DATA MINING AND DATA WARE HOUSING (15CS651) VI SEM CSE

MODULE-3

Data Mining Association Analysis: Basic Concepts and Algorithms

Association Rule Mining

Given a set of transactions, find rules that will predict the occurrence of an item based on the
occurrences of other items in the transaction

Market-Basket transactions

TID Items
1 Bread, Milk
2 Bread, Diaper, Beer, Eggs
3 Milk, Diaper, Beer, Coke
4 Bread, Milk, Diaper, Beer
5 Bread, Milk, Diaper, Coke
Example of Association Rules

{Diaper}  {Beer},
{Milk, Bread}  {Eggs, Coke},
{Beer, Bread}  {Milk},

Definition: Item Set and support count

Item set and Support Count Let I = {i1, i2,.id} be the set of all items in a market basket data and
T: {t1, t2, -, tN} be the set of all transactions. Each transaction ti contains a subset of items
chosen from I

In association analysis, a collection of zero or more items is termed an item set.

If an item set contains k- items, it is called a k-item set

Example: {Milk, Bread, Diaper}

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Rule Evaluation Metrics:

Support count ()

– Frequency of occurrence of an item set

– E.g. ({Milk, Bread, Diaper}) = 2

Support(s)

– Fraction of transactions that contain an item set

– E.g. s({Milk, Bread, Diaper}) = 2/5

Frequent Item set

– An item set whose support is greater than or equal to a minsup threshold

Example:

{Milk , Diaper } Beer

 (Milk, Diaper, Beer)  2  0.4

s
| T| 5
 (Milk, Diaper, Beer)  2  0.67
c
 (Milk, Diaper) 3
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Association Rule Mining Task

Given a set of transactions T, the goal of association rule mining is to find all rules having

– support ≥ minsupthreshold

– confidence ≥ minconfthreshold

Brute-force approach:

– List all possible association rules

– Compute the support and confidence for each rule

– Prune rules that fail the minsup and minconf thresholds

 Computationally prohibitive!

More specifically, the total number of possible rules extracted from a data set that contains d items is

Even for the small data set with 6 items, this approach requires us to compute the support and
confidence for 36 - 27 + 1 = 602 rules.

More than 80% of the rules are discarded after applying minsup : 20Vo andminconf : 5070, thus
making most of the computations become wasted.

To avoid performing needless computations, it would be useful to prune the rules early without
having to compute their support and confidence values
TID Items
1 Bread, Milk
2 Bread, Diaper, Beer, Eggs
3 Milk, Diaper, Beer, Coke
4 Bread, Milk, Diaper, Beer
5 Bread, Milk, Diaper, Coke
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If the itemset is infrequent, then all six candidate rules can be pruned immediately without
our having to compute their confidence values.
Therefore, a common strategy adopted by many association rule mining algorithms is
to decompose the problem into two major subtasks:

1. Frequent Itemset Generation

– Generate all itemsets whose support minsup
2. Rule Generation
– Generate high confidence rules from each frequent itemset, where each
rule is a binary partitioning of a frequent itemset

Frequent itemset generation is still computationally expensive.

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Frequent Itemset Generation:

A lattice structure can be used to enumerate the list of all possible item sets.
Figure 6.1 shows an itemset lattice for 1: {a,b,c.,d,e}.In general, a data set that contains k items
can potentially generate up to 2k- 1 frequent itemsets, excluding the null set. Because k can be
very large in many practical applications, the search space of itemsets that need to be explored
is exponentially Large.
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Brute-force approach:
– Each itemset in the lattice is a candidate frequent itemset
– Count the support of each candidate by scanning the database
Such an approach can be very expensive because it requires O(N Mw) comparisons, where N is
the number of transactions, M =2k - 1 is the number of candidate itemsets, and w is the maximum
transaction width.

Transactions List of
Candidates
TID Items
1 Bread, Milk
2 Bread, Diaper, Beer, Eggs
N 3 Milk, Diaper, Beer, Coke M
4 Bread, Milk, Diaper, Beer
5 Bread, Milk, Diaper, Coke
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There are several ways to reduce the computational complexity of frequent itemset generation.

Reduce the number of candidates (M)

– Complete search: M=2d

– Use pruning techniques to reduce M

Reduce the number of transactions (N)

– Reduce size of N as the size of itemset increases

Reduce the number of comparisons (NM)

– Use efficient data structures to store the candidates or transactions

– No need to match every candidate against every transaction

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Apriori principle : Reducing Number of Candidates

Apriory principle: If an itemset is frequent, then all of its subsets must also be frequent
To illustrate the idea behind the Apriory principle, consider the itemset lattice shown in Figure
6.3. Suppose {c, d, e} is a frequent itemset. Clearly, any transaction that contains {c,d,e} must
also contain its subsets, {c,d},{c,e}, {d,e}, {c}, {d}, and {e}. As a result, if {c,d,e} is frequent,
then all subsets of {c, d,e} (i.e., the shaded itemsets in this figure) must also be frequent.
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Conversely, if an itemset such as {a, b} is infrequent, then all of its supersets must be
infrequent too. As illustrated in Figure 6.4, the entire subgraph containing the supersets of {a, b}
can be pruned immediately once {a, b} is found to be infrequent. This strategy of trimming the
exponential search space based on the support measure is known as support-based pruning.

Frequent Itemset Generation in the Apriori Algorithm: Illustration with example.

Figure 6.5 provides a high-level illustration of the frequent item set generation part of the Apriori
algorithm for the transactions shown inTable 6.1. We assume that the support threshold is 60 To,
which is equivalent to a minimum support count equal to 3.
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Initially, every item is considered as a candidate l-itemset. After counting their supports, the
candidate itemsets {Co1a} and {Eggs} are discarded because they appear in fewer than three
transactions.

In the next iteration, candidate 2-itemsets are generated using only the frequent 1-itemsets
because the Apriory principle ensures that all supersets of the infrequent 1-itemsets must be
infrequent.

Because there are only four frequent 1-itemsets, the number of candidate 2-itemsets generated by
the algorithm is 6. Two of these six candidates, {Beer, Bread} and {Beer, Milk}, are
subsequently found to be infrequent after computing their support values. The remaining four
candidates are frequent, and thus will be used to generate candidate 3-itemsets.

Without support-based. Pruning, there are 20 candidate3-itemsets that can be formed using the
six items given in this example. With the Apriory principle, we only need to keep candidate 3-
itemsets whose subsets are frequent. The only candidate that has this property is {Bread, Diapers,
Milk).
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The effectiveness of the Apriory pruning strategy can be shown by counting the number of
candidate itemsets generated.

A brute-force strategy of enumerating all itemsets( up to size3 ) as candidates will produce 41

candidates.

Apriori Algorithm:

Input: set of items I, set of transactions T, number of transactions N, minimum support minsup.
Output: frequent k-itemsets Fk, k=1…
Method:
K=1
 Compute support for each 1-itemset (item) by scanning the transactions
 F1 = items that have support above minsup
 Repeat until no new frequent itemsets are identified
1. Ck+1 = candidate k+1 -itemsets generated from length k frequent
itemsets Fk
2. Compute the support of each candidate in Ck+1 by scanning the
transactions T
3. Fk+1 = Candidates in Ck+1 that have support above minsup.
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Candidate Generation and Pruning

Candidate Generation: This operation generates new candidate kitemsets based on the frequent
(k - l)-itemsets found in the previous iteration.

Candidate Pruning: This operation eliminates some of the candidate k-itemsets using the
support-based pruning strategy.

The folIowing is a list of requirements for an effective candidate generation procedure:

 It should avoid generating too many unnecessary candidates.

 It must ensure that the candidate set is complete, i.e., no frequent itemsets are
left out by the candidate generation procedure.
 It should not generate the same candidate itemset more than once.
e.g. {a,b,c,d} can be generated by merging {a,b,c} with {d}
or {b,d} with {a,c}, {a,b} with {c,d}

Several candidate generation strategies are discussed below.

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Brute-Force Method: The brute-force method considers every k-itemset as a potential candidate
and then applies the candidate pruning step to remove any unnecessary candidates (see Figure

6.6).

Fk-1 x F1 Method:
Combine frequent k-1 –itemsets with frequent 1- itemsets

Figure 6.7 illustrates how a frequent 2-itemset such as {Beer, Diapers} can be augmented with a
frequent item such as Bread to produce a candidate 3-itemset {Beer, Diapers, Bread}.
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Satisfaction of our requirements

1) while many k-itemsets are left ungenerated, can still generate unnecessary candidates
e.g. merging {Beer, Diapers} with {Milk} is unnecessary, since {Beer, Milk} is infrequent.

2) Method is complete: each frequent itemset consists of a frequent k-1 –itemset and a
frequent 1-itemset.

3) Can generate the same set twice

e.g. {Bread, Diapers, Milk} can be generated by merging {Bread,Diapers} with {Milk} or
{Bread,Milk} with {Diapers} or {Diapers, Milk} with {Bread}
This can be circumvented by keeping all frequent itemsets in their lexicographical order (\
- e.g. {Bread,Diapers} can be merged with {Milk} as ‘Milk’ comes after ‘Bread’ and
‘Diapers’ in lexicographical order
- {Diapers, Milk} is not merged with {Bread}, {Bread, Milk} is not merged with
{Diapers} as that would violate the lexicographical ordering
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Fk-1 x Fk-1 Method:

 Combine a frequent k-1 –itemset with another frequent k-1 -itemset

 Items are stored in lexicographical order in the itemset
 When considering for merging, only pairs that share first k-2 items are considered
o e.g. {Bread, Diapers} is merged with {Bread,Milk}
o if the pairs share fewer than k-2 items, the resulting itemset would be larger than
k, so we do not need to generate it yet
 The resulting k-itemset has k subsets of size k-1, which will be checked against support
threshold
o the merging ensures that at least two of the subsets are frequent
o An additional check is made that the remaining k-2 subsets are frequent as well
In Figure 6.8, the frequent itemsets {Bread, Diapers} and {Bread, Milk} are merged to form a
candidate 3-itemset {Bread, Diapers, Milk}.

Satisfaction of our requirements

1) Avoids the generation of many unnecessary candidates that are generated by the Fk-1 x F1
method
e.g. will not generate {Beer, Diapers, Milk} as {Beer,Milk} is infrequent
2. Method is complete: every frequent k-itemset can be formed of two frequent k-1 –itemsets
differing in their last item.
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3. Each candidate itemset is generated only once.

Support counting using hash tree:

Given the candidate itemsets Ck and the set of transactions T, we need to compute the support
counts σ(X) for each itemset X in Ck.
Brute-force algorithm would compare each transaction against each itemset.
 large amount of comparisons.
An alternative approach
Divide the candidate itemsets Ck into buckets by using a hash function for each
transaction t.
Hash the itemsets contained in t into buckets using the same hash function.
Compare the corresponding buckets of candidates and the transaction.
Increment the support counts of each matching candidate itemset.
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A hash tree is used to implement the hash function.

An alternative approach is to enumerate the itemsets contained in each transaction and use them
to update the support counts oftheir respective candidate itemsets. To illustrate, consider a
transaction t that contains five items, {1,2,3,5,6}.

Figure 6.9 shows a systematic way for enumerating the 3-itemsets contained in t. Assuming that
each itemset keeps its items in increasing lexicographic order, an itemset can be enumerated by
specifying the smallest item first, followed by the larger items. For instance, given t : {1,2,3,5,6},
all the 3- itemsets contained in f must begin with item 1, 2, or 3.

Figure 6.11 shows an example of a hash tree structure.

Each internal node of the tree uses the following hash function, h(p) : p mod 3, to determine
which branch of the current node should be followed next.
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For example, items 1, 4, and 7 are hashed to the same branch (i.e., the leftmost branch) because
they have the same remainder after dividing the number by 3.

All candidate itemsets are stored at the leaf nodes of the hash tree. The hash tree shown in
Figure 6.11 contains 15 candidate 3-itemsets, distributed across 9 leaf nodes.

Consider a transaction, t, : {1,2,3,5,6}. To update the support counts of the candidate itemsets,
the hash tree must be traversed in such a way that all the leaf nodes containing candidate 3-
itemsets belonging to t must be visited at least once.

At the root node of the hash tree, the items 1, 2, and 3 of the transaction are hashed separately.
Item 1 is hashed to the left child of the root node, item 2 is hashed to the middle child, and item 3
is hashed to the right child.

At the next level of the tree, the transaction is hashed on the second item listed in the Level 2
structures shown in Figure 6.9.

For example, after hashing on item 1 at the root node, items 2, 3, and 5 of the transaction are
hashed. Items 2 and 5 are hashed to the middle child, while item 3 is hashed to the right child, as
shown in Figure 6.12. This process continues until the leaf nodes of the hash tree are reached.

The candidate item sets stored at the visited leaf nodes are compared against the transaction. If a
candidate is a subset of the transaction, its support count is incremented.

In this example, 5 out of the 9 leaf nodes are visited and 9 out of the 15 item sets are compared
against the transaction.
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Rule Generation
Given a frequent itemset L, find all non-empty subsets f  L such that f  L – f satisfies the
minimum confidence requirement
– If {A,B,C,D} is a frequent itemset, candidate rules:
ABC D, ABD C, ACD B, BCD A,
A BCD, B ACD, C ABD, D ABC
AB CD, AC  BD, AD  BC, BC AD,
BD AC, CD AB,
If |L| = k, then there are 2k – 2 candidate association rules (ignoring L   and   L)

How to efficiently generate rules from frequent itemsets?

– In general, confidence does not have an anti-monotone property
c(ABC D) can be larger or smaller than c(AB D)
– But confidence of rules generated from the same itemset has an anti-monotone
property
e.g., L = {A,B,C,D}:

c(ABC  D)  c(AB  CD)  c(A  BCD)

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 Confidence is anti-monotone w.r.t. number of items on the RHS of the

rule

Candidate rule is generated by merging two rules that share the same prefix
in the rule consequent
join(CD=>AB,BD=>AC) would produce the candidate rule D => ABC
Prune rule D=>ABC if its subset AD=>BC does not have
high confidence

Alternative Methods for Generating Frequent Itemsets

Traversal of Itemset Lattice::A search for frequent itemsets can be conceptually viewed as a
traversal on the itemset lattice.
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The search strategy employed by an algorithm dictates how the lattice structure is traversed
during the frequent itemset generation process. Some search strategies are better than others,
depending on the configuration of frequent itemsets in the lattice.

Equivalence classes : Equivalence Classes can also be defined according to the prefix or suffix
labels of an itemset.

In this case, two itemsets belong to the same equivalence class if they share a common prefix or
suffix of length k. In the prefix-based approach, the algorithm can search for frequent itemsets
starting with the prefix a before looking for those starting with prefixes b, c and so on

Breadth-First versus Depth-First: The Apriori, algorithm traverses the lattice in a breadth-first
manner) as shown in Figure 6.2L(a). It first discovers all the frequent 1-itemsets, followed by the
frequent 2-itemsets, and so on, until no new frequent itemsets are generated.

The algorithm can start from, say, node a, in Figure 6.22, and count its support to determine
whether it is frequent. If so, the algorithm progressively expands the next level of nodes, i.e., ab,
abc, and so on, until an infrequent node is reached, say, abcd. It then backtracks to another
branch, say, abce, and continues the search from there.
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FP-Growth Algorithm
 Apriori: uses a generate-and-test approach – generates candidate itemsets and tests if they
are frequent
– Generation of candidate itemsets is expensive(in both space and time)
– Support counting is expensive
• Subset checking (computationally expensive)
Multiple Database scans
FP-Growth: allows frequent itemset discovery without candidate itemset generation. Two
step approach:
– Step 1: Build a compact data structure called the FP-tree
• Built using 2 passes over the data-set.
– Step 2: Extracts frequent itemsets directly from the FP-tree

Step 1: FP-Tree Construction

FP-Tree is constructed using 2 passes over the data-set:
Pass 1: Scan data and find support for each item.
– Discard infrequent items.
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– Sort frequent items in decreasing order based on their support.

Use this order when building the FP-Tree, so common prefixes can
be shared.

Pass 2:
Nodes correspond to items and have a counter
1. FP-Growth reads 1 transaction at a time and maps it to a path
2. Fixed order is used, so paths can overlap when transactions share items (when they have
the same prfix ).
– In this case, counters are incremented
3. Pointers are maintained between nodes containing the same item, creating singly linked
lists (dotted lines)
– The more paths that overlap, the higher the compression. FP-tree may fit in
memory.
4. Frequent itemsets extracted from the FP-Tree.

Figure 6.24 shows a data set that contains ten transactions and five items.
Initially, the FP-tree contains only the root node represented by the null symbol. The FP-tree is
subsequently extended in the following way:

1. The data set is scanned once to determine the support count of each item. Infrequent items are
discarded, while the frequent items are sorted in decreasing support counts. For the data set
shown in Figure 6.24, a is the most frequent item, followed by b, c, d, and e.

2.The algorithm makes a second pass over the data to construct the FP tree.
After reading the first transaction, {a,b), the nodes labeled as a and b are created. A path is then
formed from nulI ,a, b to encode the transaction. Every node along the path has a frequency
count of 1.
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3. After reading the second transaction, {b,c,d}, a new set of nodes is created for items b, c, and
d. A path is then formed to represent the transaction by connecting the nodes null ,b,c, d. Every
node along this path also has a frequency count equal to one. Although the first two transactions
have an item in common, which is b, their paths are disjoint because the transactions do not share
a common prefix.

The third transaction, {a,c,d,e}, shares a common prefix item (which is a) with the first
transaction. As a result, the path for the third transaction null , a,c,d, e, overlaps with the path for
the first transaction, nuI,a ,b. Because of their overlapping path, the frequency count for node a is
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incremented to two, while the frequency counts for the newly created nodes, c, d, and e) are
equal to one.

This process continues until every transaction has been mapped onto one of the paths given in
the FP-tree. The resulting FP-tree after reading all the transactions is shown at the bottom of
Figure 6.25.

Step 2: Frequent Itemset Generation

FP-growth is an algorithm that generates frequent itemsets from an FP-tree by exploring the tree
in a bottom-up fashion.

Given the example tree shown in Figure 6.24, the algorithm looks for frequent itemsets ending in
e first, followed by d, c, b, and finally, a. This bottom-up strategy for finding frequent itemsets
ending with a particular item is equivalent to the suffix-based approach.

Since every transaction is mapped onto a path in the FP-tree, we can derive the frequent itemsets
ending with a particular item, say e, by examining only the paths containing node e. These paths
can be accessed rapidly using the pointers associated with node e. The extracted paths are shown
in Figure 6.26(a).
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After finding the frequent itemsets ending in e, the algorithm proceeds to look for frequent
itemsets ending in d by processing the paths associated with node d. The corresponding paths are
shown in Figure 6.26(b). This process continues until all the paths associated with nodes c, b,
and finally a are processed.
The paths for these items are shown in Figures 6.26(c), (d), and (e), while their corresponding
frequent itemsets are summarized in Table 6. 6
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Evaluation of Association Pattern :

Association rule algorithms tend to produce too many rules
– many of them are uninteresting or redundant
– Redundant if {A,B,C}  {D} and {A,B}  {D}
have same support & confidence
Interestingness measures can be used to prune/rank the derived patterns

Objective measures of interestingness

Given a rule X  Y, information needed to compute rule interestingness can be
obtained from a contingency table
Contingency table for X  Y

Y Y

X f11 f10 f1+

X f01 f00 fo+

f+1 f+0 N
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Interest Factor

Example:

Coffee Coffee

Tea 15 5 20

Tea 75 5 80

90 10 100

Correlation Analysis
For binary variables, correlation can be measured using the d-coefficient. which is defined as
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The value of correlation ranges from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive
correlation). If the variables are statistically independent, then it is 0.
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Question Bank:

1. What is association analysis? Define support and confidence with an example.

2. Develop the appriori algorithm for frequent itemset generation, with an example.
3. Explain the various measure of evaluating association patterns.
4. Explain in detail frequent itemset generation and rule generation with reference to
appriori along with an example.
5. Define following: a) Support b) Confidence.
6. Explain FP growth algorithm for discovering frequent item sets. What are its limitation.
7. Consider following transaction data set
TID ITEM
1 {a, b}
2 {b, c, d}
3 {a, c, d, e}
4 {a, d, e}
5 {a, b, c}
6 {a, b, c, d}
7 {a}
8 {a, b, c}
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9 {a, b, d}
10 {b, c, e}
Construct the FP tress by showing the tress separately after reading each transaction.
8. Illustrate the limitations of support confidence framework for evaluation of an association
rule
9. Define cross support pattern. Suppose the support for milk is 70%, support for sugar is
10% and support for bread is 0.04%. given hc= 0.01. is the frequent item set {milk, sugar,
bread} the cross-support pattern?
10. Which are the factors affecting the computational complexity of appriori algorithm?
Explain them.
11. Define a frequent pattern tree. Discuss the method of computing a FP-Tree, with an
algorithm.
12. Give an example to show that items in a strong association rule may actually be
negatively corelated.
13. A database has five transactions. Let min-sup = 60% and min-conf = 80%
TID ITEM
T1 {M, O, N, K, E, Y}
T2 {D, O, N, K, E, Y}
T3 {M, A, K, E}
T4 {M, U, C, K, Y}
T5 {C, O, O, K, I, E}
Find all frequent item sets using appriori and FP growth respectively,
14. Explain various alternative methods for generating frequent item sets.
15. A database has four transactions. Let min-sup = 40% and min-conf = 60%
TID DATE ITEM
T1 01/01/10 {K, A, D, B}
T2 01/01/10 {D, A, C, E, B}
T3 01/15/10 {C, A, B, E}
T4 01/22/10 {B, A, D}
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Find all frequent item sets using appriori and FP growth algorithms. Compare the
efficiency of two measuring process.
16. Explain various Candidate Generation and Pruning techniques.
17. Explain the various properties of objective measures.
18. Comprehend the Simpson’s Paradox.
19. Illustrate the nature of Simpson’s paradox for the following two-way contingency table

Buy Exercise machine

Buy HDTV
yes no
yes 99 81 180
no 54 66 120
153 147 300

20. What is appriori algorithm? Give an example. A database has six transactions of purchase
of books from a book shop as given below
TID ITEM
T1 {ANN, CC, JC, CG}
T2 {CC, D, CG}
T3 {ANN, D, CC, TC}
T4 {ANN, CC, D, CG}
T5 {ANN, CC, D, TC, CG}
T6 {C, D, TC}
Let X= {CC, TC} and Y= {ANN, TC, CC} find confidence and support of the
association rule XY and inverse rule YX

21. Consider the following transaction data set:

TID ITEM
T100 I1, I2, I5
T200 I2, I4
T300 I2, I3
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T400 I1, I2, I4

T500 I1, I3
T600 I2, I3
T700 I1, I3
T800 I1, I2, I3, I5
T900 I1, I2, I3
Construct FP Tree.Generate List of frequent item set ordered by their corresponding suffixes.

22. Consider following set of frequent 3 item sets

{1, 2, 3} {1, 3, 5}
{1, 2, 4} {2, 3, 4}
{1, 2, 5} {2, 3, 5}
{1, 3, 4} {3, 4, 5}

Assume that there are only 5 items in data set.

a) List all candidate 4 item sets obtained by a candidate generation procedure
using Fk-1 X F1 merging strategy
b) List all candidate 4 item sets obtained by the candidate generation procedure
in appriori,
23. Apply appriori algorithm for
TID ITEM
101 Milk, Bread, Eggs
102 Milk, Juice
103 Juice, Butter
104 Milk, Bread, Eggs
105 Coffee, Eggs
106 Coffee
107 Coffee, Juice
108 Milk, Bread, Cookies, Eggs
109 Cookies, Butter
 DATA MINING AND DATA WARE HOUSING (15CS651) VI SEM CSE

110 Milk, Bread

Item set = {Milk, Bread, Eggs, Cookies, Coffee, Butter, Juice}, use 0.2 for min-sup.
Source diginotes.in