Plasma Etching

Outline

• Plasma vs. Wet Etching

• The Plasma State
- Plasma composition, DC & RF Plasma
• Plasma Etching Principles and Processes
• Equipment
• Advanced Plasma Systems

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Terminology
Etching - the process by which material is removed from a surface
Mask Layer - Used to protect regions of the wafer surface. Examples are photoresist or an
oxide layer
Wet Etching - substrates are immersed in a reactive solution (etchant). The layer to be
etched is removed by chemical reaction or by dissolution. The reaction products must be
soluble and are carried away by the etchant solution.
Dry Etching - Substrates are immersed in a reactive gas (plasma). The layer to be etched is
removed by chemical reactions and/or physical means (ion bombardment). The reaction
products must be volatile and are carried away in the gas stream.

Anisotropic - etch rate is not equal in all directions.

Isotropic - etch rate is equal in all directions.
Selectivity - the ratio of etch rate of film to etch rate of substrate or mask.
Aspect Ratio - ratio of depth to width of an etched feature.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Why Plasma Etching?

Advanced IC Fabrication with small geometries requires precise

pattern transfer

Geometry in the < 1.0 micrometer range is common

Line widths comparable to film thickness

Some applications require high aspect ratio

Some materials wet etch with difficulty

Disposal of wastes is less costly

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Anisotropic Etch, High Aspect Ratio

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 Ideal Etching Process

mask
film to be etched
Before etch
substrate

mask

After etch
substrate

No process is ideal, but some plasma etches are close.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Directionality of Etching

x
resist x
z Degree of Anisotropy
A = (z-x)/z
substrate z
Anisotropic Etch (x < z) 0 < A < 1

resist resist
z z

substrate substrate
Isotropic Etch (x = z) A = 0 Vertical Etch (x = 0) A = 1
(Perfectly anisotropic)

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 Wet Etching

Thermometer Teflon Cover

Probe with
glass cover Holes

Plastic Screw
Wafer Boat for Handle

Wafers

Hot Plate

50°C Teflon Stirrer

Controller & Guide Plate

Generally Wet Etching is Isotropic

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Wet Etching Problems

resist
Mask
Before Etch

substrate

isotropic poor
Blocking undercut adhesion
resist

After Isotropic Etch

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 Wet Etching Characteristics

• Advantages:
– Simple equipment
– High throughput (batch process)
– High selectivity
• Disadvantages:
– Isotropic etching leads to undercutting
– Uses relatively large quantities of etch chemicals, must immerse wafer
boats, must discard partially used etch to maintain etch rate
– Hot chemicals create photoresist adhesion problems
– Small geometries difficult, line with > thickness, etch block caused by
surface tension
– Critical Etch time, dimensions change with etch time, bias develops
– Chemical costs are high
– Disposal costs are high
Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Wet Etch Chemistries

• Silicon (Nitric Acid and Hydrofluoric Acid and water)
– Si +HNO3 + H2O --> SiO2 + HNO2 +H2 (+6HF) --> H2SiF6 +
HNO2 + 2H2O + H2
• SiO2 (HF Water and NH4F)
– SiO2 + 6HF --> H2 +SiF6 +2H2O
• Si3N4 (Dilute Hot Phosphoric (180C) H3PO4)
• Al (HPO4) +HNO2 +Acedic CH3COOH + H2O
– Nitric oxidizes Al --> Al2O3 and HPO4 dissolves Al2O3

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 Dry Etching Characteristics

• Advantages:
– No photoresist adhesion problems
– Anisotropic etch profile is possible
– Chemical consumption is small
– Disposal of reaction products less costly
– Suitable for automation, single wafer, cassette to cassette
• Disadvantages:
– Complex equipment, RF, gas metering, vacuum, instrumentation
– Selectivity can be poor
– Residues left on wafer, polymers, heavy metals
– Particulate formation
– CFC’s

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Dry Etching Mechanisms

• Generate etchant species

• Diffusion to Surface
• Adsorption (and Migration)
• Reaction
• By-product Desorption
• Diffusion of By-product to Bulk Gas

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Dry Etching Methods
• Dry Etching -- uses gas reactant species to etch film
– Plasma Etching -- typically high pressure, no ion bombardment (substrate
placed on grounded electrode)
– Reactive ion etching -- typically lower pressures, ion bombardment (substrate
placed on powered electrode
– Ion beam methods -- plasma is generated in a separate chamber and ions are
accelerated towards the substrate (independently control flux of radicals and
ions)
– Beam methods -- plasma is generated in a separate chamber and mainly
neutrals active species (radicals) are directed towards substrate.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Dry Ethcing Nomenclature

Dry Etching

Glow Discharge "Beam" Methods Ion Beam

Methods Methods

Barrel Sputter Etching Parallel Plate Downstream ECR Etching Ion Milling Reactive Ion Ion Beam
RIE Plasma Etching Etching Beam Etching Assisted
Chemical Etching

Pressure Range
0.2-2.0 Torr 0.01-0.2 Torr 0.1-1.0 Torr 10-3-10-4 Torr 10-4-10-1 Torr

Ion Energy
low high minimal High but adjustable

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 Definitions
• Plasma - partially ionized gas containing an equal number of positive and
negative charges, as well as some other number of none ionized gas
particles
• Glow discharge - globally neutral, but contains regions of net positive and
negative charge
• Most thin film processes utilize glow discharges, but “plasmas” and “glow
discharges” are often used interchangeably

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

DC Glow Discharge
• Before application of the potential, gas molecules are electrically neutral and the gas at room
temperature will contain very few if any charged particles. Occasionally however, a free
electron may be released from a molecule by the interaction of, for example, a cosmic ray or
other natural radiation, a photon, or a random high energy collision with another particle.

hv
0V

A → A+ + e-

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 DC Glow Discharge
• When a large voltage is applied between the electrodes, say 100 V/cm, any free electrons which
may be present are rapidly accelerated toward the anode. They quickly attain high velocity
(kinetic energy) because THEY HAVE SUCH LOW MASS. Since kinetic energy can be
related to temperature, the electrons are “hot” - they achieve extremely high temperatures
because of their low mass, in an environment of heavy, slow-moving “cold” gas molecules.

- +
100V

slow
“cold”
A+
fast
e- “hot”

Cathode Anode

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

•
DC Glow Discharge
Electrons begin to collide with gas molecules, and the collisions can be either elastic or inelastic.
– Elastic collisions deplete very little of the electron’s energy and do not significantly influence the molecules
because of the great mass difference between electrons and molecules: Mass of electron = 9.11 e-31 Kgm, Mass
of Argon = 6.64e20 Kgm.
– Inelastic collisions excite the molecules of gas or ionize them by completely removing an electron. (The
excitation - relaxation processes are responsible for the glow)

- +
100V

e- (100eV) + A elastic e- (100eV) + A

e- (100eV) + A inelastic e- (<100eV) + A+ + e-
inelastic -
e (100eV) + A
- e (<100eV) + A
*

Cathode A* A + photon (glow) Anode

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 DC Glow Discharge
• Newly produced electrons are accelerated toward the anode and the process
cascades (Breakdown).

- +
100V

e-
e- Aee+--
e- A+ Aee+--
ee-
-
e- A+e- Aee+--
A+e-
Ae+-
Cathode Anode

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

DC Glow Discharge
• With sufficient voltage, the gas rapidly becomes filled with positive and negative
particles throughout its volume, i.e. it becomes ionized.

- +
100V

Cathode Anode

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 DC Glow Discharge
• Positive ions are accelerated toward the negative electrode (cathode). Collision with
the cathode causes the emission of secondary electrons which are emitted from the
cathode into the plasma.

- +
100V

e-
A+

Cathode Anode

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Secondary Electron Coefficient

• Secondary Electron Coefficient (δ) vs • Secondary Electron Coefficient (γi) vs
Incident Electron Energy Incident Ion Energy

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 DC Glow Discharge
• Free electrons from secondary emission and from ionization are accelerated in the
field to continue the above processes, and a steady state self-sustaining discharge is
obtained.

e-
e-
e-
A+ e- A + e-

Cathode

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

DC Glow Discharge
• Electrons are lost by: (a) Drift and diffusion to the chamber walls, (b)
recombination with positive ions, (c) attachment to neutral molecules to form
negative ions.

- +
100V

e- e- + A+→ A

e- e- + A → A-

Cathode Anode

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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•
DC Glow Discharge Regions
The glow discharge, overall, must always remain neutral, although portions of it may be
charged negatively or positively.
• Glow Discharge Regions
– 1 -- Cathode Dark Space (Crooke’s Dark Space)
– 2 -- Negative Glow
– 3 -- Faraday Dark Space
– 4 -- Positive Column
– 5 -- Anode Dark Space

- +
100V

1 2 3 4 5

Cathode Anode

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Current and Potential Distributions in a DC Glow Discharge

100V

1 2 3 4 5

Cathode Anode
~10V

0
V

Most of the voltage drop is across the cathode dark space

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 DC versus RF Plasmas

• Insulating materials will not sustain a plasma

– Ion current charges the insulator positively and ultimately
extinguishes the plasma (ie. Can not bleed off charge)
• Use rf power to deposit insulating materials

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

RF Plasma
• At frequencies > 100kHz electrons respond and ions do not
– Typical rf frequency - 13.56 MHz (designated by FCC)
• High mobility of electrons causes a dc “self bias” to develop on
target after the first ac cycles(~1/2 rf peak-to-peak)

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 The RF Plasma

1. AC voltage overcomes the problem of charge which accumulates

on a dielectric in the DC system.
The positive charge which accumulates due to ion bombardment during one half of the AC cycle can be neutralized by
electron bombardment during the next half cycle. The frequency of AC must be high enough so the half period will be
shorter than the charge-up time of the dielectric. Although this time will vary due to conditions and dielectric
materials, for most applications the frequency must be above 100 KHz.

2. Although there are a number of differences in the practical

operation of AC plasmas, the principles of DC glow discharges can
be applied to AC. One simply considers the AC as a rapidly
reversing DC plasma.
At low frequency both electrons and ions can follow the field, so that a glow discharge is the same as DC, except that
the polarity reverses twice each cycle. At high frequency the massive ions cannot respond to the frequency changes,
whereas electrons can. By far the most common RF frequency used is 13.56 MHz, allowed by the FCC.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

The RF Plasma, cont’d

3. At high frequency the electrodes experience a high electron

current in the first few cycles, and become charged negatively with
respect to the plasma.

4. This negative charge attracts a cloud of ion (ion sheath) around

each electrode, with the electrons being restricted to oscillation in the
region between the sheaths. The electrons create more ions and
electrons by collisions in this region, whereas the ions in the sheath
provide a continuous bombardment of the electrodes.

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 Magnetrons
• Magnetic fields change trajectory of electrons in a magnetic field
– Imposing a magnetic field effectively increases the distance an electron
travels, this in turn increases the ionization rate (and subsequently
the sputtering rate)

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Various Magnetron Configurations

• Planar Magetron

• Enhanced rate in high ion

region

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 Various Magnetron Configurations

• S-gun

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Collision Processes

High Energy Electrons Collide with Gas Molecules and Create New Species

Ionization - An electron is completely removed from a gas molecule or atom, to make

a positive ion. (Negative ions are quite rare in plasmas.)

Electronic Excitation - This accounts for the glow. When electrons collide with
atoms or molecules, they excite or energize electrons to higher energy levels. When
these electrons fall back to lower levels, they emit energy usually in the form of
photons of visible light.

Molecular Fragmentation - Electron collisions break up molecules into fragments

which as a result have unsatisfied chemical bonding and are chemically reactive.
These are called radicals.

Radicals - have no net charge, and therefore are not accelerated by the field or are not
attracted by charged particles. They have a long lifetime compared to charged
particles.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Production of Active Species

Simple Ionization:
Ar + e- --> Ar+ + 2e-
O2 + e- --> O2+ + 2e-

Dissociative Ionization:
CF4 + e- --> CF3+ = F + 2e-

Dissociative Ionization with Attachment:

CF4 + e- -- CF3+ + F- + e-

Molecular Dissociation, Radical Formation:

O2 + e- --> 2O + e-
CF3Cl + e- --> CF3 + Cl + e-
CF4 + e- --> CF3 + F + e-

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Plasma Composition

A typical plasma contains:

Neutral Molecules at a density of 10e16/cm3
Radicals 10e14/cm3
Electrons 10e8/cm3
Positive ions 10e8/cm3

There are a million times more radicals than ions or electrons. Radicals form more easily
and their lifetime is much longer.

Ions don’t etch, radicals do. Ions affect the process by energetic (physical) bombarding of
the surface, influencing the chemical processes of etching.

Radicals are responsible for the dry etching process. They are chemically active and react
with the surfaces to produce volatile products.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Loss Mechanisms

In a plasma, unstable particles are continuously generated. The

concentrations of ions, radicals, active atoms, & electrons increase until their
loss rate is equal to the generation rate, forming a steady-state plasma.

Recombination of ions and electrons: They attract each other and are annihilated.

Drift, diffusion to walls: Electrons are lost at conductive surfaces, chamber walls or
electrodes. Ions are lost (converted to neutral particles) by contact with conductive surfaces,
especially positive electrode.

Recombination of radicals: 2O => O2

Chemical reaction: 4F + Si => SiF4 (Fluorine radical combines with silicon wafer to
produce silicon tetrafluoride gas. This is a typical dry etching process.)

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Ion Bombardment at Surfaces

Electron collisions
create ions F + CF3+ ion
-
+ - F
- Electron
CF4
Ions bombard
F Fluorine radical
surfaces - -+
F
Radicals react + +
with surfaces
+ - F

Negatively charged surface

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 GEC Cell

SF6
CF4
CHF3
O2
H2

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Dry Etching Spectrum

Pressure Ion Energy
Physical (Sputtering)
Low Directional High
<50 mTorr Poor Selectivity
Radiation Damage Possible

Reactive Ion Etching

100 mTorr Physical and Chemical
Variable Anisotropy
Variable Selectivity

Chemical Plasma Etching

400 mTorr Fast, Isotropic
High High Selectivity
Low
Low radiation Damage

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 Basic Principle of Plasma Etching

CF4 is inert gas (Freon 14)

add electron impact:

CF4 + e => CF3+ + F + 2e (Dissociative Ionization)

CF4 + e => CF3 + F + e (impact dissociation)

To produce chemically reactive

Discharge
fluorine radicals. Then at the
CF4 SiF4
surface:
Si + 4F => SiF4 (gas) F

Silicon

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Reactive Ion Etching

• Three Mechanisms proposed for ion induced chemical

reactions that lead to enhanced etching
– Mauer et al. -- Chemically enhanced physical sputtering: SiFx
radicals of a fluorinated Si surface has an increased sputter
yield versus pure Si surface.
– Flamm and Donnelly -- Damage induced chemical reaction:
lattice damage induced by ion bombardment causes the reaction
rate of incident gaseous species to be enhanced

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 Reactive Ion Etching

– Coburn and Winters -- spontaneous versus ion enhanced

etching
spontaneous etching -- 3 dimensional layer growth of volatile thin
film, and subsequent desorption
ion enhanced etching -- ion damaged surface is more reactive,
volatile species ejected from surface due to ion bombardment
XeF2 - Ar+ - Si System

Generate etchant species

Diffusion to Surface
Adsorption (Surface Damage -- higher reactivity)
Reaction (Increase Temp)
By-product Desorption (Ion Collisions)
Diffusion of By-product to Bulk Gas

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Silicon Etching
CF4 is Freon 14 F/C ratio is 4
CF4 + e- --> CF3 + F + e-
F radicals adsorb on silicon surface; SiF4 desorbs
CF3 radicals also adsorb
CF3 + F --> CF4 desorbs
The presence of carbon on the surface reduces the
amount of fluorine available to etch silicon. Carbon will
leave the surface by combining with F reducing fluorine,
carbon can remain on the surface forming C-F polymers
which in turn inhibits etching. High F/C ratio favors
etching.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Dry Etching Chemistries
• Si materials (Si, SiO2, Si3N4) etch in Fluorine Chemistries (SiF2 and SiF4
volatile species)
• Fluorine-to-Carbon Ratio Model
– Silicon etch rate

H2 additions O2 additions
C2F4 C4F10 C2F6 CF4
200 eV
Ion Bombardment Energy

Etching

Polymer
Formation

0
1 2 3 4 5
Fluorine-to-Carbon Ratio (F/C)
Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Polymer Formation

It is known that flourocarbon gases such as CHF3, CF4, C3F8 etc. produce unsaturated
compounds in the plasma, leading to polymer formation and deposition on the wafer surface and
electrodes. Polymer formation and the boundary between polymerization and etching
conditions depend upon the fluorine to carbon (F/C) ratio. Addition of oxygen to the plasma
chemistry increases F/C ratio and reduces polymer formation. The addition of oxygen,
unfortunately also increases the removal rate of photoresists. Energetic ion bombardment will
shift the polymerization-etching boundary to lower F/C ratios.

PROBLEMS WITH POLYMERS:

Deposits can form on all surfaces of the chamber, affecting reproducibility of the etch process.
Polymers are a source of particulate contamination.
Cleaning of chambers must be performed regularly in order to prevent build up. This represents
reduced up-time.

ADVANTAGES OF POLYMERS:
Properly controlled polymer deposition can allow anisotropic etching with otherwise purely
chemical isotropic etch chemistries.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Added Gases

Hydrogen - reduces fluorine concentration by combination to form HF

Oxygen - Increases fluorine concentration by combining with carbon

(CO, CO2) which would otherwise bond to fluorine (reacts with CF3 to
liberate F)

Argon - Inert (heavy) gas which can be added to ion enhance the
etching process (I.e. reactive ion etch). Because it is inert, this does
not effect the chemistry of the plasma.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

• Adding O2 can increase etch rate if Si (ie increases F/C ratio by reacting
Si - SiO Selectivity
with Carbon. By decreasing the carbon content, the oxide etch rate
2 the Si etch selectivity over oxide.
decreases and subsequently increases
• Addition of H2 decreases the effective F/C ratio (by reacting with F to form
HF). This decreases the formation of SiF4 and subsequently decreases the
etch rate of both Si and SiO2.
– The lower F/C ratio will enhance polymerization on silicon surfaces and inhibit
etching.
– On SiO2 surfaces, the presence of O2 in the film locally reacts with C (to form
CO and CO2) and minimizes polymerization.
– Subsequently the Si etch rate decreases, relative to the SiO2 etch rate which
improves the selectivity of SiO2 versus Si.

Gas C:F Ratio SiO2:Si Selectivity

CF4 1:4 1:1
C2F6 1:3 3:1
C3F8 1:2.7 5:1
CHF3 1:2 10:1
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 Etch Rates vs Added Gas Concentration

Relative Etch Rate Etch Rate nm/min

Pressure 25 mTorr
1.0 100 Flow Rate 40 sccm
Poly
0.8 80
Resist
0.6 60
SiO2
0.4 40
Poly
0.2 20

10 20 30 40 50% 10 20 30 40 50%
Percent O2 Percent H2 in CF4 + H2
Mixtures
Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Polymer Formation

It is known that flourocarbon gases such as CHF3, CF4, C3F8 etc. product unsaturated
compounds in the plasma, leading to polymer formation and deposition on the wafer surface and
electrodes. Polymer formation and the boundary between polymerization and etching
conditions depend upon the fluorine to carbon (F/C) ratio. Addition of oxygen to the plasma
chemistry increases F/C ratio and reduces polymer formation. The addition of oxygen,
unfortunately also increases the removal rate of photoresists. Energetic ion bombardment will
shift the polymerization-etching boundary to lower F/C ratios.

PROBLEMS WITH POLYMERS:

Deposits cam form on all surfaces of the chamber, affecting reproducibility of the etch process.
Polymers are a source of particulate contamination.
Cleaning of chambers must be performed regularly in order to prevent build up. This represents
reduced up-time.

ADVANTAGES OF POLYMERS:
Properly controlled polymer deposition can allow anisotropic etching with otherwise purely
chemical isotropic etch chemistries.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Silicon Dioxide Etching Mechanism

C3 and F radicals adsorb. C bonds with oxygen at the surface F bonds

with Si. By-products are CO, CO2, COF2, SiF4. The addition of H2
removes F from the system by forming stable HF gas. Addition of H2
therefore decreases the effective F/C ratio and increases selectivity of
SiO2 with respect to silicon. As H2 is increased, it begins to consume
fluorine H + F = HF This slows the formation of SiF4 and slows the
removal of Silicon. Polymerization will be promoted on all surfaces,
which tends to inhibit etching. On horizontal surfaces however, ionic
bombardment provides enough energy cause the carbon/hydrogen to
combine with surface oxygen. Released CO and H2O expose the
surface silicon which is removed by combining with released fluorine
radicals. Silicon will not be etched because of the absence of oxygen
at the surface.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Commercial Etching Processes

Material Kind of Gas Plasma Remark

Si CF4, CF4 + O2, CCl2F2
poly-Si CF4, CF4 + O2, SF6 + O2, CF4 + N2 doped or undoped
SiO2 CF4, CF4 + H2, HF* *selective
CCl2F2, C3F8**, C2F6 + H2** **diode system
Si3N4 CF4, CF4 + O2
Mo CF4, CF4 + O2
W CF4, CF4 + O2
Au C2Cl2F4
Pt CF4 + O2, C2Cl2F4 + O2, C2Cl3F3 + O2
Ti CF4
Ta CF4
Cr Cl2, CCl4, CCl4 + Air evaporate or sputter
Cr2O3 Cl2 + Ar, CCl4 + Ar oxidation method
Al CCl4, CCl4 + Ar, BCl3
Al2O3 CCl4, CCl4 + Ar, BCl3
GaAs CCl2F2

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 Ion-assisted Anisotropic Etching

Two mechanisms are proposed to explain the phenomenon of ion assisted anisotropy.
Anisotropic etching is believed to result from a combination of physical and chemical
removal processes. The ratio of vertical etch rate to horizontal etch rate may be increased
either by reducing the horizontal rate or by increasing the vertical rate.

ION INDUCED DAMAGE MECHANISM:

In this model, bombarding ions have sufficient energy to break crystal bonds, making the
film more accessible and the surface more reactive to the active chemical etchants. At the
sidewalls, where there is little ion bombardment, the etching process proceeds at the
nominal chemical etch rates.

SURFACE INHIBITOR MECHANISM:

In some etch chemistries, the surface exposed to the plasma is likely to become coated with
a chemisorbed film of etchant radicals and unsaturated species, which polymerize and
adhere tenaciously to the material being etched. The resulting polymer coating inhibits the
chemical reactions necessary to etch. Ion bombardment can cause the polymers to desorb,
exposing horizontal surfaces to the etching gas. Vertical surfaces experience little or no
bombardment, therefore etching in the horizontal direction can be completely
blocked.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Ion-assisted Anisotropic Etching

SURFACE DAMAGE SURFACE INHIBITOR

Ions Ions
Photoresist Photoresist

Damage Polymer

speeds chemical reaction slows chemical reaction

on horizontal surfaces. on vertical surfaces.

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 Aluminum Etching

Special Problems:

1. Aluminum is not etched by fluorine, because AlF3 is not

volatile. Chlorine or bromine are used, which are highly
corrosive to equipment.
2. AlCl3, the etch product, is highly corrosive to the remaining
aluminum film, and must be removed quickly after plasma
etching.
3. Native aluminum oxide is an etch resistant barrier, which is
removed by Hydrogen plasma reduction and/or by sputtering by
bombardment with Argon at high energies.
4. Aluminum often has a few percent of Silicon or Copper.
Silicon is removed by the Chlorine, Copper is not and requires a
special process.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Copper Etching

Special problems:
1. Copper does not form any volatile compounds with known plasma etch
gases, and therefore cannot be RIE etched.
2. Copper can be sputter etched, but this technique has no selectivity.
3. Contamination of the fab with copper is serious concern.

The Damascene process has become an attractive enabling method for

patterning copper by CMP.

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Dry Etching Parameter Space
• Adjustable System Parameters
– Reactor
– Material of Chamber Walls
– Material of Electrodes
– Geometry (grounded versus powered electrode area)
– Platform Temperature
– Geometry of Gas Flow
– Pumping Speed
– Power
– Frequency
– Gas Supply
– Composition
– Flow rate
– Pressure
– Residence Time

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Dry Etching Parameter Space

• Observable Wafer Parameters

– Uniformity
– Etch Rate
– Selectivity (mask and underlying film)
– Loading Effect
– Profile (ie side-wall angle)
– Temperature of Substrate Surface
– Damage
– Contamination

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 Uniformity

• Gas Flow Uniformity over Wafer

• Etch product formation/Flow rate of etch gas ≥ 0.1
– example 3 inch Si wafer at 500A/min in CF4 plasma:
etch product = 5e19 SiF4/minute (2sccm)
Minimun CF4 flow rate = 20sccm
• Residence Time (τ)
– τ = (VP)/(760F)
where V=volume of the reactor (cm3), P=steady state pressure
(torr), F=flow rate (sccm)
• Dissociation Rate of Reactive Species (D)
– ~5x the total ion current
example ion current = 0.1mA, D = 5e15 molecules/(cm2-s)

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

• Electrode interactions
– Non-uniform etchant speciesUniformity
electrode reaction < wafer reaction
electrode reaction > wafer reaction
– Re-deposition of involatile by-product
– Electrical
impedance variations
secondary electron coefficient
differences
– Edge effects
sheath thickness
enhanced sputtering
– Temperature variations (poor local
contact)

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 Loading and Selectivity

• “Loading effects” -- etch rate depends on the surface

area of the material to be etched
• Selectivity
– Carbon Blocking -- SiO2/Si system (F/C ratio model)
– Volatility -- mask or underlying layer does not form volatile
etch product (ie resist ashing in O2 does not ethc Si, SiO2, Al
etc., Si and SiO2 etching in Fluorine chemistry does not etch Al)
– Thermodynamics -- compare free energies for reactions (large
negative ∆H usually etches much faster than positive ∆H)

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Contamination and Damage

• Sputtering
– Cathode -- energetic bombardment at cathode can deposit
cathode material on substrate (coat electrode with SiO2 or
teflon)
– Vacuum chamber -- metals such as Fe, Ni, Cr, Al, Cu and Zn
can degrade devices (leakage or deep level traps)
– Carbon Implantation

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Contamination and Damage
• Polymeric Residues
– C/F model for polymerization
versus etching

• Radiation Damage
– Energetic ions, photons and
electrons
dielectric leakage
SiO2/Si fixed and mobile charge
Interface state build-up

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Planar Parallel Plate Plasma Etcher

» RF WATER COOLING ELECTRODE

WAFERS

WAFER
COOLING

FLOW CONTROLS
PRESSURE
GAUGE

COLD TRAP

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 Downstream etchers
Plasma is formed in a cavity which is separated from the etching
chamber. Wafers are shielded from bombardment. Only radicals
reach wafers. Etching is completely chemical and isotropic
High selectivity achievable; Si:SiO2 = 50:1 Plasma may be
generated by RF or by microwave

Gas
Etch
Plasma RF Chamber
Power

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

Advanced Plasma Systems

Submicron features may require unusually low pressures for

acceptable etching. Conventional plasma systems etch very slowly
because of the low plasma density. Advanced systems utilize various
techniques to increase the plasma density at low pressures.

Techniques to increase plasma density:

Magnetic field to confine electrons
Microwave excitation of electrons
Downstream system to control ion energy
Examples:
Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR)
Magnetically Enhanced RIE (MERIE)
Reactive Ion Beam Etching (RIBE)

Philip D. Rack University of Tennessee

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 References

1. McGuire, Gary E, Semiconductor Materials and Process Technology

Handbook, Chap. 5. “Plasma Processing” and Chap. 6, “Physical Vapor
Deposition”, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1988.
2. Wolf, S. and Tauber, R.N., Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era, Vol 1,
Chap. 10, “Physical Vapor Deposition”, and Chap. 16, “Dry Etching for
VLSI”, Lattice Press, Sunset Beach, CA, 1986.
3. Chapman, Brian, Glow Discharge Processes, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1980.
4. Morgan, Russ, Plasma Etching in Semiconductor Fabrication,
Elsevier Press, New York, 1985.
5. Manos, D. and Flamm, D. eds., Plasma Etching, and Introduction,
Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1989.

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