SUB MODULE-1

AIRCRAFT-FERROUS MATERIALS
1.1 FERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS
1)What do you mean by ferrous aircraft metals?

*)The term "ferrous" applies to the group of metals having iron as their principal constituent.

2)What do you mean by carbon steel?

*)If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 percent, the product is
vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel.

3)What is an alloy?

*)A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have been added is called an
alloy. The addition of other metals changes or improves the chemical or physical properties of the
base metal for a particular use.

1.2 PROPERTIES OF METALS

4)What do you mean by hardness of metal?

*)Hardness is the property of resisting penetration or permanent distortion.

*)The hardness of a piece of metal can usually be increase by hammering, rolling, or otherwise
working on it.

*)In the case of steel, some aluminum alloys, and a few other metals, hardness can also be
increased by a heat treatment

5)What do you mean by brittleness?

*)Brittleness is the property of resisting a change in the relative position of molecules, or the
tendency to fracture without change of shape.

*)Brittleness and hardness are very closely associated.

*)Hard material is invariably more brittle than soft material. In aircraft construction the use of too
brittle material must be avoided or failure will be caused by the shock loads to which it will be
subjected.

6)What do you mean by malleability?

*)Malleability is the property of metals which allows them to be bent or permanently distorted
without rupture.
*)It is this property that permits the manufacture of sheets, bar stock, forging, and fabrication by
bending and hammering. It is obviously the direct opposite of brittleness.

7)What do you mean by ductility?

*)Ductility is the property of metals which allows them to be drawn out without breaking. This
property is essential in the manufacture of wire and tubing by drawing.

*)It is very similar to malleability . Ductile material is greatly preferred because of its ease of
forming and its resistance to failure under shock loads

8)What do you mean by elasticity?

*)Elasticity is the property of returning to the original shape when the force causing the change of
shape is removed.

*)All aircraft structural design is based on this property since it would not be desirable to have any
member remain permanently distorted after it had been subjected to a load.

*)Each material has a point known as the elastic limit beyond which it cannot be loaded without
causing permanent distortion.

*)In aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed that the maximum applied loads to
which the airplane may be subjected will bear stress above their elastic limit.

9)What do you mean by density?

*)Density is the weight of a unit volume of the material. In aircraft work the actual weight of a
material per cubic inch is preferred since this figure can be used in calculating the weight of a part
before actual manufacture.

*)The density of a material is an important consideration in deciding which material to use in the
design of a part.

10)What do you mean by fusibility?

*)Fusibility is the property of being liquefied by heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse
around 25000 F, aluminium alloys around 11000 F.

11)What do you mean by conductivity?

*)Conductivity is the property of transmitting heat or electricity. The conductivity of metals is of

interest to the welder as it affects the amount of heat he must use and, to a certain extent, the
design of his welding jig.

*)Electrical conductivity is also important in connection with the bonding of airplanes to eliminate
radio interference.
12)What do you mean by contraction and expansion?

*)Contraction and expansion are caused by the cooling or heating of metals. These properties affect
the design of welding jigs, castings, and the tolerances necessary for hot rolled material.

1.3 PHYSICAL TEST TERMS

13)What do you mean by strain?

*)Strain is the deformation of material caused by an applied load.

14)What is stress?

*)Stress is the load acting on a material. Internal stresses are the loads present in a material that
has been strained by cold working.

15)What do you mean by tensile strength?

*)This is often referred to as the ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.). It is the maximum tensile load
per square inch which a material can withstand.

*)It is computed by dividing the maximum load obtained in a tensile test by the original cross -
sectional area of the test specimen. In this country it is usually recorded as pounds per square inch.

16)What is elastic limit?

*)The elastic limit is the greatest load per square inch of original cross- sectional area which a
material can withstand without a permanent deformation remaining upon complete release of the
load.

*)As stated under “ elasticity”, the aim in aircraft design is to keep the stress below this point.

17)What do you mean by proportional limit?

*)The proportional limit is the load per square inch beyond which the increases in strain cease to be
directly proportional to the increases in stress.

*)The law of proportionality between stress and strain is known as Hooke’s Law.

*)The determination of the proportional limit can be more readily accomplished than that if the
elastic limit, and since they are very nearly equivalent, the proportional limit is usually accepted in
place of the elastic limit in test work.
18)What do you mean by proof stress?

*)The proof stress is the load per square inch a material can withstand without resulting in a
permanent elongation of more than 0.0001 inch per inch of gage length after complete release of
stress. With the standard 2- inch gage length the limit permissible elongation would be 0.0002 inch.

19)What do you mean by yield strength?

*)Yield Strength is the load per square inch at which a material exhibits a specified limiting
permanent set or a specified elongation under load. This load is fairly easily determined and is
commonly used.

20)What do you mean by yield point?

*)The yield point is the load per square inch at which there occurs a marked increase in
deformation without an increase in load. Only a few materials have a definite yield point. Steel is
one of these materials.

21)What is elongation?

*)The percentage elongation is the difference in gage length before being subjected to any stress
and after rupture, expressed in percentage of the original gage length. The length after rupture is
obtained by removing the two pieces from the machine and piecing them together on a flat
surface.

22)What is reduction in area?

*)The percentage reduction of area is the difference between the original cross-sectional area and
the least cross sectional area after rupture, expressed as a percentage of the original
cross-sectional area. This information is seldom used other than as an indication of ductility.

23)What is modulus of elasticity?

*)The modulus of elasticity of a material is the ratio of stress to strain with in the elastic
limit.Thus ,E = unit stress / unit strain.

1.4 FERROUS METALS AND ITS ALLOYS

24)Explain the classification of steels .

A)the classification of iron and steel is based on the percentage of carbon present. The generally
accepted classification is as follows:

Wrought iron Trace to 0.8%

Low carbon steel 0.10% to 0.30%

Medium carbon steel 0.30% to 0.70%

High carbon steel 0.70% to 2.2%

Cast iron 2.2% to 4.5%

connection with the above percentages is that all carbon above 2.2% is uncombined with the iron
and is present in the form of graphite. This graphite forms planes of easy cleavage, which
accounts for the easy breakage of cast iron5

25)Explain about alloys present in steels.

*) The carbon content of alloy steels is of prime importance but varying properties can be obtained
by adding an alloy.

*)The metals commonly used as alloys in steel are nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and
tungsten. Small amounts of titanium and columbium are also used, particularly in the corrosion
resisting steels.

*)In some alloy steels two alloying elements are present, such as chromium-nickel and
chromium-molybdenum. One alloy steel which is commonly used for propeller hubs contains
chromium-nickel-molybdenum5

26)Write a note on carbon metal.

*)Carbon is by far the most important constituent of steel. It combines readily with iron to form
iron carbide (FeF3), which is a compound known as cementite

*)the higher the carbon content of steel is, the greater will be the ultimate strength, the hardness,
and the range through which it can be heat-treated.

*)At the same time, the ductility, malleability, toughness, impact resistance, and the weldability will
be reduced as the carbon increases.

*)In selecting a steel for a given design, the carbon content must be considered: a low-carbon steel
is necessary if deep drawing or excessive mechanical working are required without excessive
strength, and a high-carbon steel is necessary where great hardness is required and ductility is not
important.

*) In general, low-carbon steels are used for formed fittings and welded parts, and high-carbon
steels for springs. The medium-carbon steels are used for forged fittings and tie-rods where good
strength, combined with ductility, is required.

26)Write a note on manganese.

*)Next to carbon, manganese is the most important ingredient in steel. Its primary purpo~e is to
deoxidize and desulfurize the steel to produce a clean, tough metal.
*)It deoxidizes by eliminating ferrous oxide, which is a harmful impurity; and it combines with sulfur
to form manganese sulfide, which is harmless in small amounts. Sufficient manganese is added to
the steel to leave an excess of no more than 1 % in the metal.6

*)Manganese does possess the property known as "penetration hardness" which means that in
heat treatment of large sections, the hardness is not merely on the surface but penetrates to the
core as well.

*)In addition, the presence of manganese will greatly improve the forging qualfries of the steel by
reducing brittleness at forging and rolling· temperatures. An excess of more than I% of manganese
will increase the brittleness of the metal.

*)There is, however, a manganese steel containing approximately 13% manganese that is
exceptionally hard and ductile; but it is too hard to cut and must be forged, rolled, or cast to
practically the finished shape

27)Write a short note on silicon.

*)Only a very small amount, not exceeding 0.3% of silicon, is present in steel. It is an excellent
deoxidizer, but it also has the property of combining with iron more readily than carbon. Therefore
it must be limited. A small amount of silicon improves the ductility of the metal. Its main purpose,
however, is to produce a sound metal.

28)Write a note on sulphur.

*)Sulfur is a very undesirable impurity which must be limited in amount to not more than 0.06%.
The maximum permissible sulfur content is always specified in the chemical specification for any
particular steel. The presence of sulfur renders steel brittle at rolling or forging temperatures. In
this condition the steel is said to be "hot short."6

29)Write a short note on phosphurous.

*)Phosphorus, like sulfur, is an undesirable impurity limited in amount to n~nnore than 0.05%. The
maximum permissible content is always specified. Phosphorus is believed responsible for "cold
shortness" or brittleness when the metal is cold. Below the 0.05% spepified there is little, if any,
brittleness in the steel.

30)Write a short note on Nickel.

*)Nickel is a white metal almost as bright as silver. In the pure state it is malleable, ductile, and
weldable. IL does not corrode quickly, as attested by its use in nickel plating. Nickel dissolves in all
proportions in molten steel.

*)The commonly used nickel steels contain from 3% to 5% nickel. The addition of nickel to steels
increases the strength, yield point, and hardness without materially affecting the ductility.

*)In heat treatment the presence of nickel in the steel slows down the critical rate of hardening
which, in turn, increases the depth of hardening and produces a finer grain structure.
*)There is also less warpage and scaling of heat-treated nickel-steel parts. Nickel increases the
corrosion resistance of the steel. It is one of the principal constituents of the so-called "stainless" or
corrosion-resisting steels7

31)Write a note on Chromium.

*)Chromium is a hard gray metal with a high melting point. Chromium imparts hardness, strength,
wear resistance, and corrosion resistance to steel.

*)It also improves the magnetic qualities to such an extent that chromium steel is used for magnets.
Chromium possesses excellent "penetration hardness" characteristics and its alloys heat-treat well.

*)The main use of chromium in alloys is in conjunction with nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium.
About I% of chromium is present in these alloys, which are strong, hard, and have fair ductility.

*)These alloys are also resistant to shock loads. It is possible to heat treat nickel-chromium alloys to
an ultimate tensile strength as high as 250,000 p.s.i. and still retain ductility. Corrosion-resisting
steels contain large amounts of chromium. The most common of these steels is 18-8
steel-approximately 18% chromium and 8% nickel. This metal is very corrosion resistant.

32)Write a short note on Molybdenum.

*)Molybdenum is a very effective alloying element. A small percentage has as much effect as much
larger amounts of other alloying elements. It improves the homogeneity of the metal and reduces
the grain size. It also increases the elastic limit, the impact value, wear resistance, and fatigue
strength.

33)Write a note on Vanadium.

*)Vanadium is the most expensive of the alloying elements. It is seldom used in amounts over
0.20%, but it is an intensive deoxidizing agent and improves the grain structure and fatigue
strength.

*)Vanadium also increases the ultimate strength, yield point, toughness, and resistance to impact,
vibration, and stress reversal.

*)These latter qualities are identical with fatigue strength and are the basis for using vanadium
alloys for propeller hubs and engine bolts.

*)The vanadium alloys, as used generally, contain about l % chromium and are called
chrome-vanadium steel. These steels have good ductility, along with high strength7

34)Write a note on Tungsten

*)Tungsten steels have no direct application in aircraft construction, but they possess an interesting
property known as " red hardness." "High-speed steel" is a tungsten-chromium steel used for tools
which will retain their cutting edge even when heated to dull redness by working.This tool steel
contains from 14% to 18% tungsten, and 2% to 4% chromium7
35)Write a note on Titanium

*)Titanium is often added in small quantities to 18-8 corrosionresisting steel to reduce the
embrittlement at the operating temperatures of exhaust stacks and collectors.

1.5 STEEL NUMBERING SYSTEM(S.A.E)

36)Explain sae system.

*)First digit indicates steel

*)Second digit indicates percentage of alloying element

*)Last two digits indicate percentage of carbon

*)1-carbon steels,2-nickel steels,3-nickel chromium steels,4-molybdenum steels,

5-chromium steels,6-chromium vanadium steels,8-nickel chromium molybdenum steels,9-silicon
manganese steel
1.6 AIR FORCE-NAVY AERONAUTICAL SPECIFICATIONS
AN-QQ-S-689-Steel; Chrome-Molybdenum 2330 bar where AN- indicates "Anny-Navy (Aeronautical)
Stai:idard."

QQ- indicates the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue group for procurement.

S- indicates first letter of first word in specification title, which in this case is "Steel."

689- is a serial number determined by order of issue. Current issues of AN Aeronautical

Specifications omit the Federal Standard CataJogue letters. Thus we have AN-A-12-Aluminum Alloy
2024 Plate, Sheet, and Strip

1.7 MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS

MIL-R-5674-Rivets, Aluminum & Aluminum Alloy where

MIL___:_ indicates Military Specification

R- indicates first letter of first word in title, which in this case is "Rivet"

5674- is a serial number Military specifications are gradually superseding all others for military use.

1.8 HEAT TREATMENT

37)Explain about heat treatment.

*)Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the solid
state.

*)Heat treating can also make a metal softer and more ductile

*)The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metals are hardening, tempering,
normalizing, annealing, and case hardening. Most nonferrous metals can be annealed and many of
them can be hardened by heat treatment.

*)However, there is only one nonferrous metal, titanium, that can be case hardened, and none can
be tempered or normalized.

*)A pure metal cannot be hardened by heat treatment because there is little change in its structure
when heated
38)What do you understand by critical range and what are the critical
ranges for iron?

*)Critical range , applied to metal, refer to the range of temperature between 1000 F. and 2000 F.
When metal passes through this temperature range, its internal structure is altered.

*)Pure iron is also allotropic, existing in three states: namely, alpha, beta, and gamma iron

*)alpha iron-stable at 1400F

*)beta iron-stable at 1400H to 1652F and changes to alpha at 1400F at cooling.This point is known
as second critical point(Ar2)

*)gamma iron-stable above 1600F and changes to beta at 1652F at cooling and this point is known
as upper critical point(Ar3)

*)In addition to the preceding two points described for iron, when a small amount of carbon is
added to the iron another point occurs at 1274°F. This point is called the lowest critical point or the
recalescent point(Ar1)

*)r-cooling,c-heating

39)What do you mean by cementite and pearlite?

*)The carbon is in chemical combination with the iron as iron carbide (Fe,C), called cementite.

*)In steels containing 0.85% carbon, the cementite forms a perfect mixture with the pure iron
(called ferrite) present. *)This mixture is called pearlite because of its resemblance in appearance to
mother-of-pearl.

*)Pearlite is a mechanical mixture of six parts of ferrite to one part of cementite.

*)Steels with less than 0.85% carbon arc composed of pearlite and excess ferrite. Practically all
aircraft steels are of this type. On the other hand, tool steels which contain in more than 0.85%
carbon are composed of pearlite and excess cementite.

*)In some cases pearlite has a granulated a ppearance and is called granular pearlite. If steel is
cooled very slowly through the critical range, laminated pearlite, which is the most stable form, will
result. Pearlite is relatively strong, hard, and ductile. It has a tensile strength of over 100,000 p.s.i.,
an elongation of approximately 10%,

40)What is eutectic alloy,hypo-euctectoid and hyper-euctectiod?

*) the name euctectic alloy is given to that a lloy of two substances which has the lowest fusing
point

*)Steel with less than 0.85% carbon is called hypo.-euctectoid and with more than 0.85%
hyper-eutectoid.

41)What do you mean by ferrite and Austenite?

*)Ferrite is pure alpha iron in carbon steels. Ferrite is very ductile and has a tensile'strength of
about 40,000 p.s.i.

Ferrite does not have any hardening properties

*)Austenite, the name given to steel when it is heated above the critical range, consists of a
solid-solution of cementite in gamma iron.

42)What do you mean by martensite,troostite,sorbite?

*)Martensite is the main constituent of hardened steel. ·It is an intermediate form of the cementite
in alpha· iron obtained when the transition from austenite to pearlite is arrested. Martensite is the
hardest structure obtained in steel. The transition from austenite to pearlite through the critical
range is normally a slow operation

*)Troostite is another intermediate form, similar to martensite. which is often present in hardened
steels. Troostite is also present in drawn or tempered steels whereas martensite is not

*)Sorbite is the third intermediate form between austenite and pearlite. It is the main constituent
of drawn steel and gives that type of steel max11num strength and ductility.

*)Hardened steel consists almost entirely of martensite with some troostite.

43)What do you mean by hardening?

*)Hardening of steel is done by heating the metal to a temperature above the critical range and
then quenching it. Aluminium alloys are hardened by heating to a temperature above 900 F and
quenching

44)What do you understand by tampering?

*)Tempering is the reheating of hardened steel to a temperature below the critical range, followed
by cooling as desired. Tempering is sometimes referred to as “drawing”.

45)What do you understand by quenching?

*)Quenching is the immersion of the heated metal in a liquid, usually either oil or water, to
accelerate its cooling

46)What is normalizing?

*)Normalizing is similar to annealing, but the steel is allowed to cool in still air - a method that is
somewhat faster than annealing cooling. Normalizing applies only to steel. It relieves internal
strains, softens the metal somewhat less than annealing, and at the same time increases the
strength of the steel by about 20% above that of annealed material.

47)What is annealing,process annealing,spheroidizing,shop annealing?

*)Annealing is the process of heating steel above the critical range, holding it at that temperature
until it is uniformly heated and the grain is refined, and then cooling it very slowly

*)Process annealing consists in heating below Ac1 in the region between I 020° and I 200°F. This
treatment is commonly used in the sheet and wire industries to restore ductility.
*)Spheroidizing is a form of annealing applied particularly to high-carbon steels to improve their
machinability. The operation of spheroidizing consists in prolonged heating just slightly below the
critical range, followed by slow cooling

*)Shop annealing is the term used to describe the practice of heating steel with a welding torch lo.
900° to I 000°F. and dropping it into a pail of ashes or lime to restrict the cooling rate

48)What is carburizing?

*)Carburizing is the addition of carbon to steel by heating it at a high temperature while in contact
with a carbonaceous material in either solid or liquid, or gaseous form. Carburizing is best
performed on steels containing less than .25% carbon content

*)A common method of carburizing is called "pack carburizing." When carburizing is to be done by
this method, the steel parts are packed in a container with charcoal or some other material rich in
carbon. The container is then sealed with fire clay, placed in a furnace, heated to approximately 1
700 °F, a

49)What is case hardening?

*)Case-hardening consists of carburizing, followed by suitable heat treatment to harden the metal.
Case hardening produces a hard wear resistant surface or case over a strong, tough core. Case
hardening is ideal for parts which require a wear resistant surface and, at the same time, must he
tough enough internally to withstand the applied loads

50)What do you mean by Nitriding?

*)In nitriding, the part is placed in a special nitriding furnace and heated to a temperature of
approximately 1 000 °F. With the part at this temperature, ammonia gas is circulated within the
specially constructed furnace chamber

51)What do you mean by forging?

*)Forging is the process of forming a product by hammering or pressing. When the material is
forged below the recrystallization temperature, it is called cold forged. When worked above the
recrystallization temperature, it is referred to as hot forged. Drop forging is a hammering process
that uses a hot ingot that is placed between a pair of formed dies in a machine called a drop
hammer

52)What is casting?

*)Casting is formed by melting the metal and pouring it into a mold of the desired shape

53)What do you mean by extruding?

*)The extrusion process involves the forcing of metal through an opening in a die, thus causing the
metal to take the shape of the die opening. The shape of the die will be the cross section of an
angle, channel, tube, or some other shape

54)Explain about furances?

*)there are Several types of furnace are employed in heating. The common type is a "dry heat"
furnace and is fired by oil, gas, or electricity. A uniform temperature must be maintained
throughout the furnace, and the work must be properly placed to insure uniform heating. In
furnaces heated by electricity, the heating elements are generally in the form of wire or ribbon.
These furnaces commonly operate at up to a maximum temperature of about 2 000 °F. Furnaces
operating at temperatures up to about 2 500 °F usually employ resistor bars of sintered carbides.

*)A "liquid heat" furnace is frequently used for parts which have been finished-machined before
heat treatment. In this type of furnace, parts are heated in a molten salt bath. Salt baths are
available for operating at either tempering or hardening temperatures. Depending on the
composition of the salt bath, heating can be conducted at temperatures as low as 325 °F to as high
as 2 450 °F.

*)Lead baths can be used in the temperature range of 650 °F to 1 700 °F. The rate of heating in lead
or salt baths is much faster in furnaces

55)What instrument is used to measure temperature in furances?

*)Temperature in the heat-treating furnace is measured by a thermoelectric instrument known as a

pyrometer. This instrument measures the electrical effect of a thermocouple

*)A complete pyrometer consists of three parts-a thermocouple, extension leads, and meter.

*)The usual method is by means of thermocouples: the most common base metal couples are
copper-constantan (up to about 700 °F), iron constantan (up to about 1 400 °F), and
chromel-alumel (up to about 2 200 °F).

*)The most common noble metal couples (which can be used up to about 2 800 °F) are platinum
coupled with either the alloy 87 percent platinum (13 percent rhodium) or the alloy 90 percent
platinum (10 percent rhodium).

*)Pyrometers may have meters either of the indicating type or recording type

*)Pyrometer installations on all modern furnaces provide automatic regulation of the temperature
at any desired setting. Instruments of this type are called controlling potentiometer pyrometers

56)Explain effects of heating at different temperatures.

The effects of heating to various temperatures and cooling. at different rates may be summarized
as follows:

*) When a piece of steel is heated to the upper critical point, Ac3, it becomes as fine grained as
possible no matter how coarse or distorted the grain was previously.

*) After it has been heated to Ac3, if the steel is allowed to cool slowly, it retains the fine-grained
structure and is also soft and ductile.

*) After it has been heated to Ac3, if the steel is cooled rapidly, as by quenching i!l cold water, it
retains the fine-grained structure and is fully hardened: ·

*) If steel is heated above Ac3, pennitted to cool to Ac3, and then quenched, it will be fully
hardened but more coarse grained than jf it had only ,been heated to Ac3 originally.

*). The higher the temperature above Ac3 from which the steel is cooled, either slowly or rapidly,
the coarser the grain. In this. case slower cooling will result in coarser grain.

*). When a piece of hardened steel (which has Been previously heated to. Ac1 or above, soaked,
and quenched) is again heated to somewhere below
1.9 AIRCRAFT STEELS-PROPERTIES AND USES
1.9.1 CARBON STEELS

57)Write brief note on SAE 1015.

*)USE-A galvanized (zinc-coated) steel wire is made from this material. It is used as a locking wire
on nuts and turn-buckles and for serving nonflexible cable splices.

*)STRENGTH- 75,000 p.s.i.(tensile)

*)ELONGATION- 8 to I0%.

58)Write short notes on properties and uses of SAE 1020.

*)USE-This steel is used for casehardened parts.It is often used for bushings that must resist
abrasion . It is also employed in the fabrication of stamping dies that require a hard, wear-resisting
surface.

*)STRENGTH- 60,000 p.s.i(core strength), 55,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength), 36,000 p.s.i(yield
strength)

*)ELONGATION- 22%.

*)This steel machines well. It can be brazed or welded and has good ductility

59)Give information on SAE 1025

*)USE-This steel is commonly referred to as mild carbon steel or cold-rolled stock. . It is used for
aircraft nuts and similar standard parts, however, and also for nonstructural clamps requiring a lot
of bending

*)STRENGTH-55000p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),36000p.s.i(yield strenght),77,000p.s.i when used

for nuts

*)ELONGATION-22%

*)In sheet form this material can be bent through 180° without cracking over a diameter equal to
the thickness of the test section

*)This steel machines well. It can be brazed or welded

60)Explain about SAE 1045.

.*)USE-This steel, obtainable as cold-drawn wire, is used for the · fabrication of aircraft tie-rods.
Chain sprockets, hubs, and crankshafts are made from it

*)STRENGTH-1,40,000p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength) cold drawn,1,00,000p.s.i(ultimate tensile

strength) heat treated bar,70,000p.s.i(yield strength) heat treated bar

*)the cold-drawn wire must withstand a reverse bend test in which it is bent back and forth 90°
each way over a round surface with a radius three times
61)Write properties of SAE 1095

*)It is obtained in the following forms

1) Spring steel (sheet or strip) annealed is used for flat springs

2) MIL-W-6101 spring steel (wire) heat-treated is a standard grade of music wire and is used in
the fabrication of small springs. It is obtainable from 0.005- to 0.180-inch diameter, with a variation
in tensile strength of 350,000 ~o 225,000 p.s.i.,
3) QQ-W-465 steel wire, high strength is a cold-drawn zinc-coated wire from 0.032- to 0.306-inch
diameter, with a tensile strength varying from 308,000 to 209,000 p.s.i.
4)Bar stock is used for parts subject to high sheru_: or wear if casehardening is not desirable.
5)it is employed in the manufacture of drills, taps, and dies.Drill rod is used for hard pins, keys,

1.9.2 NICKEL STEELS

62)Write about SAE 2317.

*)This is a carburizing steel with a moderately strong core. Its case has excellent wear- and
fatigue-resisting characteristics

*)Thin sections s hould not be manufactured from this steel because of its strong core.

*)USE-It is used for produce bushings, trunnions for mounting machine guns, and other parts
requiring a wear-resisting surface combined with a shock-resistant core of moderate strength

*)STRENGTH-80000p.s.i(core strength)

63)Write a note on SAE 2330.

*)This is the standard nickel steel and possesses good strength · and great toughness. It can be
purchased as bar stock in the forged, rolled, annealed, normalized and annealed, or heat-treated.
condition. This steel can be bent flat over a diameter equal to its thickness

*)USE- It is used for high-grade .machined parts, such as aircraft bolts, turnbuckle eyes and forks,
and tie-rod terminals

*)STRENGTH-125000 to 150000p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),100000 to 120000(yield

strength)p.s.i

*)ELONGATION-15 to 17%

64)Write about SAE 2515 steel.

*)This is a carburizing steel with an extremely high-strength core. In this steel the carbon content is
limited to 0.17% maximum

*)USE-. It is used for engine ·gears, knuckle pins, and other applications requiring high-strength core
and good wearing qualities

*)STRENGTH-1,20,000 to 1,60,000p.s.i(core strength)

1.9.3 NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEELS

65)Write a short note on SAE 3115

*)This is a carburizing steel with an exceedingly hard wearresisting surface and a tough core.

*)USE- Generally, it is used in engine construction for. gear pins, piston pins, cam rings, push rod
ends, and rollers.

*)STRENGTH-85,000 p.s.i(core strength)

66)Explain properties and uses of SAE 3140

*)USE-it is used. for many structural parts requiring high strength and good fatigue qualities. It also
has good creep resistance up to I 000°F. Wing-hinge fittings, lift-wire trurnnions, engine bolts and
studs are its chief uses

*)STRENGTH-1,25,000 to 1,80,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),1,00,000 to 1,50,000 p.s.i(yield

strength)

*)ELONGATION-12 to 19%

67)Write in brief about SAE 3250

*)This is a high-carbon chrome-nickel steel used for high strength machined or forged parts subject
to severe wear

*)USE-it is used for axle shafts, gears, spline shafts, and other parts for heavy-duty work

*)STRENGTH-2,20,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),2,00,000p.s.i(yield stength)

68)Write in short about SAE 3312

*)This is a carburizing steel with a strong. tough core

*)USE- It is used for wrist pins, starter jaws, timing gears, rear axles and transmission gears for
heavy-duty trucks.

*)STRENGTH-I,00,000 p.s.i(core strength)

1.9.4 MOLYBDENUM STEELS

69)Write about SAE 4037

*)This is a molybdenum steel that has been used as a substitute for 2330 nickel steel

*)USED-it is used in the manufacture of bolts, terminals, clevises,-pins, and similar parts

*)STRENGTH-1,20,000p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),1,00,000(yield strength)

*)ELONGATION-17%
70)Write about SAE 4130

*)This is chrome-molybdenum steel which has been generally adopted in aircraft construction for
practically all .parts made of sheet and tubing. Bar stock of this material is also used for small
forgings under 1/2 inch in thickness.

*)USE-The general use of this steel is due to its excellent welding characteristics, its ease of forming,
its response to heat treatment, and its availability in all sizes of sheet and seamless drawn tubing.
Chrome-molybdenum steel is used for all welded assemblies, for sheet fittings, and for landing-gear
axles The landing-gear axles are formed from chrome molybdenum tubing

*)Chrome-molybdenum welds readily with the oxyacetylene flame, and it may also be electric
arc-welded when over 1/16 inch thick

*)Chrome-molybdenum sheet may be bent cold thro ugh an angle of 180° over a diameter equal to
its own thickness

*)STRENGTH-90,000 to 2,00,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),70,000 to 1,50,000p.s.i(yield

strength)

*)ELONGATION-10 to 20%

71)Write in short about SAE 4135.

*)This is a chrome-molybdenum steel with a higher carbon content than the standard 4130 steel.
Due to this higher carbon content it can be heat-treated to higher strengths.

*)USE- In aircraft work it is used primarily for heavy wall tubing requiring high strength .

*) To avoid welding cracks this type of material should be preheated before welding.

*)STRENGTH-2,00,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),1,65,000 p.s.i(yield strength)

*)ELONGATION-17%

72)Explain about SAE 4140

*)This is a chrome-molybdenum steel containing a higher - carbon and manganese content than
4130 steel

*)This steel is used for structural machined and forged parts over 1/2 inch in thickness, and is
obtainable as bar stock in any one of the following conditions: forged, rolled, normalized or
heat-treated.

*)USE-S.A.E. 4140 is used for wing-hinge fillings, flying-wire trunnions, and other similar fittings in
aircraft requiring great strength. Forgings of this steel are very commonly used

*)STRENGTH-85,000p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),65,000p.s.i(yield strength)

73)Write properties and uses of SAE 4340

*)This is a nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel with excellent properties

*)USE-Propeller hubs, crankshafts, and other large forgings are made from this material. ·11 is the
ideal material for highly stressed aircraft parts requiring good hardenability. It is also used
interchangeably with S.A.E. 3140.

*)STRENGTH-1,80,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),1,60,000 p.s.i(yield strength)

*)ELONGATION-16%

74)Write in brief about SAE 4615

This is one of the best of the carburizing steels.

*)USE-Because of its good machining qualities it is used commercially for automatic machine
production. It has a file-hard case for resisting wear and is excellent for use in bushings, rollers, and
other locations requiring wear resistance and accurate dimensions.

*)STRENGTH-80,000 to 1,00,000 p.s.i(core strength)

1.9.5 CHROME VANADIUM STEELS

75)Write a brief note on SAE 6135

*)USE-This steel is strong and tough, and has high fatigue resistance. It is used for propeller hubs,
welded steel propeller blades, and engine bolts and nuts. All thes·e applications require a high
fatigue resistance

*)STRENGTH-1,35,000 p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),1,15,000p.s.i(yield strength)

*)ELONGATION-15%

76)Write about SAE 6150

This steel has high strength and fatigue properties.

*)USE- It is used for all important coil springs in aircraft and engine valve springs and is available in
rod form from 0.180 to 0.500 inch in diameter. It is purchased in the annealed condition and
heat-treated after forming. In bar form this steel is used for propeller cones and snap rings which
require good fatigue and machining properties.

*)STRENGTH-2,20,000 p.s.i. (ultimate tensile strength), , 2,00,000 p.s.i.( yield strength) for rod and
180,000 p.s.i. (ultimate strength), 170,000 p.s.i.(yield strength) for Bar stock

*)ELONGATION-6% for rod and 14% for bar stock

77)Write about SAE 6195

*)This is a high-carbon chrome-vanadium steel which is used for parts subject to high-bearing loads
and requiring maximum hardness. Ball bearings, roller bearings, and races are made from it
1.9.6 SPECIAL STEELS

78)Explain about silicon-chromium steel

*)Important springs are manufactured from this high-strength steel which may be obtained in rod
form. For this purpose it is interchangeable with 6150 steel.

*)STRENGTH-2,00,000 p.s.i.(ultimate tensile strength),I,80,000 p.s.i(yield strength).

*)ELONGATION-6%.

79)What is austenitic manganese steel?

*)This material is also known as Hadfield's manganese steel. It has exceptional resistance to wear
and abrasion and is extremely tough

*)This material has been used for tail skids and for arresting-hook toes.

80)What do you mean by HY-TUF?

*)Hy-Tuf is the trade name for a steel used in the high-tensile strength range of 220,000-240,000
p.s.i.

*)USE-This steel has found wide use in aircraft landing-gear components, arresting hooks, catapult
hooks, and structural fittings.

*)STRENGTH-2,30,000p.s.i(ultimate tensile strength),1,94,000 p.s.i(tensile yield strength)

*)ELONGATION-14%

81)What is SAE 4330

Vanadium-modified S.A.E. 4330 is another steel which was developed for use at a tensile range of
220,000- 240,000 p.s.i.

*)USE-it is found that is widely used for landing gear components, tail bumpers, structural fittings,
arresting hooks, and many other parts

*)STRENGTH-2,20,000 p.s.i (ultimate tensile strength),1,90,000 p.s.i (yield strength)

*)ELONGATION-10%