Pesticides – are compounds used to control pest (the Latin word cida means to cut or kill).

It could be
any substance used for killing, preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.

CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES

I. According to type of pests they control:

Insecticide - Insects
Fungicide - Fungi
Bactericide - Bacteria
Nematicide - Nematodes
Acaricide/Miticide - Mites, Ticks, and Spiders
Rodenticide - Rodents such as rats and mice
Termiticide - Termites and Ants
Algicide - Algae
Avicide - Birds
Molluscicide - Molluscs such as slugs and snails
Piscicide - Fish
Arboricide/Sivicide - Trees, Brush, and Shrubs
Herbicide - Weeds

II. According to effect on pests:

Anti-feedant - inhibits feeding while insects while insects remain on the treated
plant; the insects eventually starve to death
Attractant - lures pests to treated location, e.g. sex attractants
Anti-transpirant - reduces transpiration
Chemosterilant - destroys a pest’s ability to reproduce
Defoliant - removes unwanted plant growth without immediately killing the
whole plant
Desiccant - dries up plant parts and insects
Disinfectant - destroys or inactivates harmful organisms
Feeding stimulant - causes insects to feed more vigorously
Growth regulator - stops, speeds up or retards growth processes of plants or insects
Repellent - drives pests away from treated object without killing them
Semiochemicals - pheromones allomones and kairomones; substances emitted by plants
or animals, which stimulate or inhibit certain behavioural activities
of insects
Synergist - enhances the effectiveness of an active agent

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III. Classification by chemical nature:

Inorganic compounds – derived from naturally occurring elements and do not contain carbon. They are
stable, non-volatile chemicals frequently soluble in water. Most are persistent containing
cumulative poisons such as arsenic, cyanide, mercury and thallium. [Fungicide, Insecticide]
Examples are:
boric acid copper oxychloride sodium arsenite sodium fluoaluminate
copper hydroxide mercurious chloride sodium chlorate thallium sulphate
copper sulfate mercuric oxide sodium fluoride silica aerogel

Organic compounds – man-made or extracted pesticides consisting of carbon, hydrogen and one or more
other elements such as chlorine, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus and nitrogen.

Botanicals – “natural insecticides”, toxicants that have been derived from plant materials. Examples are:
Neem extract (Neem tree leaves and seeds)
Nicotine (Tobacco leaves)
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum flowers)
Scilliroside (Urginea/Scilla maritime) [Rodenticide]
Rotenone (Bean legumes roots) [Piscicide]

Organochlorine compounds – “chlorinated hydrocarbons” or “chlorinated insecticides”, are synthetic

organic insecticides that contain carbon, chlorine, hydrogen and sometimes oxygen.
Diphenyl aliphatics (DDT)
Benzene derivatives (benzene hexachloride, BHC)
Cyclodienes (endosulfan)
Polychloroterpenes (camphechlor/toxaphene)

Organophosporus insecticides – “organophosphates” or “phosphorus esters”, are all esters of phosphoric

acid. Phosphorus esters have distinctive combinations of oxygen, carbon, sulphur and nitrogen attached to
the phosphorus atom.
Aliphatic organophosphates (malathion)
Phenyl organophosphates (methyl parathion)
Hetrocyclic organophosphates (phosmet)

Organosulphur compounds – contain a dominant sulphur atom and commonly two phenyl rings.
[Acaricide]
ovex, propagate, tetradifon

Carbamates – esters of carbamic acid, resemble closely the organophosphates in biological activity.
They generally have short residual activity and a very broad effectivity.
[Insecticide, Acaricide, Nematicide, Molluscicide]
Methyl carbamates with phenyl-ring structure (carbaryl)
Methyl carbamates and dimethyl carbamates with heterocyclic structure (carbofuran)
Methyl carbamates of oximes having a chain structure (aldicarb)

Formamidines – from a class of insecticide-acaricide having a characteristics nitrogen structure.

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 amitraz, formetanate, chlordimeform (restricted use)

Dinitrophenols – are derivatives of phenols with two nitro (NO2)-radicals attached.

binapacryl, dinobuton, dinocap, dinoterbon

Organotins – are tin-based organic compounds which generally exhibit miticidal as well as fungicidal
activity
cyhexatin, fenbutatin-oxide

Pyrethroids - are synthetic compounds, the chemical structure of which is patterned after pyrethrins.
allethrin, bioesmethrin, phenothrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, fenpropathrin

Fumigants – are substances or a mixture of them which produce gas, vapour, fumes or smoke, often
contain halogen radicals (Cl-, Br- or F-) [Insecticide, Nematicide, Bactericide, Rodenticide]
chloropicrin, formaldehyde, methyl bromide, naphthalene, phosphine, ethylene dibromide

Petrolium oils – “mineral oils”, used as insecticides and miticides.

actipan, fyzol

Antibiotics – chemical substances produced by microorganisms and having bactericidal and fungicidal
activity
Penicillin (Penicillium sp.)
Abamectin (Streptomyces sp.)

IV. Classification by mode of action

Stomach toxicants –generally enter a pest’s body through the mouth during feeding (ingestion) and are
absorbed through the digestive tract.

Contact toxicants – generally penetrate a pest’s body as a result of contact with the legs or other external
portions and treated surfaces such as sprayed leaves.

Systemic toxicants – move through the plant’s vascular system to other untreated parts from where insects
acquire the translocated insecticide during feeding.

Fumigants –are volatile and enter a pest’ body through the respiratory system and kill at lethal
concentration

Suffocating materials – usually oils, clog the respiratory mechanism of pests.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGICIDES

I. By chemical nature

Inorganic fungicides
Sulphur (Elosal, Kumulus S, Thiovit)

Copper fungicides
Bordeux mixture (copper sulphate and hydrated lime)
Copper oxychloride

Organic fungicides
Dithiocarbamates (Thiram, Mancozeb, Ziram)

Organometallic compounds
Mercury fungicides (no longer available)
Organocopper compounds (Copper 8-quinolinate, Cuprobam)
Organotin compounds (Fentin acetate, Fentin chloride)
Subtituted aromatics (Dicloran, Pentachlonitrobenzene (PCNB), Etridiazole)
Dicarboximides (Chlozolinate, Iprodione, Metomeclan)
Phtalamides (Captafol, Captan, Diclofluanid)
Dinitrophenol fungicides (Binapacryl, Dinocap)
Triazines (Anilazine)

Systemic fungicides
Oxathiins (Carboxin, Furmecyclox, Methfuroxam)
Benzimidazoles and Thiophanates (Benomyl, Fuberidazol, Thiabendazol)
Pyrimidines (Bupirimate, Dimethirimol, Ethirimol)
Acelalanines (Furalaxyl, Metalaxyl)
Ergosterol biosynthesis inhinitors (EBIs)
Imidazoles (Fenapanil, Imazil)
Piperazine, pyridine- and pyrimidine compounds (Buthiobate, Feranimol)
Morpholins (Aldimorph, Dodemorph)
Triazoles (Bitertanol, Etaconazole)
Organophosphates (Inezin, Toclofos-methyl)
Phenylamides and other fungicides against Omycetes
Phenylamides (Benalaxyl, Metalaxil)
Others, including carbamates (Cymoxanil, Fosetyl)
2-Aminopyrimidines (Bupirimate, Dimethirimol)
Quinones (Benodanil, Chloranil)

Other organic compounds

Dazomet, Pencycuron, Etridiazol, Guazatin

Antibiotics
Streptomycin, Cycloheximide (Streptomyces griseus)

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 Abamectin (S. avermitilus)
Blasticidin-S (S. griseochromogenes)
Kasugamycin (S. kasugaenis)
Polyoxins (S. cacaoi)

II. By mode of action

Protectant fungicides – do not penetrate into plants, instead, when applied as spray, dust or slurry, provide
a film of fungicide over the surface of plants and seeds that kill fungal spores upon germination.
Copper fungicides: Captan and Maneb

Curative or Eradicant fungicides – kill a fungus which has already invaded a plant.
Benomyl, Dichlone, Metalaxyl, Propicinazol, Triadimefon, Fenpropimorph)

Systemic fungicides – absorbed by the foliage or roots and are transported over long distances within the
plant.
Benomyl, Fuberidazol, Triadimerol

CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES

I. By chemical nature

Inorganic herbicides
ammonium sulphamate, sodium borate, sulphuric acid, sodium chlorate

Organic herbicides
Arsenicals: disodium methanearsonate, DSMA; monosodium methanearsonate, MSMA)

Phenoxy aliphatic acid

2,4-D dichlorprop (2,4-DP)
2,4,5-T fenoprop (2,4,5-TP)
MCPA mecoprop (MCPP)

Substituted amides
Amides (diphenamid, propyzamide, quinonamid)
Anilides (alachlor, propanil, perfluidone)

Diphenylethers
nitrofen, lactofen, fluorodifen, bromofenoxim

Dinitroanalines
trifluralin, nitralin, benfluralin, pendimethalin

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Substituted ureas
chlorbromuron, isoproturon, diuron, linuron, fenuron, metoxuron

Carbamates
asulam, chlorpropan, barban, phenmediphan

Thiocarbamates
di-allate, tri-allate, molinate, metham-sodium

Hetrocyclic nitrogens
Triazines (atrazine,cyanazine, simazine, ametryn)
Triazinones (amitrole, bentazone, oxadiazon)
Pyridines (fluoroxypir, pichcloram, triclopyr)
Uracils (bromacil, lenacil, terbacil)
Bipyridilums (diquat, paraquat)

Aliphatic acids
trichloroacetic acid, TCA; dalapon

Phenol derivatives
Dinitrophenols (dinoseb, DNBP; dinoseb-acetate; dinoterb
Chlorinated phenols (pentachlorophenol, PCP or Penta)
Benzonitrilles (bromoxynil, dichlobenil, ioxynil)

II. By mode of action

Selective action – compounds which kill weeds without harming crops.

Non-selective action – when all vegetation is killed.

Contact action – those plant parts are killed to which the herbicide is applied

Systemic action – herbicide is taken up either by the roots or above-ground parts of plants and translocated
throughout the tissues.

Pre-planting: applied after the soil has been prepared but before seeding

Pre-emergence (contact): Non-residual dosages are used after seeding but before emergence of the crop
seedlings

Pre-emergence (residual): Applied at the time of seeding or just prior to crop emergence; the compound
kills weed seeds and germinating seedlings

Post-emergence: Application after emergence of the crop

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CLASSIFICATION OF BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL AGENTS

I. Biochemical pest control agents

a. Semiochemicals
Pheromones: substances emitted by members of one species which modify the behaviour of others
within the same species. (a) sex attractants, excreted by abdominal glands of the female to attract males
for the purpose of mating; common among moths and butterflies (b)Aggregation pheromones, produced
by one or both sexes together for feeding and reproduction, common among beetles.
Allomones: chemicals emitted by one species which modify the behaviour of different species to
the benefit of the emitting species. Many plants produce secondary substances that repulse insects and
prevent them from feeding. The oil of Citronella grass has long been used by man as an insect-repellent
applied to skin.
Kairomones: chemicals emitted by an animal organism which, at very low concentration, modify
the behaviour of individuals of a different species to the disadvantage of the emitting and the benefit of the
receptor species. For instance, an animal parasitoid may be guided by it in finding a host. Kairomones,
like pheromones, can be used to attract insects to traps for the purpose of monitoring or catching them.

b. Hormones
Molting hormones or ecdysteroids
Juvenile hormones: Juvenoids or IGRs, prevent insects to become adult
Diflubenzuron- against Lepidoptera, Diptera, mosquitoes
Fenoxycarb- fruit teee leafroller, fire ants
Pro-drone- fire ants
Methoprene- flies, fleas, mosquitoes, pharaoh ants, stored food pests and tobacco
pests
Kinoprene- homopterous pests in greenhouses
Hydroprene- cockroaches
c. Natural plant regulators
Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid
d. Enzymes

II. Microbial pest control agents

a. Bacteria
Bacillus thuringiensis, Bt: bactospeine, thuricide, dipel, bactimos, tekmar: against
Lepidoptera, Diptera, Homoptera and Coeleoptera
Bacillus sphaericus: against larvae of mosquitoes
Bacillus subtilis: against soil-borne pathogens, Aspergillus, & Alternaria
b. Fungi
Beauveria bassia: against weevil
Metarhizium, anisopliae: termites, thrips, mosquitoes
Verticilium lecanii (mycotal): aphids scales, thrips and red spider mites, glasshouse whitefly
Hirsutella thompsoni: citrus rust mite and spider mites
Paecilomyces lilacinus: nematodes

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c. Virus
Baculoviruses (Nuclear polyhedrosis virus): caterpillars (cotton bollworm and tobacco budworm)
d. Nematodes
– Transmit pathogenic bacteria that kill insects
Steinernema (Biosafe) & Heterorhabditis: against soil insects
Neoplectana carpocapsae: termites

PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS AND THEIR CODES

Group I: Concentrates for dilution with water

DC - Dispersible concentrate
EC - Emulsifiable concentrate
SC - Suspension concentrate (flowable concentrate)
CG - Encapsulated granule
CS - Capsule suspension
SL - Soluble concentrate
SP - Water soluble powder
SG - Water soluble granules
WP - Wettable powder
WG - Water dispersable granules

Group 2: Concentrates for dilution with organic solvents

OL - Oil miscible liquid
OF - Oil miscible flowable concentrate (oil miscible suspension)
OP - Oil dispensable powder

Group 3: Formulations to be applied undiluted

GR - Granules
DP - Dustable powder (dusts)
UL - Ultra low volume (ULV) liquid
ED - Electrochargeable liquid

Group 4: Miscellaneous formulations for special purposes

RB - Bait (ready for use)
GE - Gas generating product
FU - Smoke generator
HN - Hot fogging concentrate
KN - Cold fogging concentrate
AE - Aerosol dispenser

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  Liquid and wettable powder formulations are applied with the help of knapsack sprayer by using
flat-fan nozzle or impact nozzles otherwise known as deflected nozzles or flooded nozzles
 The application is usually made at low pressures ranging 15-25 psi to avoid drift. To be more
careful, a protective shield may be fixed over the nozzle.
 Granular formulations are usually broadcasted by mixing with sand for obtaining even distribution.
 Sometimes when the sprayer is not readily available, the liquid formulations at the rate of 1L is
mixed with 20-25 kg of sand and broadcasted uniformly by maintaining 2 cm layer of water

CALIBRATING HAND-OPERATED SPAYERS

For sprayer having a relatively small spray tank capacity, such as the 2 to 5 gal size commonly
carried by hand on the shoulder, or a backpack. To properly calibrate such sprayer, they must be
equipped with a pressure regulation valve located between the spray tank and the nozzle outlet so
that a constant sprayer output is maintained.

Procedure:
1. Pour a known volume of water into the spray tank.
2. Close spray tank and pump up pressure.
3. At constant pressure and uniform speed, spray a known area.
4. Determine the sprayer output for the area by subtracting the amount of water remaining in the
spray tank from the amount originally poured in the tank.
5. Sprayer output for a given area may be adjusted by changing the pace or the nozzle orifice size or
both. Generally the spray pressure remains set at about 25 psi.
6. If necessary, the sprayer output can be expressed as gal/A by dividing the area A (43,560 ft2) by the
area sprayed (ft2). Multiply this value by the volume of water applied per area and conversion of
gallons.
o 1 gal = 128 fl oz = 3,785 ml
o 1 fl oz = 29.57 ml

For sprayer equipped with any type of spray nozzle designed to cover uniformly a given area with
spray mixture, at constant speed and spray pressure.

Procedure:
1. Fill the spray tank completely with water.
2. Select a safe speed (use between 2 and 5 mph) for the terrain to be sprayed and use this speed
during calibrations.
3. Make off any convenient distance. Generally, the greater the distance the greater is the accuracy in
determining sprayer output.
4. Make one or more passes with the spray over the measured distance at the selected speed
operation. Spray only over measured distance.
5. Determine the volume of water applied to the area by refilling the spray tank to its original water
level and carefully note the number of fluid ounces required.

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 6. Calculate the area sprayed by multiplying the width of the area sprayed by the distance travelled
measured in feet.
7. Divide the number of square feet per area (43,560 ft2) by the number of square feet in the area
sprayed to obtain the number of such plots per area.
8. Multiply the number of plots per area by the number of fluid ounces applied per area.
9. Divide the total number of fluid ounces of water applied per area by the number of fluid ounces in
1 gal (128 fl oz) to obtain the sprayer output expressed in gal/A.

CALIBRATING MACHINE-OPERATED SPAYERS

Proper sprayer calibration is essential to the application of the correct amount of herbicide. The
volume of carrier applied by sprayer is governed by 5 factors as follows:
o Speed of the sprayer and the area to be sprayed
o Spray pressure used
o Number of nozzles used
o Size of the nozzle orifice opening
o Viscosity of the liquid

 Increasing the speed of the sprayer over the area sprayed (other factors remaining constant) results
in less carrier applied to the area. Slower speed results in the application of a greater volume of
carrier. The more commonly used speed of ground equipment is between 2 and 5 miles/hr depends
on land.
 With other factors remaining constant, increasing the spray pressure results in a greater volume of
carrier being applied to a given area. Conversely, a lower spray pressure results in less carrier
applied. Generally, spray pressure of 15 to 40 psi is used when applying herbicides.
 With other factors remaining constant, any increase in the number of nozzles used with the sprayer
results in increased sprayer output. Added nozzles however do not necessarily increase the volume
per area applied. They may be spaced nearly to increase the area covered during each of the
sprayer. Similarly, a decrease in the number of nozzles used usually results in a smaller area
sprayed, rather than a change in a volume per area.
 With other factors remaining constant, the use of larger-size orifice nozzle tips results in a greater
volume of carrier being applied to a given area. Smaller size orifice tips will deliver a smaller
volume of carrier.
 With other factors remaining constant, the viscosity of the liquid carrier the greater the volume of
carrier (or spray mixture) applied to a given area. The greater the viscosity the less applied.
 The most practical means of changing sprayer output during calibration is to change speed or
nozzle orifice size or both.
 When adjusting sprayer output during calibration, bear in mind that spray droplets become smaller
as the spray pressure is increased or nozzle orifice size is decreased. The smaller the spray droplet,
the greater is their tendency to drift from the target area with air movement.
 For uniform spray covers, proper nozzle tips must be used and the nozzle spacing must be adjusted
properly for the land involved. Nozzle tips of the same orifice size must be used in all nozzles of
the spray boom, otherwise, sprayer output will not be uniform.

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CALCULATIONS FOR PESTICIDE APPLICATION

In general, the first steps in the procedure for calculating herbicide dosage are to be known.
o Which herbicide(s) to use for best results under your particular set of conditions
o What the recommended dosage for the herbicide
o How much herbicide active ingredient (a.i.) present in a given quantity of the commercial product
to be used.

Before calculations can be made, the following four factors must be known:
1. The recommended rate (kg or liters) of active ingredient(s) per hectare or percent spray
concentration to be applied.
2. Amount of spray liquid per hectare when applying sprays
3. The percent active ingredient of the herbicide in the commercial formulation.
4. Area in hectares to be treated.

The following general formulas may be used for solving herbicide:

For foliar spraying:

Example applies for an EC formulation –
Given: Recommended concentration is 0.04 percent
320 liters per ha of spray liquid is desired
EC formulation contains 45 percent active ingredient
Area to be treated is 0.5 ha (5,000 m2)

Problem: How many liters of the commercial formulation are required to treat the 0.5 ha?
Solution:

First compute the total spray volume in liters needed to treat the area:
320 liters/ha x 0.5 ha = 160 liters

Then use this formula:

Liters of commercial formulation = Amount of spray required x percent spray concentration
Percent active ingredient
= 160 x 0.04 = 0.142 L
45

The amount of formulation needed per sprayer load, if one is going to use an 8-liter sprayer:
Amount of formulation per sprayer load = Liters of commercial formulation x capacity of sprayer (L)
Amount of spray required (L)
= 0.142 x 8 = 0.007 L (or 7 ml)
160

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Example involving WP formulation –
Given: The recommended rate is 0.75 kg a.i./ha
Volume of spray solution is 320 L/ha (10,000 m2)
The WP formulation contains 70% a.i.
Area to be treated is 0.5 ha (5,000 m2)

Problem: How many kg of the commercial formulation are required to treat the 0.5 ha area?

Answer:
Kg of commercial formulation required = Recommended rate (kg a.i./ ha) x Area to be treated (ha) x 100
Percent of active ingredient(s) in the commercial formulation
= 0.75 x 0.5 x 100 = 0.536 kg
70
Amount of formulation sprayer load = kg of commercial formulation x capacity of sprayer (L)
Amount of spray required (L)
= 0.536 x 8 (as above) = 0.027 kg (or 27 g)
160

For field application:

Example for Granular formulation –
Given: Recommended rate is 0.6 kg a.i./ha
Area to be treated is 2 ha
Percent of active ingredient is 3%

Problem: How many kg of commercial formulation are needed to treat 2 ha area?

Answer:
Commercial formulation (kg) = Recommended rate (kg a.i./ha) x Area to be treated (ha) x 100
Percent a.i. in commercial formulation
= 0.6 x 2 x 100 = 40 kg
3

For seedbed application:

Given: Recommended rate is 1.0 kg a.i./ha
Area to be treated is 10 x 5 meters
Percent active ingredient is 3% (Furadan)
Two applications are required at 10-day intervals

Problem: How many kg should you buy if you want to treat the nursery bed twice?
Answer:
The number of kg required for one application must be determined. Using the same formula as in the
previous problem:

Kg of commercial formulation required = 1 x 10 x5 x 100 = 0.167 kg

__10,000_____
3

Since two applications are required, 0.167 kg must be multiplied by 2. Thus, 0.334 kg or 334 g of the
commercial formulation are required to treat the nursery twice.

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TIMING OF APPLICATION OF PESTICIDES

The following factors should be considered to determine the timing of application:

 The stage of development of the pest(s)
 The growth stage of the crop (especially herbicides)
 The stage of development of their natural enemies
 The severity of the damage or infestation
 The type of weather and time of the day
 The possible damage to beneficial insects (bees, etc.)
 The pre-harvest interval (safety period)

SIGNIFICANCE OF SYMBOLS ON THE PESTICIDES LABEL

Toxicity Actual-oral Color of Signal word Warning symbol

Category toxicity, LD50 Triangle required on label on the label
mg/kg
Extremely toxic 0 - 50 Red Poison Skull and
Cross bones
Highly toxic 51- 500 Yellow Poison -

Moderately toxic 501 - 5000 Blue Danger -

Slightly toxic 5000 Green Caution -

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