubricating oil must be high.

7. Neutralization: The oil should not have a tendency to form deposits by reacting with air,
water, fuel or the products of combustion.

8. Cleaning: The oil should act as cleaning agent inside the engine and should carry any
deposits with it. It should also have non-foaming characteristics, low cost and be non-
toxic.

Characteristics and Properties of Fuels

 Fuels are any material that store potential energy in forms, which upon burning in oxygen
liberates heat energy.

 Calorific value of fuel is the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass or volume of
fuel is completely burnt.

 Higher or gross calorific value (HCV) in the total amount of heat produced when a unit
mass/volume of fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion have
been cooled to room temperature (15°C or 60°F).

 Lower or net calorific value (LCV) is the heat produced when unit mass (volume) of the
fuel is burnt completely and the products are permitted to escape.

LCV = HCV – Latent heat of water formed

 Natural or primary fuels are found in nature such as wood, peat, coal, natural gas,
petroleum.

 Artificial or secondary fuels are prepared from primary fuels charcoal, coal gas, coke,
kerosene oil, diesel oil, petrol, etc.

 Fuels are further classified as

1. Solid Fuels

2. Liquid Fuels

3. Gaseous Fuels
Characteristics of solid fuels

1. Ash is high.

2. Low thermal efficiency

3. Form clinker

4. Low calorific value and require large excess air.

5. Cost of handling high

6. Cannot be used in IC engines.

Characteristics of liquid fuels

1. High calorific value

2. No dust ash and clinker

3. Clean fuels

4. Less furnace air

5. Less furnace space

6. Used in IC engines

Characteristics of Gaseous fuels

1. Have high heat content

2. No ash or smoke

3. Very large storage tanks are required

An ideal fuel should have the following properties:

1. High calorific value

2. Moderate ignition temperature

 3. Low moisture content

4. Low NOn combustible matter

5. Moderate velocity of combustion

6. Products of combustion not harmful

7. Low cost

8. Easy to transport

9. Combustion should be controllable

10. No spontaneous combustion

11. Low storage cost

12. Should burn in air with efficiency.

Comparison Between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boiler

Comparison between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boiler can be done in 14 aspects.
Those aspects are operating pressure, passage of material type in tubes, rate of steam
generation, handling of load fluctuation, floor area requirement, efficiency, operator
skills, design, maintenance cost are listed below in the tabular form.
S.No Fire tube boiler Water tube boiler

In Fire-tube boilers hot In Water-tube boilers water passes through tubes and hot
flue gases pass through flue
1
tubes and water surrounds
them. gasses surround them.

These are operated at low The working pressure is high enough, up to 250 bar in super
2
pressures up to 20 bar. critical boilers.

The rate of steam

generation and quality of The rate of steam generation and quality of steam are
3 steam are very low,
therefore, not suitable for better and suitable for power generation.

power generation.

Load fluctuations cannot

4 Load fluctuations can be easily handled.
be handled.

It requires more floor area

5 It requires less floor area for a given output
for a given output.

These are bulky and These are light in weight, hence transportation is not a
6
difficult to transport. problem.

Overall efficiency is up to
7 Overall efficiency with an economizer is up to 90%.
75%.

Water doesn’t circulate in

8 Direction of water circulated is well defined.
a definite direction.

The drum size is large and

If any water tube is damaged, it can be easily replaced or
9 damage caused by
repaired.
bursting is large.

It requires more floor area

10 It requires less floor area for a given output
for a given output.
 Simple in design, easy to
Complex, design, difficult to erect and high maintenance
11 erect and low
cost.
maintenance cost.

Even less skill operators

12 are sufficient for efficient Skilled operators are required for operation.
operation.

The treatment of feed

Treatment of feed water is very essential as small scale
water is not very essential,
deposits inside
13 as overheating due to
scale formation cannot
the tubes can cause overheating and bursting.
burst thick shell.

14 Used in process industry. Used in large power plants.

Fluid kinematics

Kinematics is defined as the geometry of the motion.

Fluid kinematics defines the motion of the fluids and its significance without taking into account of
the nature of forces that cause motion.

Kinematics is divided into three main features:

 Improvement of methods and tools for recitation and identifying the motion of fluids.
 Determination of the conditions for the kinematic option of fluid motions
 Classification of different kinds of motions and related distortion rates of any fluid
component.

Scalar and vector Sector:

Scalar is a quantity which can be expressed by a particular number represents its magnitude.

Examples: Temperature, mass and density

Scalar sector:

In a region if every point of the scalar functions has a defined value, then that region is known as the
scalar sector.

Example: In a rod temperature must be distributed.

Vector

Vector is a quantity which can be expressed in both the direction and the magnitude.

Examples: Displacement, velocity and force.

Vector Sector:

In a region if every point of the vector functions has a defined value. Then that region is known as the
vector sector.

Example: velocity of the flowing fluid

Flow sector:

The area in which the flow elements such as pressure, velocity etc., which are to be defined at every
point of an instant of time is known as flow sector.

Flow sectors are identified by the velocity observed at different areas in that particular region, at
various times factors.

Various types of fluid motions:

Fluid motions are divided into two types they are

 Lagrangian method
 Eulerian Method

Lagrangian method

Lagrangian methods is used for single fluid particles

Advantages of Lagrangian method:

 History of the method can be traced with the help of the motion and trajectory of the fluid
particles.
 From the beginning of the method the particles are traced throughout the motion, where
exchange of mass is essential.

Disadvantages of Lagranigian method:

 For practical applications this method is rarely used.

Eulerian Method

Eulerian method is developed by Leonhard Euler

This method is used for particular section or point.

Relation between the Lagrangian and Eulerian concept

For Eulerian, we can written as

From Lagrangian, we can written as

From the Eularian method the Lagranigian method are derived.

Variation of flow parameters:

Steady flow:

At a point where the flow characteristics, and fluid parameters do not change with respect to the time,
such a flow is referred as steady flow.

According to the Eulerian method steady flow is defined as

Unsteady flow:

In the unsteady flow the flow characteristics and fluid parameters are changed with the time.

Uniform flow:
At any instant of time the velocity vectors flow uniform and they do not change point to point with
time, which called as uniform flow.

Non – Uniform flow:

At any instant of time the velocity vector varies from point to point of time is known as the non –
uniform flow.

This flow is applicable for the velocity only.

Turbulent flow:

The particles that have the random and erratic movement, intermixing with the adjacent layers is
known as the turbulent flow.

Laminar Flow:

When the particles move in layers sliding smoothly over the adjacent layer are known as laminar
flow.

Streak line:
Streak lines are the locus of the points. In the past all the particles that always passes through a
specific spatial point. Dye steadily inserted into the fluid at a static point spreads along a streak line.

Mathematical Description:

Streak lines are defined as:

Is the velocity of the particle and P is the location at and the time t.

Path line:

During motion path line is a curve traced by a single fluid particle

Mathematical Description:

Path line is defined as:

P indicates the motion of a fluid particle. At the point the curve must be parallel to the flow of
the velocity vector .The velocity vector is calculated at the position of the particle at that time t.

Streamline:

Streamline is defined as an imaginary line which is drawn in a flow field, such as a tangent drawn at
any point. On that line it represents the direction of the velocity vector at that point.

There is no velocity component normal to the stream lines.

Mathematical description:

Streamline is defined as:

where,

x= vector cross product and

= parametric representation of single streamline at single moment in time.

Velocity of the components =(u,v,w) and stream lines are expressed as we
assume it as

Essential software skills for Mechanical Engineers

1. AutoCAD ( A basic CAD software for design and drafting purpose)

2. Pro/Engineer ( A complete parametric 3D CAD/CAM/CAE software)

3. C Language (A programming language)

4. ANSYS ( An analysis or simulation software)

AutoCAD and its Capabilities

AutoCAD is a drafting software which involves drawing of 2D objects as well as 3D modelling.

Importance of AutoCAD
Being a Mechanical student, one need to do final year project. It involves experimental/fabrication
work or theoretical analysis. To understake any project, one need to use at least one software or more.

For experimental work, the components of parts should be fabricated with required dimensions. So,
2D or 3D drawing/models are required to be prepared in AutoCAD or in other drafting software. After
creation of the drawing, printout/drawing-sheet of it must be given to fabricator who will create the
component in physical form.

This procedure is same as performed in any design and manufacturing industries. The design
department sends drawing to manufacturing department and manufacturer prepares mechanical
component or system based on it. Thus, one should know how to draw, analyse and prepare drawings
in AutoCAD.

Pro/Engineer Capabilities

Pro/Engineer is a complete Mechanical package of drawing, modelling and analysis. Pro/Engineer's

design package includes 2D drawing, 3D models and assembly. Pro/Engineer also does functions like
2D CAD, 3D CAD, customization, Data exchange like IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)
and other formats, Dynamics publishing, engineering calculations, Visualization and mock up etc.
C Programming Language

Being a mechanical student, there is a great importance of C language because when you learn
computational subjects, you need to use C programming to do the calculations for solution by numerical
methods and most methods in computations are iterative as well as trial and error one. So, in
programming by C, one can use loops, decision making, functions, arrays and file management to serve
the purpose of solution of the numerical methods used for given problem's physics. There are plenty of
programming languages are available but C is one of best among them. If you use MATLAB, it will
require more memory but less skills, FORTRAN is also competitive to C but if you know C language,
there is no need to learn other programming and if it is required to learn, you can learn easily as all
programming languages are quite similar.

ANSYS for Finite Element Analysis

Finite Element Method (FEA) is one of the numerical methods in science that mostly deal with finding
approximate numerical solutions of problems like structural, fluid, thermal or fluid structure
interface(FSI). Normally, for thermal and fluid problem, software package like FLUENT and GAMBIT
are popular. But latest version of ANSYS includes FLUENT too.

Hence, without use of software, it is I think almost impossible to work or research in Mechanical
Engineering. So, If you are early years of your study in graduation in Mechanical, you need to learn
these software as soon as possible because nothing will be of no use, each and every things you do, will
work for you some day.
Difference between the petrol engine and diesel engine

 The temperature at the end of the compression is less for the petrol engine.

 Thus a spark plug is needed for the compression. In case of the diesel engine the temperature at
the end of the compression is above the self-ignition temperature of the fuel.

 Hence the fuel ignited is allowed to enter the cylinder due to the high temperature.

 No spark plug is required for the diesel engine.

 For the separate entry of the fuel after the compression stroke, a nozzle is provided for the
diesel engines.

 In case of the petrol engine they do not have the nozzle.

 In petrol engine the air and the fuel, are mix inside a carburetor before entering the engine
cylinder. In diesel engine there is no mixing of air and fuel before suction stroke. Hence
diesel engine does not have a carburetor.

 Heat addition must take place at the constant volume for petrol engine. It takes place at the
constant pressure for diesel engine
  For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of a petrol engine is higher than that of the diesel
engine. This is theoretical.

 In an actual practice the compression ratio of a diesel engine is 1.5 times to 2 times more than
that of a petrol engine.

 Hence the diesel engine efficiency is much higher.

 Under some conditions the air fuel ratio for the petrol engine must be 16 and for the diesel
engine case the ratio of the air fuel mixture must be 25 to 35.

Difference between the Theoretical and Actual p-v diagram of

a 4 stroke petrol Engine Actual suction
During the suction stroke the atmospheric air must be entered into the engine cylinder. Then the
suction pressure must be below the atmosphere air. At the start of the suction stroke the piston speed
is less, hence less air will enter into the cylinder. Then the difference between the atmosphere pressure
and the suction pressure will be less at the start of the suction stroke. Then the piston picks up the
speed, where more air enters inside. The pressure difference is considered to be higher. Finally the
piston slows down and come to rest at bottom dead center. Hence the pressure difference will also be
less. Actual suction process will be given by like 0 – –1

Actual compression:

Due to heat carried away by cold water, the actual compression process is Polytropic. In account of
heat loss the work input for the actual compression process will be more. Hence area in the p-v
diagram for actual compression will be lesser. Hence the slop for the actual compression process will
be higher than the adiabatic index. Process is given by 1-c-

Actual heat addition:

Heat addition takes place during the changing direction of the piston at the top dead center. The
volume first decreases and later increases. Further, the pressure increases throughout heat addition.
The pressure increases through heat addition. The actual heat addition process is given by –d–
Actual Expression:

Due to heat carried away by cold water the work output from the polytrophic expansion process is
less. The expansion process is given by the line is –e–

Heat rejection:

The actual heat rejection is not a constant volume process. During heat rejection the piston under goes
change in direction at bottom dead center. The volume initially increases and then decreases. The
pressure decreases throughout heat rejection. It is given by the line –f– .

Actual Exhaust:

During exhaust the leftover exhaust gas is pushed out by the upward motion of the piston depending
on the piston speed, the actual exhaust process is given by 1- –0

The area formed by the combustion of the suction and exhaust process is known as pumping of engine
loss.

The following area must be taken as negative

(0 – – 1- – – 0). The area available due to the other operation is treated as positive where the
net area is determined.

The ratio of net actual indicated work done to the ideal indicated work done is defined as diagram
factor of engine.

df = IWD actual/ IWD ideal.