wore wale a yues-cO™ eae nores® CON TEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Part Lan A History Textbook-for-Class X}F Aarsuss Davy inpres ARsuN Dey com yesclues nonot esc not esc e5.com e5.com" 25.00 scl nore PUBLISHER'S NOTE The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has been aiiehen’ and Publishing school textbooks and other educational material for . children and teachers. These publications are regularly revised on the basis of feedback from students, teachers, parents and teacher educators. Research done by the NCERT also forms the basis for updating and revision. In keeping with the decision of the Executive Committe of the NCERT to Te-introduce Contemporary World History : Part I by Professor Arjun Dev and Professor Indira Arjun Dev, the Necladri Bhattacharya Committee undertook’a Tevision of the history syllabus. This book, along with its second part, covers the Teated history syllabus meant for history students in Clase XI, We hope that this book will serve the purpose of teaching of Contemporary World History in an objective manner. We welcome your comments and Suggestions on any aspect of the present edition of the book. aa SECRETARY New Delhi National Council of Educational January 2005 Research and Training com ot esclue" wCONSTITUTION OF INDIA. Preamble WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC ancl to secure to all its citizen: SUSTICE, social, economic and LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worshtp: EQUALITY of siatizs and of opportunity; and to promote among then: all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation: IN OUR CONSITIUENT ASSEMBLY unis twenty-sixth day of Novernber, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. toe ott not eclves “CHAPTER -1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 com pores Contents Pusuisner's Nore Introduction | Petiodization in History - Contemporary History - Contemporary His- tory: Some Characteristic Features ~ Contemporary History and Modern History. The World from the 1890s to the First World War Europe: Europe's Hegemony and Inter-Imperialist Rivalries - Conflicts within Evrope ~ Foimation of Alliances ~ Social Tensions ~ Socialist Movement ~ Colonialism, Militarization and War. USA: USA as an lumperialist Power ~ Protest Movements ~ Black People’s Struggle for Equality. Japan: Rise of Moder Japan-Japan as an Imperialist Power. Asia, Africa and Latin America: Rise of Nationalist Movements in’ Asia Anti-Colonial Resistance in Africa Developments in Latin America. The First World War: The immediate Occasion~The Scope of the War~The Course of the War—Spread of the’ War Outside Europe—The Policy of Blockade~End of the War. The Russian Revolution; Revolutionary Movement in Russia~The February Revolution = The October Revolution - Civil War and Foreign Inter- vention, ‘The World between the’ Two Wo:ld Wars General Features of the Period. The Peace Treaties: Dictated Peace = Creation of the League of Navions—The Treaty of Versailles — Treaties with Austria, Hungary ard Turkey. USA: Economic Misery despite Economie. Growth'=The Crash of 1929 — Racial Discrimination ~The New Deal ~ USA and the World. USSR: War Communism and the New Economic Policy ~ Industrial Development and Collectivization = Formation of USSR — From One Party Rule to Dictatorship ~ Foreign Policy of thie Soviet State, Japan: Expansionist Policy — Political Repression ~ “Military Fascism’ in Japan, Asia: India ~China- Korea -- South-East Countries - Countries of West Asia. Africa Egypt — com ot esclue* wv itt s7CHAPTER 4 CHAPrER 5 on ag cluesi™ Morocco ~ Pana ait ‘Congresses~Negritude Movement — Racial Op. Pression in South Aftica, Latin America: Mexico ~ Changes in US Policy. Developments in Europe: Europe from 1919 to 1923 ~ New States in Europe—Rise of Authoritarian Regimes — Britain, France and Czechoslovakia Weimar Republic - Economic Problems of the Weimar Republic ~Fascism in italy: Europe from 1924 to 1936 Impact of the Great Depression on Europe = Developments in Britain political Instabitity in France -Portugal and Spain Triumph of Nazism in Germany, The League of Nations—Aggression and Appeasement: The Spanish Civil War ~ Japanese Aggression on China [Annexation of Austria—The Munich Pact-The Polish Question and Negotiations with USSR. : ‘The Second World War The Beginning of the War~Soviets Occupy Eastem Poland and Baltic States ~Conquest of Denmark and Norway = Capitulation of Belgium, the Netherlands and France -The Baitle of Britain - Other Theatres of War—German Invasion of the Soviet Union US Entry into the War-A Global War-The Battle of Stalingrad —The War wt Nowh Africa and the Pacific~The Allied Victones in Europe — Sumrender of Germany ~Surrender of Japan Fascist Barbatities — Allied Air Raids and the Use of Atom Bomibs ~ Resistaiice Movements ~ Allied War Aims~The United Nations Charter The World Since 1945 The Cold War: Origins ~ Communist Governments in Eastern Europe = Developments in Germany - Civil War in Greece —The Truman Doctrine ~ The Crisis over Berlin and the Division of Germany ~The Soviet Union Becomes a Nuclear Power ~The Spy Scare Communist Victory in China=The War in Korea ~Further Intensification of the Cold War-Theories of “Brinkmanship’ and “Deterrence’ ~ Military Alliances in Asia-Role of the CIA. The Vietnam War: The French ‘Debacle The US War in Vietnam. The Arab World: steel as a Major: Factor-The Suez War~The Eisenhower Doctrine - The Arabeisraet Wars. The Crisis over Missiles in Cuba—End of the Cold War US4: Economic Supremacy ~ Anti-Comimunist Hysteria ~ Foreign Imerventions — Civil Rights Movements — Anti-War Movement USSR: Failures in Economy — Military Strength — Political Develop- ments — End of Terror — Foreign Policy — Break-up of the Soviet Union. Europe: Portugal, Spain and Greece - Western Europe -End. of Europe's Hegemony - European Unity. Eastern’ Europe. Romania and Albania~ Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia = Bast Germany Break-up of Yugoslavia, Asia, Africa and Latin America Ervergence of Independent Nations - Weaken ng of Imperialism — Solidarity of u7 14nn yes. ores “ the Anti-tn\Ralist Movements — Role of the United Nations ~ India’s Role ~ South-East Asian Countries Achieve Independence — Nationalist Struggles in Arab Countries — Algeria's Staiggle for Freedom Freedom Movements in Southern Africa’ Ghana and Guinea - The Africa Year ~The Struggle in.Kenya—End of Colonial Rule in Afrien British and Dutch Colonies in South America, Colonial Powers! Attempts to Retain Their Influence: Guyana ~Zaiie South Africa Emergence as a Democratic Nation, Japan. Some Important Developments in Asia: Main Trends in Political Developments ~ Developments in China~ Conflicts and Wars—Bangladesh as an Independent Nation — Regional Groupings. Commonwealth of Nations, Developments in Latin America. US Interventions against Radical Regimes. The Non-Aligned Movement. The Asian Relations Conference ~ Bandung Conference - Belgrade Conference ~ Basic Objectives NOTE Page 42: In the map, the countries shown in black were the Allied Powers. The index wrongly shows them in white, Page 72: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became Soviet Socialist Republics of USSR in 1940. In the same year, Moldavian ‘SSR was created. In th index of the map as printed on this Page; this has not been clearly brought outott not esclues CONSTITUTION OF INDIA Part IV A (Article 51 A) Fundamental Duties Fundamental Duties ~ It shall be the duty of every citizen of India — (a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem; (b) to cherish and foifow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom; (©) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; (d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so: {e) topromote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; 0 renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women; (®) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; {g) (© protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures; (h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform; @ to safeguard public property and to abjure violence; @_ to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievernent; (k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or, a the’ case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years. on not esclues ©ores yues.co™ CHAPTER | Introduction History ‘CHE history. of any country or region or of the world as a whole is generally divided ito periods and sub-periods. This is done on the basis of some spécific criteria, One criterion which is common in traditional historical writings is to divide the history of @ country in terms of the dynasties that ruled over it, in this sense, we refer to, for example, the Mauryan, the Gupta and the Mughal period in’ Indian history; the Han and the Manchu period in Chinase history: and the Tudor and the Stuart period in the history of England This kind of division is_still cominon as the peniod of rule of a dynasty provides a convenient chronological. period for study. The division of history into periods is also based on other criteria, For example, we have divisions like the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution, which denote broad chronological periods in tie history of some countries. The. criteria. of; division in. these cases are developments in certain aspects of cultural and” economic life. Such divisions (unlike the divisions based on dynasties) indicate broad periods and not specific dates and years, as developments. culture and. economy cannot be trace back to. any particular date nor do, they e1d on a specific dane, To igive an example froia Indian history, the petiod of the rise of Indian nationalism cannot be ascribed to any one particular event taking -place on a particular date Somictimes, division into periods is done on the basis of centuries, We have, for example, the history of England, let us say in the fifteenth century, the sixteenth century, the seventeenth Century, and so on. Another, more important, kind of division of history into periods. or simply periodization, is done on the basis of demarcation of stages in the development ‘of society. In this kind of periodization, each period denotes not only a broad chronology but a distinct form of society, economy, political system and culitre, which has a well-defined character of its owr, distinguishable from other periods ‘The broadest commonly accepted periodization of the Listory of most countries and of the world as a whole is the division into ancient, medieval and modern periods. In terms of chronology, these periods vary from country to country as society in different countries and regions moved from one stage to another at different times. For example. in the history of Western Europe, the ancient period came to a close by the early centuries of the Cristian era and the medieval period began wher anew form of social system characterized by feudalism began to take shape. Similarly, the medieval period in the history of Western Europe may be said to have ended by the fifteenth-seventeenth centuries and the modem periid ‘began with the decline of feudalism and the emergence of a new kind of social syst, valled capitalism. Comparable devel- Opients denoting: the passing of one type of social system and the emergence of a neve one in other countries or regions, say in Asia and Africa, took place at different times. Therefore, the specific chronology ofpores the ancient period, the medieval period and tne modem period differs from country to country and region to region. It should also be remembered that the ancient period or the medieval period in the history of ali countries do not have the same characteristic features, There are variations in many essential features of social and economic life, potitical system and culture. ‘Thos, medieval China or medieval India. do not necessarily denote the same kind of society, economy, political system, etc., as medieval Europe; However, while periodizing the history of the world’ as a whole, the variations in different parts of th. world are ignored for the sake of convenience and new fonns of society and economy, even though they might have emerged only in one region of the world, are taken to mark the beginning of a new period. For example, the period between the fifteenth and seventeenth cen- turies, which marks the beginning of the modem period in Western Europe, is also taken to mark the beginning of the modem period in the history of the world as a whole. This is done because some of the new trends that first emerged in Western Europe duting these centuries also became the major features of the history of meny other couniries and regions in other parts of the world or exercised a powerful influence on the history of other countries in the subsequent period Contemporary History As mentioned above, the period of world history beginning from the fifteenth-seven- teenth centuries is generally regarded as the modem period. The term’ ‘modem” applied to this period inrplies that it would: cover the developments from. its beginning right up to the present time in which we live Until two or three decades ago, however, historians generally were reluctant to write about the period in which they or even their comemporaries (some of whom would 4e es corn CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY much older than them) lived. Many histories of the world written and taught in the 1950s. 1960s and even in the 1970s would stop with the year 1945 (the year when the Second Word War ended) or 1930 (the year when the Second World War began). Some would stop even eastier in 1918 or (914 (the years, espectively, when the First World War ended and began). Some of the reasons for doing $0 were very sound. Many important sources which the historian requires to write the History of the period in which he is living would not be available to him. For example. many imponant official papers regarding, the activities of governments are open to histonans for study only after a lapse of 50 years (in the case of sonie conatries, 30 years). Many people who are involved in the formulation of policies ad in the activities of the government, such as Prime Ministers. Min. isters and high officials, maintain diaries of their activities and notes of meetings or write their memoirs. These diaries and memoirs (called ‘private’ papers") are generally not Published in the lifetinie of their authors and ven when they are published or made public, care is taken to see that such portions as may show them or the govemment in a bad light are not published or made available to the historian. The official records and the Private papers also often deal with matters of a sensitive nature or with persons still living and making: them public may cause embarrassment to the governments or to the individuals. Some records of discussions between the leaders of different countries. if ‘made public, may embitter relations between them or between’ theth and other countries, Sometimes, governments release some docu- ments to prove that their policies and actions were in the best interests of their countries of even of the world, and withhold others that may lead to a different conclusion, Because of the non-availability of all relevant sources of infomation, many historians would rather not. venture to write the history ofINTRODUCTION pores recent years ‘There are other, stronger, reasons why some historians are unwilling to write about lie period in which they are living, The ant of writing history “is a valid and useful imellectual activity only if it is- practised without bias, A historian who writes about the present is, in a sense, himself or herself a participant and is emotionally involved in the events and developments that he.is writing about. Therefore, it is said, his or her writing cannot be unbiased and objective. The first reason regarding the historian’s reluctance to write about the present or contemporary history (we shall define whac we mean by ‘contemporary history” later) carries less weight than is sometimes made out. There is such a wide variety of materials available about contemporary history, and in such abundance, that the absence of some official records and: private papers may not really make much difference. This, éf course, Precludes such historical questions as can be fesolved only if all relevant official documents, private papers and the like are available. One can think of many such questions from recent history, for example, the events that took place in August 1991 in Moscow, However, reliable materials on the aspects of lustory which are of great importance 10 the historian, such as social and economic life, political institutions, science and tech- nology, various components of culture, are more readily “available for contemporary history than for any other period of the past. And these materials are available for almost every part of the world. For earlier periods, even the facts with regard to the population of most parts of the world-are not available with any degree of certainty, The question of bias is more relevant, even though a reader of Indian newspapers of recent years may say that the writings en ancient Incian history, at feast the popular wentings, including those oy'some professional historians, reflect more bias on ancient Indian 25.co™ history than on the history of a more recent past. The danger of bias, however, is real and it need not be seen only or even masnly as _narrow-mindedness or prejudice The historian’s view may be coloured by his philosophical outlook of his gerieral approach to the problems of the world. While narrow-tiindedness of any ‘kind has no place in the historian’s profession, no historian can be free from some philosophical outlook or otheras every historian viewis the contemporary problems and issues fiom a certain standpoint The lustorian’s general viewpoint or philo- sophical outlook is, in fact, an important aid to her or nis study. It is crucial in formulating, a hypothesis which forms the basis for further study and for forming a coherent picture off the event or the phenomenon being, studied. There is tio getting away from it The historian, however, has to guard against the danger of her. or his general viewpoint degenerating into narrow-mindedness | and becoming a stumbling block rather than an aid to understanding. It is also. important that the reader of a work of history studies it critically, and is aware of the general viewpoint of the historian as well as of the influence it has exerted on the historian’s work, A. more serious problem which arises while studying contemporary history, is one of historical perspective or, as one historian fhas put it, of “mowing waat happened in the end”. A historian dealing with the events of an earlier period, say, the Civil War in England or the Battle of Plassey, knows how those events ended and is also able to see the long-term consequences of those events One’ cannot write with. the same certainty about, say, the end of the Cold War or of the changes which are taking: place in the tepublics ‘which constituted the USSR Since there was the possibility that one's views might colour one’s historical study and since not enough time had elapsed to Provide sufficient historical perspective, somenot esc tistortans thought it was not safe to write even the history of the nineteenth century. Many more, of course, would hesitate to wite about recent history with much greater Justification. An example from recent history ‘will illustrate how ‘unsafe’ it can be to write contemporary history. In 1928, a scholar swrote an article on capitalism for a new edition of The Encyclopaedia Brittanica, In this article, he wrote, “Capitalism is. still accused of responsibility for avoidable un employment, arising from periodic alternations of climaxes and depressions in trade activity, of ‘booms’ aad ‘slumps’. It is c2rtain, however, that though there must always be some tidal movement of rise and falt, the former’ violence of these rhythms is now much zbated....°. This article was published in the Fncyefopaedia in 1929, the year which saw the beginning of the worst economic depression in history affecting almost all parts of tlie world. The 1920s had been the years of economic growth and prosperity for many capitalist countries in the West. The scholar who wrote thé article was convinced that the capitalist system had finally attained, stability but his writing was falsified just at the time it was published. Similar examples can be quoted to show how some recent events have proved false the views of some socialist scholars regarding the growing strength of the world socialist “system. The historian’s perceptions “of the post-1917 developments in Russia-or of the socialist movement curing the past seven decedes would be different today from what thes were less then ten years ago. ft may be useful in this context to quote Enc Hobsbawm, author. of a recently (1994) published history of the twentieth century in the preface to this® book, he writes, “Nobody can write the history of the twentieth century like that of any other era, if only because nobody can write about his or her lifetime as one can (and must) write about a peribd known only from outside... My wes. CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY, own lifetime coincides with most of the period with which this book deals, and for ‘most of it, from early teen-age to the present T have been conscious of public affairs, that is to say 1 have accumulated views and prejudices about it as a contemporary rather than as a scholar. This is one reason why under my professional hat as a historian | avoided working on the era since 1914 for most of my career, though not refraining, from writing, about it in ottier capacities It is now possible, according to him, to see the history of the twentieth ceniury “from - 1914 to the end of the Soviet era in some historical perspective”. From the above, it is clear that much of contemporary history is ‘provisional’ or “open-eided’. The events of the past five years have, for example, rendered portions of the first edition of this book which was published in 1990 completely obsolete. Within about a year of its publication, the Soviet Union which was described along with USA ‘as a pre-eminent military power, ceased to ‘exist. The kind of socialism which was burlt in the Soviet Union and other socialist countries lost its appeal as the alternative to the capitalist system. Yugoslavia, which had emerged as a State at the end of the First World War and had played a leading, role in the Non-Aligned Movement, broke up. The division of Germany into two independent States, each following a different path of development, came to an end. The system of apartheid in Africa has collapsed and a non-racist, democratically elected government hhas come to power in South Africa. Some of these developments, and the pace at which they have taken place, have been completely unanticipated. Thus, much of contemporary history lacks the definitiveness or the finality, which the history of earlier periods has. It should also, however, be remembered that aif contemporary history, is not ‘provi- sional’ or ‘open-ended’. For example. the statement that the systenr of imperialism builtores? ERONUEH OM by the European powers since the nineteenth century of before collapsed within about two decades after the Second World War is not gomg to be proved false in the same way as no new scientific researches are going to prove false the statement that the earth is not flat. The statement about the collapse of European imperialism describes a. very im portant historical development .in the con- temporary world There are’ many other significant developments in contemporary history about which our knowledge is much sor than. “provisional” though there would“ also be quite a few about which our knowledge would remain ‘provisional’. However, our knowledge of contemporary history is crucial to our understanding, of the world in which we live and its problems even if such knowledge is ‘provisional’ What is ‘contemporary history’? There are many different answers to this question Literally, it might mean ‘only the history of what is already happening at the moment of -wwniting’ of ‘a record of events through which the historian has lived’, But most historians consider it to be a specific period of history with its own specific characteristics in the same way as ancient history, medieval history ‘or even modem history denote specific periods and specific characteristics, however broadly defined, Some historians consider recent modem history to be contemporary history. According “to ‘one historian, writing in’ the early 1960s. “...Our era has such a well defined character that itis possible to speak of contemporary history in a specific sense... it) is the crucial years from 1945 to the present day which can be regarded as especially the sphere of contemporary history.” A Soviet historian, in his book on contemporary history published in 1986, described the period from 1917 te 1945 as the first stage of contemporary Instory. He further wrote: “Contemporary history, begins with the Great October Socialist’ Revolution of 1917 in \ues cor Russia. This revolution provided the impetus for a radical change in the fate of mankind. tis transition from the domination of thy expl Ww classes to the elimination of exploitation, to the establishment of social justice... °° Many Western historians consid- ered the’ years between 1914 and 1945 as the domain of contemporary history, This was pethaps a reflection of the view that European developments were central to the history of the world. In 1965, a French historian published a book entitled ‘Major Controversies of Contemporary History. He studied 65 controversies covering the period 1914 to 1945, by analyzing 11,000 published works and by personal interviews. Most of the controversies dealt with certain events of European tustory, a few concemed the US policy vis-a-vis Europe and two related to Japan's’ relations with Russia and the United States. No other part of the world figured in the book. There is an increasing trend amony, historians the world over to treat the history of the twentieth century as the specific sphere of contemporary history. The history of the twentieth century is viewed as contemporary history not only because it is a convenient period in terms: of chronology or as recent moder history but because it is regarded as having a ‘well-defined character’ which makes it a distinct period of history, distinct even from modem history. -~ Contemporary history, or the history of the twentieth century, is also increasingly viewed as contemporary world history. This is because of thé awakening of mankind “to a sense: of world: community in which all ‘were inescapably involved”, For the Euro- peans, according to the éditor of a’ work on the twentieth century. it was possible to take a short-sighted: view of the history of the period preceding, the fwentieth century and to think that Europe played a leading role in world history. Such a view. according to him, “is no longer even plausibis and anynot escl history of the 20th century has to take a view of the whole world in a way that was not true of earlier periods”. Geoffery Bar- aclough, in his book vt Introduction 10 Contemporary History, has weiten, “One of ihe distinctive facts about contemporary history 1s that it is world history and that the forces shaping it cannot be understood unless we are prepared to adopt worldwide perspectives”. He considers the period des- ignated by him as “contemporary” to be differen in “quality anc content” from what 's known as modern history. According to him, contemporary history has characteristics “which mark it off from the preceding, period in much the same way as what we call “medievat history” is marked off from ‘modern uistory’”. While no fixed dates can be given, contemporary history, according to Bar. raclough, “begins when the problems which are actual in the world today first take visible shape™. He puts this in the last decade of the nineteenth century Erie Hobsbawm’s book {ge of Extremes, referred to earlier, carries the sub-title “The Short Twentieth Century 1914-199)". Ac cording to this book, “the years from the outbreak of the First World War to the collapse of the USSR which, as we can now see in resirospect. form a coherent historical period that has now ended” and that “‘there can be no serious doubt that in the late 1980s and early 1990s an era in world history ended and a new one began” In this book, contemporary history is presented as beginning in about the last decade of the nineteenth century. Though it deals swith a few developments and events after 1991, the late 1980s and eaily 1990s have been presented as marking the end of an’ era Contemporary History: Some Characteristic Features ‘The main characteristic feature of content porary history, as indicated above, is that e5.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY the world has become “imtegrated in a way it had never been before”. There are still many things that divide the world. There are countries that have highly developed economies and there are also-countties with extreme economic backwardness, There are ideological and political divisions such as capitalist, socialist and others, though some of them appear to be less important now than they were even ten yéars ago. Much of comemporary history has been a history of confrontation and conflict. in spite of these divisions’ and conflicts, “the common problems of mankind” have “become the common concern of all” Contemporary Aistoty is characterized by tremendous changes in every aspect of social, economic and zolitical fe and in every area of human activity, Winston Churchill, Britain's Prime Minister during the Second World War and again from 1951 6 1955, mentions in one of his books the advice that an elder statesman gave him when he was entering Politics, “My dear Winsion”. the elder statesman told him, “the experiences of a Jong life have convinced me that nothing ever happens”. Churchill, commenting on this advice, wrote, “Since that_moment. nothing, has ever ceased happening.” He also described this century as “this terrible Twentieth Century” in. many ways, ‘the contemporary period, which is mainly the twentieth century, has been tnuly “terrible” No other century has seen such mass destruction and such avoidable misery as this century, However, many other things have happened, besides the terrible ones, in this century. This period has seen the collapse of imperialism and coloniatism on a world wide scale, the ending of the hegemony which Europe exercised over the world since the beginning of the modem age, and the rise of what is commonly known as the ‘Third World—-the peoples of Asta. Africsi and Latin America—as a major force inpYFRODHEHION ores world affairs. The period also saw the emergence of the United States of America aid, for many decades, of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as world powers, OF “super powers” as they were commonly called, Thus, world polities has been com- pletely transformed during the past one hundred years, There have been changes in the nature and functions of the State the world over and-new forms of State have emerged. In spite of many differences between different fonns of State, the powers of the: State everywhere" have increased and the State now performs many more functions than it did in the past. There is much more active participation by the people in the political affairs of their colintnes and in the making of history than ever before. It may be recalled that in the year 1890 universal adult franchise was unknown in almost every part of the world. Now it is a common feature of Political life in most countries, There have been tremendous changes in economy and society the world over The Industrial Revolution, which began in England during the last decades of the eighteenth century, had spread to a few countries of Europe and? North America by the end of » the nineteenth century. Im the twentieth century, industrialism has become a world. wide phenomenon. The advances in science and technology have been so far reaching and fundamental that we offen speak of them as revolutionary. Their direct application in industry has further accelerated the rate of changes in economic life. In the process, however, the countries that do not, have the advantage of modem science and teclinology, have been left behind and the gap between the econoniically developed ‘cotintries and the others has increased All. societies have undergone major transformations, There has been an unprece- Gented merease in what is called “human ues.co™ expectations—a much higher percentage of human race demanding much more and believing that it is possible to provide it” Ideological challenges such as those repre- sented by the rise of socialism in the mid-nineteenth century became powerful forces in the twentieth century influencing, hundreds of millions of people in all parts of the world, Even though many regimes which professed socialism have. collapsed, the socialist ideal has enriched the concepts of human rights and democracy. The principles of social justice “have received universal acceptance There has been what raay be called a gfowing secularization of political and social life. of art and literature, and of ideas, although some parts of the world continue to be plagued with sectarian conflicts and violence. There has generally been a loosening, of the hold of religion and what has been called “the growing, impatient demand for Breater satisfaction in man’s present life”. ‘The art and literature of the contemporary world are distinguishable from the art and literature of any previous period. Many artists and writers rebelled against all traditions of art and fiterature, they experimented with new forms and techniques and gave expression to new experiences. In the countries where there was conscious revival of traditions as a part of national awakening, the art and literature that grew were distinctly new and hot merely a continuation of the traditional forms, much less their imitation. The art and literature in almost every part of the world have been influenced by the developments in other parts of the world much more than in any other period of human history, ‘The most significant characteristic of Contemporary history, which is increasingly becoming thé dominant characteristic, is the awakening “to a sense of world community in which all were inescapably involved", as has already been mentioned. There has beena not escl a growing common concern over the common problems of mankind, The chief of these problems has been the common danger that ihe development of thermonuclear and other weapons of destniction posed to the very survival. of human life, There are other problems, such as those of. poverty and backwardness, of over-population and, more ecently but one that is increasingly recoynized. , oF environment. Human beings the world aver have now a shared destiny as never vefore, Contemporary History and Modern History: I as disetissed above, contemporary history is distinct from modam history (and not ‘merely the most recent part of it), it is useful to havéyan overview of modem history. It should. Be remembered that no_ historical period is totally new; every historical period carries within itself much of the preceding, period. There are always many elements of continuity. It is also necessary to know the’ preceding periad in order to adequately grasp the new in the following period. The. modem period of history may be said to have begun in the fifteenth-sevemteenth centuries, if we take an overall view. of the world (This statement, of course, is not true for alt regions and countries of the world.) ‘These’ centuries sarked the trarisition’ from the medieval period in 'some countries of Western Europe. The major historical devel- opments in Hiese centuries of transition were the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bejin- ning of smodern “Science, the discovery’ of new lands and new routes (particularly: new searoutes) by Europeans leading “to the’. colonization of the Americas and parts of Asia and Africa, and emergence of nation- states. All these developments were related to 2 fundamental change in the way the social and economic life of the people was omnized, This change was marked by the gt e5.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY disintegration of the feudal system and its replacement by a new system, called capi- talism, A large part of the world was brought together as a result of these developments. often by brute force and, in the case of many parts of Africa, by enslavemerit, Another development which began to take place in the second half of the eighteenth century and which brought about even more fimda ‘mental changes, was the Industrial Revolution. It began in England with the use of machines for producing goods. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century: the Industrial Revo- lution: had spread to many countries of Europe, though in vatying degrees, and to North America, particularly USA. The coun- ties to which the Jindustrial Revolution had spread had their social and economic fife completely transformed. The centre of eco- nomic activity. shifted from rural to new urban centies, and to industrial production and related activities instead of agriculture. anid an ever-growing, share of a country’s wealth came from industry rather than from agriculture. Two new social classes emerged in society — the capitalist or the huunyevisiv, who were the owners of industries and controlled trade and commerce. and the industrial working class or the profeturiat, who worked for a wage. This was a period of terrible misery for the working, classes of the industrialized countries of Europe. The workers began to organize themselves into trade unions even though in many countries these were illegal, They also began to organize themselves as a distinct political force under the influence of the ideas of socialisin, Thus arose the socialist movement which: strove not only to promote the economic demands of the workers but also to mobilize them to- dverthrow the system of capitalism . itself. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels played a leading role in givirig a scientific shape to the ideas of sociatisn: and in organizing the socialist movements in many countries of Europe. The ideas of socialism also reachedINTRODUCTION pores the United States, In 1864, the Intemational Working Men’s Association, popularly known as the First Intemational, was formed. By the time it was formally abolished in 1876, socialist parties had been organized in many countries of Europe, Sonie of them had a Jarge following. In 1871, the first revolution inspired by the ideas of socialism, had taken place in Paris. This is known in history as the Paris Commune which, though it lasted for barely three months, was an event of great historical importance, In 1889, the Second Imernational was formed and socialist aries of various countries were affiliated to it In the meantime, laws were passed’ in many countries to safeguard workers against sonit of the worst effects 6f the Industrial Revolution and capitalist exploitation. Simultaneously with these developments, there were significant changes in the political “sphere. We have mentioned the formation of nation-states as one of the major developments that marked the period of transition fom the medieval period to the modem period The formation of nation-states in Europe continued during the nineteenth century and, in the case of some countries, during the first two decades of the tweatieth century. Nationalism arose as a major factor in the history of Europe, Nations that were divided into a mumber of States. such as Germany, and others that were divided. into.a number of States some of which were under the rule of another ‘country such 2$ Haly, strove to unite themselves into independent States. There was another major development regarding the political system in many countries of Europe, The Political system in almost all countries of Europe was monarchical and autocratic. Only England, after a civil war in the seventeenth century, had succeeded in, establishing the supremacy of parliament. During, the. eight- eenth and nineteenth centuries. ideas of democracy and popular sovereigmy gained ground, In £789, the French Revolution took e.com. . place which proctaimed the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity, and the Rights of Man and Citizen. Earlier, the English colonists in America had issued the Declaration of Independence. which declared that “all man are created equal” and had certain “inalienable rights” and that the people had a right to overthrow an oppressive government. The colonists had succeeded in their war of independence and had set up.a new independent republic, the United States of America Along with nationalism, democracy was a major force in the history of nineteenth century Europe. A number of revolutions and movements took place im most countries of Europe to establish democratic political systems, Although almost all the countries of Europe continued to have a monarchicai form of goverment, in many cases the mowarchies were constitutional, grat is, they were govemed by a constitution and real Power was exercised by parliament. In most countries, however, the franchise was not universal, and many men and all women were excluded from the right to vote All these developments were confined to Europe and North America, but even in Europe there “Were some couniries that Temained unaffected. The rest of the world had neither an Industrial Revolution, except Japan during, the last decades of the nineteenth century, nor the Kind of social and political Changes that have been mentioned above. The colonization of the Americas and parts of Asia and Africa which took place with the discovery of new lands and sea-routes has been mentioned earlier. A new wave of imperialism arose during the last three decades Of the nineteenth century and before the end of tke century almost every part of the world had come under direct or indirect subjugation of a few European powers and of the United States; In the case of some countries. the actual occupation took much longer in the face of resistance put up by the people of the colonies. The imperialist. conquest ofnot esc some other cotinitries, such as India, had been ccmpleted even earlier The countries of the viorld which today constitute the Third World, were subjected to economic exploi- tation ty the imperialist countries even when they were not under direct imperialist ute. The F:ople of the colonies resisted the imperi dist -rule from the ‘very beginning. Even sefore the nineteenth century: ended. poweritl forces had ‘begun to emerge in some countries under cofonial domination, whick sought to end the colonial rule, not for restoring, the precotonial systems in their e5.co™ ConTEMWORARY WORLD HISTORY countries but for transforming them into independent modern nations, industrializing, them and building their societies on the principlé of equality. The world which had developed by the nineteenth century was ‘very different from the world which’ came into being in the twentieth century. particularly during the times in which we live. It should, however, be remembered that some of the forces that were to build the world of the twentioth century, had alteady begun to emerge in the nineteenth century. EXERCISES Why is history divided into distinct periods 7 What are the criteria génerally used by historians to divide history into distinct periods in the light, of this statement What. are the problems faced by historians examples. of human history. with this view ? Why 9 or, Why not ? ~ Much: of contemporary history is open-ended”. Discuss the concept of contemporary history of the contemporary period ? Explain with Describe the features of the contemporary world which distinguish it from the modern period Why is the. study of contemporary history important "2, Discuss, Many historians hotd the view that all contemporary history is world history. Do you agreeCHAPTER 2 The World from the 1890s to the First World War. Durie the period from about the last decade of the nineteenth century to 1914 when the First World War broke ont, the world was dominated by Europe. However, there were already signs that the beginning of the end of European hegemony had started, Outside Europe, two countries—USA and Japan—had already emerged ‘as major powers. Within the colonies, nationalist movements had begun to rake shape, The rivalries among the European imperialist powers over colonial Possessions and the conflicts amorig various European States over European affairs led to the First World War, which was disastrous for Europe. Within many'countfies of Europe, Powerfill movements had emerged which aimed at radical changes. inthe existing social, economic and political systems. Even before the war was over, the biggest country of Europe, Russia, had a successful revolution, The world which emerged after the First World War ended in 1918, was very different from what it had been in the preceding three decades. EUROPE Europe's Hegemony «nd Inter-Imperialist Rivalries During the period from the 1870s, when the new phase of impenalist expansion began. to 1914, almost all parts of Asia and Africa and some areas in other parts of the world nores had come under the control of one Europear imperialist county or the other In Asia, India, Malaya (now Malaysia), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma (now Myanmar) Were under British rule, the countries comprising, Indo-China” were under French rule and Indonesia was under Dutch rule, China was not directly ruled by any imperialist country ‘but had been divided into ‘spheres of influence” of various countries. She had been reduced to the status of an international colony. Her dismemberment was prevented by the Boxer Rebellion which broke out in 1399-1900, The Rebellion was suppressed by a joint Anglo-German-Russian-French-Japanese- American force which occupied Beijing but it prevented the partition of China. In 1907, Iran was divided into three parts —one part was within the sphere of influence of Britain, the second within that of Russia and the third open to both Russia and Britain. Britain exercised some degree of control over Afghanistan, Central Asia had come under the rule of the Russian empire. The. only major country in Asia which was independent was Japan. She had defeated China in 1895 and occupied Formosa and in subsequent years she extended” her influence over China and defeated Russia in a war over Manchuria. In 1910, she occupied Korea Africa, with the exception of Ethiopia and Liberia, was divided among the European powers, cues comnot est In 1376, Leopold Il, King, of Belgium, tad taken possession of Congo, more oF less as his private property: it was handed over to the Belgian government in 1908, Britain's empire in Africa included Egypt and Sudan, Rhodesia, Uganda, British East Africa, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast (Ghana), Nigeria, and South Africa, The French had taken possession of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, the Sahara, French Congo, French Guihea, Senegal, Dahomey and Madagascar. Germany had acquired Germag East Africa, South-West Africa, Cameroons and Togoland. The Italian conquests: included Libya and Somaliland Portugal held Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea, and Spain had acquired Rio de Oro and Spanish Guinea. Italy's ambition to conquer Ethiopia had been thwarted when her troops were defeated by the Ethiopian army at the fainous Battle of Adowa in 1896, The details of colonial possessions in Asia and Africa in 1914 are shown in. the maps of Asia and Africa included in this chapter. Japan's colonial expansion upto 1918 and colonial possessions in the Pacific up to 1914 are shown in separate maps. The British empire was the biggest in the world, both in terms of the number of people over whom it ruled and the area under her nila, Britain, at-this time, had a population of -about 45. million but the population of fer colonial possessions ex- tending over an.area of 23 million square kilometres was about 400 million. France with a population of about 39 million ruled over an empire of over 10 million square kilometres inhabited by over SO million people, Europe dominated the world not only politically but also economically. Three countries of Europe — Britain, Germany and France’— controlled about 45 per cent of the world trade and about 60 per cent of the world market. for manufactured goods. . \ues com CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY, The process of the imperialist conquest of Asia and Africa was accompanied by intense rivalries and conflicts among the European imperialist powers. The competing claims over colonies often created conditions of war. However,’ generally, most of these conflicts were resolved in the conference rooms of Europe and wars were avoided. ‘The European powers settled their rival claims —which country would acquire which territory — on the basis of guid pro quo or “something for something’. by giving away something in exchange for receiving something. For example, in 1904, after a long period of conflicting claims, which had brought them almost to the point of was, Britain and France entered into a secret agreement, whereby Britain was given a “free hand’ ‘in Egypt and in exchange Morocco was to be given to France. When Germany came to know about it, she demanded that France relinquish er claim to Morocco. A series of international crises followed, bringing Europe to the brink of war. The Moroccan issue was finally settled in 1911 when France agreed to give a portion of French Congo to Germany and Germany informed France that she could do what she liked in Morocco, In creating these crises and in resolving them, the people of French Congo or Morocco, whose ternitories were being bargained, had no say. In spite of the ‘Gentlemen's Agreements’ which resolved miost disputes over colonies, there was growing militarization of the European states. Every country feared and suspected the other and tried to increase its military and naval strength and the size of every country’s navy and army went on increasing. Most European countries intro- duced conscription, that is, making military training, compulsory for everyone. Europe was being gradually converted into an armied camp. Each country, of course, claimed that the increase in her armed strength was for purely defence purposes but others’ was for war. Britain opposed Germany: building aGaiam French Germon *] tations Portuguese Belgianstrong navy saying that it was a luxury for hner as she had a strong army. Kaiser William Ul, the German Emperor, declared, “The German Fleet is not built against any one and not against England, but according to our need... [ want to make myself safe, against France and Russia and England too. And | am all for the white man against the black” Britain was determined to maintain her naval superiority, which she had enjoyed for. about three’ centuries, .to protect her empire and commerce, and to give herself a feeling of safety. The feverish manner in which the armed strength of various European States was increasing ‘and the preparations for war were made, led to the steady growth of feeling that -war was inevitable. War was considered a part of the natural order of things and was even extolled as a virtue. Preparations for war were accompanied by propaganda for war, and some philosophers and politicians viewed war as one of the “divine elements of the universe” and “a condition for progress”. When we speak of the economic and military might of Europe, it should be remembered that this was not true of all countries of Europe. When the war broke out in 1914, there were about twenty-five States in Europe, big and small, Thé most industrialized of these were Britain, Germany and France while most of the rest — Spain and Portugal in the Iberian Peninsula, the Balkan ‘States such as Albania, Serbia and Bulgaria, and Greece and countries of Eastern Europe ~ were ‘still primarily pre-industrial countries even though some of them had acquired colonial possessions. Russia, the Most poptilous country in Europe and with a big empire was also primarily an agricultural country, where industriatization “had just begiin, and that too, mainly through investment by other countries. Nor were the States based on the principle of “yationality The Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithyania, and Finland were part of the Russian empire. rm 6.00 " ores CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY. Poland as a State did not exist; one part of it was under Russian occupation, another part was under the occupation of the Austro-Hungarian empire and the third patt lay in Germany. Czechoslovakia was a part of the Austro-Hungariaa empire as were ‘many areas of the Slav people (comprising, parts of what was till recently Yugoslavia). Ireland had been a British colony for centuries. The political system in these countries also varied —a few were republics, though not all republics were democratic; some were constitutional: monarchies, the powers of the monarch varying from country to country, and the rest were awocrcies. Conflicts within Europe ‘The conflicts among Eurépean countries were not confined to the question of colonies There were tensions and antagonisms between thom over European affairs. Of the pwenty-five European States, five may be said to have been powerful. These were Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary and Russia. Of these, Britain was the richest and the most powerful Britain had a parliamentary.form of govern- ment though monarchy had been retained Even after the various Reform Acts passed during the nineteenth century, the House of Commons, the House of British parliament which comprised elected members (the other being the House of Lords which comprised hereditary members) was not truly democratic. AU men still did not have the right to vote and women had no voting, rights at all. One of the major problems that Britain faced was the demand for Home Rule by the frish. A powerful movement for independence had been growing in Ireland though many people in northern Ireland, mostly settlers from England and Scotland, were opposed to it. Germany was emerging, as the strongest power, both in terms of her economic and armed might, on the continent of Europe and was Britajn’s main: rival. She too had‘ps wontD Frost THE imran Sea i a partiamentary form of government though the position of the German emperor was ‘much stronger than that of the British monarch, The territory of Germany included a part of Poland and Alsace-Lorraine which she had taken from France after a war in 1870-71 France, the third most industrialized state of Europe, had been a republic since 1871. She looked forward to the day when she would avenge her humiliating defeat at the hands of Germany and recover Alsace-Lorraine by a war of revanche (revenge). The dominant power in Central Europe was the Habsburg, Empire, or ‘the dual monarchy of Austria- Hungary: Emperor Francis Joseph was. si- tnultaneously the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Politically, Austria-Hungary was the most troubled State in Europe. Extending over a large area of Europe, her ierritories, besides Austria and Hungary, included areas inhabited by many nationalities These included Czechs of Bohernia and Moravia, Slovaks, Poles, Romanians, Serbs and Croats, and Italians, In all these territories, there was a resurgence of nationalism, creating, deep discontent and divisions. The natiowzalism of the Slav people in Austria - Hungary was also fanned by Russia and Serbia and created strong antagonism benween these two countries and Austria-Hungary, Russia was the biggest country in Europe and she-bad established a. vast empire which included the Baltic States, Finland and: part of Poland in Europe, and Northern “and Central Asia. She was a backward agricultural country, with some industries concentrated in a few big cities, and had an outdated political system. She was under the autocratic ule of the czars, as the Russian emperors were called, and untit 1905: she did not have even the semblance of a parliantent: After the 1905 revolution, a parliament, called the Duma, was created but it had little power. Discontent was rife in the Russian empire among the non-Russian nationalities because of the oppressive social, econonuc ana political system. Another country of Europe which pretended to be powerful was Italy, She had vast colonial ambitions: but, except for her northern parts, she was industrially backward. Some of the tensions in Europe were connected with the dismemberment .of the Ottoman empire. Till the early nineteenth century the entire Balkan Peninsula was a part of the Ottoman empire. Throughout the nineteenth century, there were wars between the Ottoman and Russian empires. Russia's attempts © extend her. control. over the Ottoman territories in Europe “vere thwarted by other European countries, notably Britain, Germany and Austria-Hungary By the early twentieth century, the Ottoman rule over thé Balkans had all but ended. Serbia, Bulgaria and Albania liad emerged as independent States, However, the dismemberment of the Ottoman empire did not solve the problem of nationalities in Europe, Serbia had emerged as a champion of the Slav people, many of ‘whom inhabited the Austro-Hungarian empire. She depended on Russia's support in her ambition to create Greater Serbia which would include the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina that were ur der Austria- Hungary and the southern arear of Austria Hungary which were inhabited by the Slav people — the Croats, the Slovens and Serbs, She encouraged discontent in thse areas and organized conspiracies against Austia-Hun- gary. This region became the’ source of increasing tensions in Europe and finally provided the incident which brought about the First World War. {n 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bos- nia-Herzegovina which, though formally a part of the Ottoman empire, had been tinder . her control. Serbia wanted Russia to go to war with Austria-Hungary on this issue but Germany’s threat of supporting Austria-Hun- gary in the event of a war restrained Russia ‘There was further imtensification of bitternesspores” NATIONALITIES OF AUSTRO-HUNGAI yues-cO™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY, RIAN EMPIRE (1914) Czechs + RUSSIA ‘GERMANY - AL Bonema eter Region Moravian Lnatotons mann StovaKia : | : vena (vere una Germaine i HUNGARY = a ‘omsiians o cbvens TRANSYLVANIA Croats and Serbs ROMANIA + Suchorest Aaristic Sea BOSNIA Belgrade . C Sorsicvo HERZEGOVINA, = S2,, BULGARIA The nap shows_sieas habia by dierent InpunieLomtionoer Language was the main criterion of nation ‘Fe approsimate, Each aron was iohabited by o in Serbia against Austria-Hungary as a result of the Balkan Wars in 1912-13, Some of the Balkan States, including Seibia, had united, with Russian support, to coriquer Macedonia from the. Ottomans. However, after the Ottomans ad been defeated, Austria-Hungary, with the support of Britain and Germany, succeeded in making Albania an independent State rather than a part of Serbia which Serbia had hoped Formation of Alliances During all: this period, treaties and secret agreements were signed, and threats of war issued and withdrawn, indicating, alignments and realignments. There were no permanent friends and no country could rely. on the in Europe, The arcs shown, her inguatie groups alae, support of another country. This confusion —who was whose ally and enemy — persisted {itl the very outbreak of the war and was an additional source of tension. For example, Russia had threatened to go to war on the question of Bosnia-Herzegovina. In fact. she had earlier reached a secret understanding with Austria-Hungary promising her that she would not ‘interfere in her plans to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina in exchange for her support in Russia's ambition to have the straits leading to the Mediterranean opened to her. However, in spite of these uncertainties, ‘two rival alliances had emerged by the first decade of the twentieth century. Already in 1882, the Triple Alliance comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy had been formed. Although Germany and Austtia-Hungary4 { corm TRE WORLD FROM TRE 1908-76 eles: DWAR 1” M +s mL remained friends, by 1890 it was clear that taly’s loyalty to the Alliance would be uncertain. Russia and France had signed secret agreements in 1894 which had brought them together against the Triple Alliance, particularly against Germany and Austria Hungary. In 1904, Britain and France, who had long been enemies and had often reached the brink of war in their rivalries over colonies, entered into what is known as the Entente Condiale, a sort of friendly agreement rather than a formal alliance, The secret clauses of the ‘friendly agreement’ included France giving up her claims on Egypt in return for freedom to do what she liked with Morocco. The next stage in the process was an agreement in 1907 between Britain and Russia — the two had a long history of rivalries and hostility. The purpose of this friendly agreement was to divide Iran, as already mentioned. With this was formed the Triple Entente comprising Bntain, France and Russia. It was an Entente (understanding) and not a format altiance, The formation ef the alliances (or understanding). in spite of doubts about the loyalty of allies and friends in case the war broke out, brought the war nearer and added to the mistrust and fear of each country against the others. The alliances atso made it, in a way, inevitable that, when the war broke out, it would not be a focal war confined to one or two Countries and that it would: almost certainly assume wider préportions, Social Tensions Besides the conflicts between States. there were serious terisions and problems within Slates The problem ‘of nationalities,. which has been mentioned, was not the only source of internal tensions. The changes that ‘had come about since the rise. of capitalism and during about a hundred years after the beginning of the Industrial Revolution had made Europe's hegemony over the world possible. However, the social system in: all countries of Europe was marked by gross inequalities. In the countries where industri- alization had not taken place on any significant scale, the peasantry which constituted the bulk of the population, continued to live in the“ old way. in conditions of misery and oppression. The countries that were indus- trialized and had become mighty economic Powers had social systems that were based ‘on undisguised exploitation of the workers In spite of the growth of industries which Produced an increasing quantity of goods, vast masses of people tived in unhealthy conditions in slums and led lives of semi-starvation, with the ever-present danger of being thrown out of employment. In Britain, during her war against the Boers (Duteh settlers) in South Africa in 1899 — 1902, the need for recruiting additional men to the army was urgently felt” A large number of people who came to the amy rectuiting centres were, however, rejected, for they were distased and too weak, having lived ives of soverty in unhealthy surroundings, to serve as soldiers. Efforts were made to mitigate some of the worst evil effects of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution but the situation of the downtrodden had not significantly improved even after the end of the nineteenth century. A British historian of twentieth century Europe has remarked, “The poor who thronged the overcrowded slums of the big towns and industrial districts were a lower order of lnumanity and treated as such, valued only as the necessary pool of labour: always in surplus, on which the social as well as the economic system depended™ Socialist Movement ‘The rise ‘of the trade union movement ata! of the ideas and movement of socialism has been mentioned earlier The socialist view that capitalism was a system based on exploitation and must be ended, was gaining,1K oresel increasing popularity with the workers of Europe since the fast quarter of the nineteenth century. There was a spate of strikes in pte-First World War Europe, In almost every country of Europe, socialist parties had been formed and were steadily growing. By 1914, the people who voted for the various socialist parties in Europe also steadily increased, In 1914, the socialist parties of Germany, France and Italy were the single largest parties in the parliaments of their respective countries ‘The formation of the Second International in 1889 has been, referred to earlier. One of the decisions taken at the Congress at which the Second International was formed was “to organize, for Ist May, a great international demonstratién organised in such a way that CONTEMPORARY WORLD JESTORY on the same day “the workers in all the lands and cities will simultaneously demand from the powers-that-be a limitation of the working day to eight hours”. Since then, May Day is observed throughout the world as the working-class day and a day of solidarity of the workers throughout the world, There were many differences within the socialist. movement and among, the -parties of each country on the meaning, of socialism and the methods of achieving it. Some socialists held the view that capitalism could be ended ‘only by overthrowing the ruling class through a revolutionary struggle while others held that capitatism could be tans- formed gradually through the growing influ:25.cO™ “THE WoRt.D FROMTHE 19708 rors EWR war wi ence of the working class without a revolution These differences were also reflected in the policies of the Second Intemational and continued to divide the’ socialist movement a later years, Colonialism, Militarization and War ‘Two major issues which all socialist parties and the Second International were .concemed about were the issues of the colonies and of militarization and war, There were differ” ences on both these issues although on ceitain aspects of these issues almost all socialists were agreed. Some advocated the view that the right of every nation to freedom and independence was a fundamental concept of socialism’ and that colonialism should be totally rejected. Others, while condemning capitalist colonial policies, held that-under a socialist government colonialism could play @ positive civilizing role, The latter view was often used by some sections in. the socialist movement to directly or indirectly support the colonial policies of their respective governments. These differences persisted for many decades and it -was only after the collapse of the colonial system that. the ‘civitizing role’ of colonialism, under a capitalist or a socialist government, lost all its “socialist” adherents, In spite of these. differences, however, the socialist “partis. of Europe, including, those of the in:pertalist countries, demarcated themselves from the colonial policies of their govemments. The Second International, at its Congress held at Stuttgart in Germany in 1907, unanimously passed a resolution which committed the socialist members. of Parliament to oppose. the robbery and subjugation of colonial peoples and to fight for reforms which would better their lot, protect their rights and “do everything possible to educate them for independence”. The leaders of the freedom movements often, 1» established close relations with the socialist Parties and leaders of the colonial countries. Daciabhai Naoroji, the Grand Old Man of India’s freedom movement, attended a Con- gress of the Second International, and was greeted with “tumulmous cheers and applause. lasting for several thinutes”. The president of the session asked the delegates “to treat with the greatest reverence the statement of the Indian delegate, an old man of eighty, who had sacrificed fifty-five years of his life to the. struggle for the freedom and . happiness of ‘his’ people”. Madame Cama, an Indian revolutionary, unfurled India’s flag of freedom, which she had designed, at a Congress of the Second International From its eazliest beginnings, the socialist movement hat viewed war as an extreme expression of the eyil of the existing system of society and a barbaric instrument with ‘which the ruling classes of various countries tried to promote their economi¢ and political Power. The establishment of peace and human brotherhood hed been one of the inspiring Vladimir yich LeninRosa Laembury ideals of the sociatist movement. With the ‘growing militarization and the danger of war, the socialist parties and the Second Interna tional increasingly concerned themselves with these issues. One of their major preoccupations throughout this period was the “question of how the workers of the world could unite to prevent’ wars”, All socialist parties were agreed that every effort should be made to. prevent wars, They were committed to ‘opposing, the arms race and voting, against war credits in the parliaments of their respective countries. Many socialist leaders suggested that workers should go on a genetat strike to prevent war and, in case it broke out, to'bring about its speedy termination Keir Hardie, the British socialist leader, advocated the idea of a strike in the arms industzy. transport and mini, for preventing, wars. The Stuttgart Congress of the Second yes.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY International unz.imously adopted a resolution on‘Militarisix, and the International Conflicts” The resolution stated that wars “are pan of the very nature of capitalism” and declared that the struggle against militarism was inseparable from. the struggle for socialism It pledged the socialist parties and. their representatives in parliaments “to combat the naval and military armaments with all their might... arid to refuse the means for these armaments. it is their duty 10 work for the education of the working-class youth an the spirit of the brotherhood of nations and of Socialism...". The resolution ended by saying: “If a war threatens to break out, it 1s the duty of the working classes and. their parliamentary representatives in the countries involved... to exert every effort in order to prevent the outbreak of war by the means they consider most effective... _ “Incase war should break out any way, it is their duty to intervene in favour of its speedy termination and with all their powers to utilize the economic and political crisis created by the. war to rouse the masses and thereby to hasten the downfall of capitalist rule The concluding parts of the resolution quoted above were drafted by three socialist leaders Lenin and Martov from Russia and Rosa Luxemburg from Germany, They re- mained steadfast in their adherence to the resolution, A great leader who fought all his life against the forces of militarism and war was Jean Jaures of France. He had eamed the wrath of the French revanchists (ihe revenge-seekers) for his propaganda against militarism and war, During the Balkan War in 1912 when a European war seemed imminent, he had dectaréd, “Let governments remembér that in conjuring, up the danger of war they invite the peoples t6 make a simple calculation —how much smaller a sacrifice a revolution would involve, when compared with the war they are prepanng” On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary dectaredi tei com clues TAT: WORLD FROM THE AMOSAE: HST WORLD WAL 21 war on Serbia. Soon, after, a meating of the Second International was held in Brussels. A call was given at this meeting to the workers of all countries threatened by war to organize peace meetings and to work for the settlement of the dispute, between Aus- (ria-Hungary and Serbia. The meeting, also decided that “the German and French workers will bring even greater pressure on their own govemments to make Germany exercise restraint on Austria while France persuades Russia to keep out of the conflict”. There was a workers’ demonstration in Brussels with the slogan “War on War’. Jaures was among, the leaders who addressed the demonstrators. After his retum to Paris on 31 July. he went in a deputation to persuade the French government to pressurize Russia, France's Futeme ally, against mdbilization for war. A few hours later, on the eve of Jean Jateres the outbreak of the First World War, he was shot dead in a cafe When ihe war. finally, broke out, most socialist parties decided to support their Tespective governments. and made common cause with their respective ruling classes who solely bore the responsibility for the war, They found themselves to be powerless to oppose thé war and to call for an uprising to terminate it. The war which was caused by the inter-imperialist rivalries and served only the narrow imperialist aims of the ruling classes, was viewed by many socialists now as a fight for the survival of their respective nations, With this, an important phase in the history of the socialist movement camé to a close. The spirit of internationalism which had characterized the socialist movement from the very beginning, suffered a moral blow, “There were splits in the socialist Movement in all countries and these became even deeper after the Russian Revolution. The period of the quarter century before the First World War broke out was one of tremendous growth in the strength of the socialist movement in Europe. The socialist movement challenged the existing order. in Europe, the capitalist system on which it was based, the policy of imperialist conquest and exploitation of colonies, and militarism and war, There was a fear of revolution in Europe though’ none actually took place except in Russia in 1905 where if was suppressed, “Certainly no European govern- ment hesitated to yo to war for fear that its subjects would refuse the call to arms or turn their weapons against their own rulers and they were right” This statement by @ historian’ correctly sums up the situation as it developed, Except in the case of Ruissia where ‘the rulers were proved wrong, USA AND JAPAN Two countnes which emerged as niajor powers during this period were the United States of America (USA) and Japan.2 nores® USA During about a hundred years after the thirteen English colonies on the east coast of North ‘America had-won their independence from England and emerged as the United States of America, that country had attained its present territorial proportions. The westward territorial expansion of the United States took place at the cost of the American Indian tribes which inhabited those areas. The American Indians resisted these encroachments but by 1896 this Fesistance finally ended in ‘a massacre ‘at’ a place called Wounded Knee in South Dakota, USA also purchased vast terttories of Louisiana and Alaska from France and Russia, respectively, and seized Texas and California from Mexico after a war ‘with that country. Between 1861 and 1865. there was a civil war when the southern States of USA, which were primarily agri cultural with plantations worked by slave labour, seceded from the Union. As a result of the defeat of the southern States in the civil war, the Union was preserved and slavery was abolished. Within about three decades after the end of the Civil War, USA had become. the foremost. industrial power in the-wortd. By the end of the nineteenth century. slie was producing about one-third of the total production of iron and steel in the world In almost every branch of industry, she outstripped every ‘other country in the wortd. There were over 300,000 km of railroads in the country, which exceeded the combined railroads in entite Europe. She produced and consumed more oil and natural gas than the rest of the world put together. For a long, time, the amazing growth of the US economy went unnoticed, One reason for this was that the US herself provided a huge market for her products. The US population had risen from: about four imillion in 1790 to about 92 million in 1910. About twenty-five million Europeans had migrated to the US during \ues com CONTEMPORARY WORLD FOSVORY + the nineteenth century and the first decade of the fwentieth century, In USA there had also been a generat lack of interest in Europe and world, affairs ‘USA as an Imperialist Power By the 1890s, USA had emerged as a new imperialist power, In 1889, a US senator said, “Today, we.are raising wore than we can consume. Today, we are making more than we can use. Therefore, we must find .new markets for our produce, new occupation for our capital, new work for our labour” Another senator had warned that the US must not fall out of the line of march. Like many Europeans at that time, the Americans also had begun talking, about the .duty of the civilized nations to uplift the less fortunate ‘ones and the domination by strong ‘nations of the weak ones being, in accordance with the laws of nature, The US expansion in the Pavific had started even earlier. The Hawaiian Islands were referred to as being a part of the American System in 1881 though they were annexed only in 1898, In the 1880s, a warlike situation had developed-as a result of the US, German and British rivalries over the Samoan islands. For some time, the three countries established a tripartite control there but in 1899, Germany and the US divided the Islands between themselves, with Britain being provided elsewhere. In 1893, USA declared her hegemony over the American continent. During,a territorial dispute between ‘Venezuela and British Guiana (present Guy- ana), she forced Britain to agree to refer, the dispute to arbitration and declared, “Today the United States is practically sovereign on this continent and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition” In 1898, the US went to war with Spain over Cuba which, along with Puerto Rico, was then the only Spanish colony in the Americas. It was claimed to have been “a splendid little war"— except for those who PRE\yes.co™ Jub WORLD FROMTHE reecy{QT@S ENT wor DWAR 2 had fought in it, The US also attacked the Philippines, a Spanish colony in the Pacific Spain was defeated and ceded Puerto Rico and the island of Guain in the Pacifie to the US. The Filipinos were considered unfit to nile themselves. and the US President, claiming that he had received divine guidance. decided to annex the Philippines. Cuba was. forbidden: to make treatiés with any other country and the US claimed the right 10 intervene in Cuba to preserve her inde- pendence, life and property. Though nominally independent, she became a US appendage When,-in the 1890s, the. European Powers made preparations for the partition of China, the US felt that she would be left out. She. therefore, declared what is known as the Open Door policy, which meant that no i COLONIAL POSSESSIONS IN THE PACIFIC (UP TO 1914)CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY, the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet in 1904. Later,’ he mediated to end the Russo- Japanese War and persuaded Russia to recognize Japan's territorial gains which included contol of Korea and southem Manchuria, and a part of the Sakhalin Island which had earlier belonged to Russia. He also entered into a secret agreement with Japan which gave the US the right to trade freely in that region. The US appeasement of Japan's colonial ambitions was to prove costly to the US later as Japan became the main rival to the US in the Pacific Latin America had begun ta be seen as USA's special sphere of interest, which was {open to intervention only by the US. In 1904, Roosevelt declared that the United States had the mgbt- not only to oppose European intervertton in the American con tinent but t0 intervene herself in the intemal affairs of her neighbours to maintain order. This is known as a new ‘corollary’ to the US gunboat in Manila, Philippines country should be discriminated against rm China by other countries. including in areas which they claimed as their spheres of influence. When the Boxer Rebellion broke out, the US troops joined the troops of European countries, in suppressing, it and in occupying, Beijing. . By the early years of, the twentieth century, the US had become fully aware of her being, a world power. There was also a streak of ‘racism in the US attitude to other peoples. “According to the US President, Theodore Roosevelt, the ‘civilized’ nations were predominantly White and the ‘uncivilized ones” predominantly non-White, He himself summarized his foreign policy in these words Speak softly and carry a biy, stick”, He was concemied about the Russian designs in China and, therefore, was quite happy when iwoIaWY 40 S34LvLs G34INN (ZL6L OL dn) NvagatyS: FHL NV ‘YOINANY TVHLNAD NI Y3MOd ‘SN JO NOISNYdx3 voor Konimsn EES oamnarsna0.n on not esclues ©Filigino guerrillas caprured by US troops US kept with herself the control of the customs revenues of the Dominican Republic. in 1906, US troops larided in Cuba to preserve order and remained there for three years ‘The completion of the Panama Canal is considered the “most celebrated accomplish ment of Roosevelt. A French company had completed about 40 per cent construction of the Panama Canal in Colombia. The US bought from the French company its holdings but the. Colombian govemment refused to agree to the terms which the US had offered fo her regarding the payment to be made to her for giving the right to construct the Canal in Colombian territory. Roosevelt called the Colombians “bandits” and “blackmailers™ Soon after a ‘revolution’ was organized in Panama with money supplied by an Amencan industrialist, the US troops landed in Panama to preserve order (actually to prevent Cotombia from suppressing tlie “revelution’) and, after tluee days, Panama was recognized as an inclependent nation, The new government of Panama signed an agreement with the US on the Panama Canal on terms that were much more favourable to the US than those which the US had earlier offered to Colombia and which the'laiter had rejected. The Canal was opened in 1914. In the meantime, in 1906, Roosevelt had been given the Nobal Peace Prize for his role in ending the Russo- Japanese War. . The US ‘policy of intervention in the internal affairs of the Latin American countries continued during, the presidencies of William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson. Taft's policy of promoting American investments in the Latin American countries and elsewhere and establishing indirect control through investments did not preclude the use of gunboats and arined intervention if the need arose. The US poticy towards Mexico during, the presideney of Wilson earned the US the lasting hostility of Mexico. In 1910, a corruptclu vais OSS (Ho: WORLD FROM TH dictator of Mexico had been deposed by a popular leader Francisco Madero. In 1913, he was deposed, with US approval, by auotlier Gictator, and murdered This dictator was deposed after some time “but the US, unsuccessfully, continued to intervene in the affairs of Mexico Protest Movements The industrial expansion, which had made USA a leading industrial power and was soon to make her a world power, was accompanied by cornuption, intense explor fation and the use of nuthless means, and disregard for the interests of the people, The owner of one of the largest railroad companies is ciedited with the frank statement. “Fhe public be damned” By adopting ruthless methods, a few individuats controlling, a few corporations had concentrated enormous eco- nomic power in their hands. Often this concentration took place in violason of the law and by bribery. The holder of a luge industrial empire, when told that what he was doing was against the law, declared, “What dot care about the law 2 Hain't | got the power ?” The need to control the increasing, concentration of economic power in 9 few hands became a mayor issue in the politics of USA from the 18906. It fed to a movement called “Prograssivism’ What has-been. said” cartier about the conditions of the common people, panicularly the industrial workers. in Europe was also tne for USA The working and living, Conditions of the workers were miserable and unemployment was 2 common feature of their Jif in spite of the enormous giowth— of the economy. Woskers were never very far from the prospect of poverty, losing their jobs or facing a cut in their. wages. Child labour was rampant and children working, at hight in the textile mills were kept awake by throwing cold water on their faces. Female children in some industries worked sixteen e5.co™ E FIRST WORLD WAR hours a day, About 20 per cent of the workers employed in manufacturing industries were women, who were paid much lower wages than nen. Little attention was paid to prevent ‘industrial accidents, which were a common occurrence - The workers of USA Began To Giganize themselves and there was a wave of stnkes from the 1880s. Most of these were ruthlessly suppressed by the state police and troops, which were used to terrorise thé workers, The industrialists also used guards hired for the purpose of breaking strikes and terronaing, workers, One agency which provided the services of its guarts for this purpose was the. Pinkerton Detectives: Ageticy andi * continuad to provide these services for many decades Killings of trade union leaders was not uncommon, A national workers’ organi~ zation which emerged in this period was the American Federation of Labour (AFL). On ts call, strikes and demonstrations were held ‘on t Mey 1886 all over the country to press the demand for aa eight-hour working day In Haymarket Square in Chicago, on that day, the police’ fired at demonstrators who were protesting against potice atrocities on the striking workers of the city. Four workers were kitled. Someone had earlier thrown a bomb at the police, which had killed seven pokcemen, Eight persons were arrested on the charge of inciting the person who hd thrown the bomb ard“tn-witat’ 18 Considered to be one of the most “injudicious tridls” it Amenecan history, seven of the accused were sentenced to death The Second Inter national's decision to give a calt to workers to observe May Day to demand an eight-hour working day his been mentioned earlier. The cheice of that day was.connected with the incidents that had earlier taken place at Haymarket Square in Chicago on 1 May 1886.” Many Americans raised their voice against the gross inequalities im society, the exploi- tation of child labour and of women, workers, the growing concentration of wealth in a!pores ea » hinds, ond comupt industrialists, bankers, F SGcians acd officials. A powerful literature ©. protest was produced by writers. and Jeamalisi. There was also strong, opposition ( the ictpe-ialist policies being followed by te LS sovernment. Some of the earliest secigl st 2anps outside Europe were formed in {0 1901, the Socialist, Party of formed. Its aiost prominent vas Eugen V Debs, who polled 2 ailhion vores in the 1912 election ‘dency. Another important labour fon war the Industrial Workers of. WW) When the First Woald Me grok ont, the US. in the words of President Svitson, decidedto reunain “impartial in coourht as well as deed? In Apat 1917, ‘war 10 end wars” “make the world safe for democracy"™ mentioned earlier that witen the * the socialist parties of Europe Suppoit their respective govem- rents. The American-Socialist Party and.the US. decided to eter the * and io 25.c0o™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY J. WW, however, stuck to their opposition to the war The US government had made | according to winch any public | QPpesition to the war was sedition and sabotage, Many Americans’ were prosecuted for their opposition to the war, Eugene Debs | Mais sentenced to ten years” imprisonment laws expression of Black People's Struggle for Equality ‘There were other tensions and conflicts within the US some of which have persisted till ‘our own iinnes. Vast sections of the Amsrican Population suffered from various other dise advantaues besides. the ones. created by the concentiation of wealthy it afew ands Industrial progress did nat mean increased Prosperity of the people. tr the course of little over a hundred years, the Amenean Indian tibes which mhabited North Amerca, were deprived of their lands and their way Sof life was totally disrupted By 1890, the Process of their total subordination was nearly Complete and they had to accept what the Whites left to them. One of the major issues in the history OF USA since the nineteenth century has been the struggle of the Black people or Afro Americans for freedom and equality For about 80 years after USA emerged as an independent nation with a republican form OF yovermment, slavery continued. in that country. In 1860, in a total population of about 31 million, there were four million slaves owned by about 225,000 people in the southem Staies of USA. In 1865, after the Civil War, slavery was abolished For gbout ten years afterwatds: efforts were made to. enforce the rights of the Black people—the former staves in the former Slave-owning southern States. In 1368: “citizenship” rights were given to ali Persons “bor ar naturalized in the United States and these rights could not be abridved {n 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution: was passed, which made. it a law that the right. of the citizens to voterm wos otsosivane MONS tae ers wons wap A LYNCHING | TF.Ee nw gov ae yl of omar ad sce, fling pone He qe ayn ashe ay ccrau coum wih a ded ahs on te earthen Nea, feaon nad toeaee nas mgr" Mevelna toaming but. The lac picam of mtaligenee onan Me ae hum of the et eyet ot Ne porseatee ee rete Rigby Pa oat he asa ote bears tsi we string Shaver abe tn hey begin e eapear ater soany and ew ie Se Shaken to the roots.of his being, he stil had al the cool cimeror Mlenlloss reporter. Evan aw he noted the color values of theo ‘On, my Gad” he whispered, his volte lasing procs The Rekgning sight was thot of the negro, foaming at the mouth, boedshat os to he tind spe arkingSonctsvey being dragged up te velo stereos errno, at 1 Sag the Sg sae ee, an sha hauled hen eavng hs Soe so Nee ra drag. The hinck fa0a vies distorted Sevcnd all homer renee - ~ 70h: my Gov” said Davies sa, BH his Fingers uaconser cy I ane claw gathored about now more viosely thax ever, more hone atrcken than gleeful stat bony done, an beaten Rad ator thecaurage or the chatty panes eat iho aanch cr othon tt, 2 And mechanical detinase now the negra on sade J Sha tae choc anael mewn ito he wagon, Father and son nam newnear ne ean Strenwnade rane Ha Neves, content to citar ont cavainade batng ge Sect, Geeelltes thoy mare nots huch harnedfmehers peace OaMes Cennpinces Tet tem 202 (any Vanson any excuse er ye Haye see cant gzistenses.” She tsak to me af ah need eae oem co nwctes ao aNtekea, Does tan or his own hone snd insunting aoe i HH exces hs scarcely knew veal he was dong roe Ment company new 608 i wf up the Sand iver pke whence thad sere Tow ne aa tl gh: Bouin down a wash at Svery tgs Bases eae there cat fe anes ME tlagram, But dosed that he could net, he te ered soa they 140 Many Mow long would bo before thoy aula tanh at ee ot Botove't thane man OBR seo wo unreal 0 barbara ae tat bahove it that he was @ pan if SU they sede gor ne eee Rand 18 hang him 2" ho asked of ene who sade beside him, o tote | sisingsr who seemed neever not ta recant a ene “That's vihet thoy got, conte eon ha MaUBHEEEHinscif ho:row mht he mould he design Ns own ood Macon eee eee eonpedbahind ogni andinto tence and weg eet en Be td a lesa ay ane hat ho. cuinany acustoad tethers aeeaee eee ‘esha ees she gaa aunty. wasn por of thi The nigh wo ocean rave to die fo aster wees were sting witha Goel agit wind. Wi cas eee Ihomaches oat MAY, EUl4nt the peopa of Baldwin or neg Paul any one Dinan cea ntl of hela betore tha, st loti takes cee ae ees reel to the daighter and sister not so uta as al en Si 1 was like some axiomati, veto tnt at but Som. The sent company, an alee ma Shon sn eke ieee on. W also mas akomate, Afters a ae an wagon and icoked at the nugro sean araratan 28 Devitt wa gad to note, sveinia si out ot his conse. He wos breathing Nesily and groaniney ut robaniy nel eit Wstain. His ayes Fad and sear tas face and hands bleeding 3 it thoy hoditos oF tompled upen, He was erupted alyCONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Bus Davies could stand iv no langer now. He fell back, siok at heart, cantent te no mora. it seamed a ghasty, murderous thing to do! Sil the company moved on and he followed, ‘past felds lit white by the mean, under dark, silent. groups of trees, through Which the moonlight fell patches, up low hills and down into valleys, uritil at last a ittla strdam carne into view, the eame little stream, 9s it proved, which he had seenearlier to day and for abridge ayer which they were Heading. Here itran now, sparkling ike alectricity in tha night. After a time the road draw closer to the wotor ond then crassed directly aver the bridge, which could be seen a litie way ahead. {Up te this the company now rodd afd then halted. The wagon was driven up on,the bridge, and father and-con got eut. All the riders, including Davies, dismousted, and a full scere of them gathered about the wagan from which the negra was lifted, quite as one might a bag. Fartunately, as Davies now told himself, hie was still unconscious, an accidental miorsy. Nevertheless he decided now that he could not witness the end, and went down by the wate/side slightly. above the badge. He was not, after all, the utterly Felemloss.conorter, From where he stood, however, he ovuld see lang beams of iran projecting aut over the water, where the bridge was braced, and some of the nan fastaniag a rope to a beam, and then he could see that they were fixing the other end around the lnegra’s neck . Finally the curious cempany stood back, and he turned his face away. "Hae you anything te say 2” a voire demanded There wae no answer, The nogio was probably llling and_groaning, quite as uncenscious as he was before, ‘Thon camo thy concorted action of a dezen men, the Mting-of the black mass into the ‘air, and then Oavies saw the fimp form plunge down and pull up with a oroaking seund of Tope, In the weak moonlight it seamed as if the body were. straggling, nut Ke could nat toll, He watched, wide-mouthed and silent, and then the bedy eoasad moving. Then after atime he heard the company making ready to depart, ang finally it did so, leaving him quite indifferently to himself and bis thoughts. Cnty the black mass swaying in the pale light ‘over the glimmering wator scemed human and ale, his sale corapanian. hall not be denied or abridged on account race, colour, or previous condition of vitude”. Earlier, even in the northern ates, which did not have slavérys. most ack pedple were denied this right on one ound or the other Now even inthe southern ates, the Black people, who were now free At very poor, were not only given the right vote but this right was enforced. This riod which lasted till the 1870s is known theReconstructionPeriod. Inmany respects, is was the: first time that-the US had a tly democratic system, It came-to an end ben power was handed back to the former ave-owners in the southern States, troops “the Federal government were withdrawn ont the southern States, and a period of snial of political and legal rights to the i notes UFcom Theodore Dreiser's story Muger Jeff Black people and the practice of racial discrimination and oppression against then) started. “By the carly, years of the twentieth century, the Black people were stripped of their legal and political rights, and segregation between Whites and Blacks was rigidly enforced. Blacks and Whites could not travel in the same train compartments, they could Not-go to the same parks. and. beaches, they could not eat in the same restaurants, and they could net go to the same schools, theatres and even hospitals, Segregation was combined with violence, and it is estimated that about 200 Biacks were lynched by White mobs every year during, the last decade of the runeteenth century. Racism also became an instiument for perpetuating, econoitic clues comee ee ee cee ie ee ss | nn queso Fil WORLD PROM THE 18908 TO RRQARRSP WORLD WaR W A White mob watches a lynching in 1893, inequalities in society. The Black people were the most economically depressed section of American society, But most of the Whites were also poor and were tuthlessly exploited. By arousing racial feelings, commion people, Black and White, were prevented from uni-edly fighting against exploitation. The Black peopl suffered from discriminatory practices throughout the country: inthe southern States, of course, the discrimination was much worse and much imo:e-brutat than in the northern States, By tie early years of the twentieth “century, "a powerful movement of protest against racial dis- crimination began to enierge. The most significant figure ia this movement for about haifa century was WEB. Du Bois. In 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People(NAACP) was formed. Many Whiteswho wereopposed to racisin also supported the struggle of the Black people. However, it took over half a century bofore significant progress began to be made in ending racial discrimination-and the itihumdn system of racial segregation It has been mentioned earlier that even in those European countries that had a democratic system of government, women were denied the right to vote The. same situation existed in USA. The movement for woman suffrage had started in the mid-nineteenth century and. it became, an important issue in the early twentieth century. However, it was only in 1920 that ‘American women were granted the right to vote by the US Constitution,”ores? _ JAPAN Rise af Modern Japan I bas been mentioned earlier that Japan was the only Asian country to have escaped imperialist control.. For centuries, military generals, called shoguns, exercised real power is Japan while the Japanese emperor was a mere figurehead. For over two hundyed years, Japan had been almost totally secluded from the rest of the:world. In many respects, the Japanese social system’ was comparable to the social system of feudal Europe. Around the middle of the nineteenth century, Japan was nidely awakened to the modern world by the threat to her independence. Within a few decades she not. only succeeded in ‘warding off the danger of foreign domination but also underwent a process of modernizing \ues cor CONTEMPORARY WORID HISTORY. certain aspects of her society. that enabled her to emerge as a world power, In 1853, Commodore Perry went with a US fleet and delivered an’ ultimatum to Japan, It was. stated that “positive necessity requires that we should protect our commercial interests in this remote part of the world, and in doing so, to resort to. measures, however strong, to counteract the schemes of powers less scrupulous than ourselves” Eight months later, when he tetumed with a bigger fleet, the Japanese goverment signed a treaty with the US under which two ports ‘were opened to US ships and some amount of trade was permitted. Similar treaties were then signed by several European countries. + In 1863 and 1863, the US and European fleet displayed their military superiority by firing on two Japanese cities. In 1868, the .rule of the shogwt was ended and a new set of rulers and adviserscorn rH wip FRONT: 19081 cgyeneet, Japan's Colonial Expansion (1895 —1918) Occupied by Japan ‘Japonese Sphere of lnfivence om porescve> se 3Mi came to the fore. They ruled in the name of the emperor. whose authority, in theory, was restored, This event is known as. the Meiji Restoration, after the title ‘Meiji* which the new emperor took Within. less than four decades of the Meiji Restoration, Japan's economy and political institutions were transformed, The Japanese government made heavy investments in industries, the money for which was raised by heavy taxation and exploitation of the peasantry. Subsequently, the industries were sold to capitalists: Afterwards, government support in starting industries was no longer needed as the Japanese capitalists were able to start industries on their own. The process of industrialization was accompanied -by impoverishment of the peasants, who often rebelled. An increasing number of them migrated (© the cities where they provided cheap labour for the industries. By the early years of the twentieth cemtary. Japanese ‘goods, particularly textiles, could successfully compete in the intemational market with European goods. The denand for Japanese manufactures within Japan was limited due to the extreme poverty of most Japanese. Jn, 1889, Japan was given a new constitution, The emperor enjoyed a special position as head of the executive and ministers were appointed by him and were responsible to him He was believed to be “heaven-de- seended, divine and sacred: he is pre-eminent above his subjects. He must be reverenced and is inviolable” The constitution provided for a parliament called the Diet. Less than three per cent of the popslation had the right to vote, The-Diet enjoyed. little power: the ministérs were. not. responsible to it, and even int financial matters, its powers were limited. The military enjoyed vast powers in the new political system and, in course of time, carte to completely dominate it, The anny and the navy appointed army and naval officers, ministers of the army and the navy, and the Diet had absolutely no control over pores 25.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY. them, The educational system which was built up made the mass of the population literate within a very short time. It enabled the Japanese to master the technical skills necessary for industrialization. The educational system was also used to promote emperor worship and an attitude of extreme nationalism and. chauvinism Civil liberties and open political struggles were lacking, in Japan. The State was controlled by an oligarchy and the repressive apparatus of the State, notably the police, enjoyed wide powers to control the press and prevent the holding of public meetings and demonstrations, Political dissent was not tolerated, In spite af severe restriction, however, the first socialist group in Asia was formed in Japan. Japan as an Imperialist Power By the 1890s. Japan had started pursuing her colonial ambitions. These ambitions were primarily directed at China and aimed at establishing Japanese supremacy in East Asia Later, the object of Japanese ambitions was to be entire Asia and the Pacific. region Having built up hor armed strength, she went to war with China and defeated her in 1895. She annexed Formosa (Taiwan), which was a part of China. and forced China to recognize Korea, over which she claimed suzerainty, asanindependent State, The Japanese objective in all: this was not to secure the independence of Korea but to end the Chinese influence there and to gain a free hand for the subjugation of Korea. In 1905, Korea was made a protectorate of Japan and in 1910 was annexed by her. In 1899, Japan's status as a great power was recognized by the US and European countries whan they gave up the rights and concessions that they had obtained as a result of the treaties’ which Japan had been forced to sign with them after [834 In 1902. the Anglo-J2panese Treaty or Alliance was signed, and Japan became the first Asian country to enjoy thesolu e5.co™ THE WORLD FROM THE 19908 TO HBG Pwoxen ware as status of full equality with other coloniat powers, The British objective in signing, the treaty was to deter Russian designs in China. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), which ended in the defeat of Russia, has already been mentioned. Southam Manchuria was recognized as a Japanese “spitere of influence’ Japan also obtained half of the Sakhalin island and acquired control of the Liaotung, Peninsula. During the First World War, Japan sought to establish her protectorate over China, Though she did not succeed in achieving this aim, she was able to extend her influence there The rise of Japan as a great power, even though she was following, imperialist policies in Asia, provided an impetus to the growth of nationalism in many Asian countries. Her war with Russia proved that an ‘Asian nor-White country could defeat a major European power It should, however, be remembered that the main victims of Japanese imperialism were not Europeans but people of other Asian countries ‘The emergence of USA and Japan 2s great powers was an indication that the supremacy of Europe would not last tong, The First World War hastened the process ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA, We have’ referred te certain developments in Asia, Africa and Latin America in the context of European, American and Japanese impe- nalism. Frons the time when the imperialist countries established their direct or indirect control, they were faced with stiff resistance by the people. In course of time, the early forms of resistance wave way to the rise of nationalist movements, which’ aimed at the overthrow of direet or indirect foreign comtrol, asserted their right to equality with other nations and expressed their determination to build up the economies of their countries on modem lines and their political and social systems on the principles of democracy and sociai justice. These nationalist movements often had to fight against the outdated political systems in their own countries as well as those elements:that stood in the way of their progress. Rise of Nationalist Movements in Asia You are already famitiar with the rise of Indian nationalism and its. specific features. It was one.of the first nationalist movements to emerge in the colonies, Movements of national Liberation had begun to emerge in other parts of Asia by the early years of the twentieth century. notably in (ndo-China, Indonesia, Kotea. the Philippines and Iran In tan, after a series of revoits, the Shah of Iran had been forced to agree to tansforn fran into a constitutional monarchy with 2 parliament, called snajlis..Soon after, however, with foreiga, particularly Russian, support, the Shah re-established his despotic Tule and the wajlty was abolished, In Cinna, the national awakening of the people was expressed in the emergence of a number of revolutionary organizations which came together by forming the Chinese Revolutionary League. The President of this League was Dr Sun Yat-sen, who played the leading role in the national. awakening of the Chinese people ‘and uniting the various revolutionary groups toyether ‘The League was guided by three principles enunciated by Dr Sun Yat-sen. These principles were Nationalism, Democracy. and Livelihood (the last Gne:is sometinies referred to as Socialism). In specific terns. these principles. meant the ending of the rule of the Manchu dynasty which had been ruting China since the middle ‘of the seventéenth century, establishment of a democratic republic and equitable distribue tion of land. in“ J91L, revolution swept southern China and on b January 1912, China ‘Was proclaimed a republic with its headquartersey ores at Nanjing (Nanking). Dr Sun Yat-sen was made President of the Republic. In the eantime, in northern China, sore steps had peen taken to make China a constitutional monarchy with General Yuan Shih-kai as Prime Minister. To avoid a conflict between the government in control of northern China from Beijing (Peking) and ‘the republic proclaimed at Nanjing, a compromise was teached. The Manchw ‘ler. abdicated and thus the imperial rule in China came to an end. Yuan Shih-Kai was recognized as the President and he was entrusted with the task of calling the parliament: Yuan Shit-kai was supported by foreign powers. In 1913, he called the parliament but soon dismissed it. He had-dreams of declaring himself emperor. In the meantime, Dr Sun Yat-sen had formed the Guomindang (Kuomiimtang) or the National Party and had given ‘a call for a ‘second revolution’. Yuan was able to suppress the Guomindang, which was banned, and Dr Sun sent into exile. In 1916, Yuan died and China came under the rule* of “warlords, who controlied different parts of the country and received financial support from foreign powers, When the First World War ended, the national and revolutionary movement in China entered ‘a new phase. The Ottoman Empire, as has already been mentioned, had lost most of its territories in Europe by the early years of the twentieth century. Most of her possessions in North Afriéa had atso been taken over by European colonial powers. In the countries of West Asia — Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine and Asabia—also nationalist feelings had been onthe rise. “Within: Turkey, there were powerful stirrings: against the tyranny of the Sultan and for making Turkey a modern democratic and secular State, The movement was led by a group of intellectuals, reformers and army officers, called the Young Tusks ‘Threatened by ‘a rebellion. the Sultan, in 1908, agreed to restore the constitution, which had been first introduced in 1876. ° Some CONTEMPORARY WORLD ISTORY Young Turks were in favour of giving equal Tights to the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire while others were bent on maintaining Turkish Supremacy and even extending it, Ultimately, Turkey, due t0 the failure of the liberal Young Turks, was drawn into the First World War on the ‘side of Germany and Austria: Hungary, and the British succeeded in pursuing, their imperialist ambitions in the Arab world by making use of the anti-Onoman Arab nationalist feelings Anti-Colonial Resistance in Africa The European partition of Africa had been more or less completed by the end of thie uineteenth century, except for Sine parts of North Africa, which were acquired by the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century. The actual. occupation of “African territories, however, took the European colonial ‘Powers much longer because of the resistance and revolts that they had. to face Some of these revolts took the colonial powers a long time to suppress. There was, for example, the Maji-Maji revolt in German East Africa in 1905-07. Unlike in many countries of Asia, modem nationalist movements.in most parts of Africa emerged only after the First World War, When they arose, they had a Jong tradition of resistance and revolt behind them, Developments in Latin America In Latin America, twenty independent States had emerged with the collapse of the Spanish and Portuguese empires, Till the end of the ‘nineteenth century, most of them had backward economies, based mainly on agriculture. Most of them were also ruled by comupt oligarchies, and strong governments did not emerge. which could resist the economic domination by other countries. The rich resources of these countries, instead of being used for development and welfare of the people, were bartered away to European companies and,clues cor THE wom HRoM rte 105 HAOHBBE one wan " persisted even after it had been abolished in USA. In Brazil, for example, siavery was abolished only in 1888. However, in spite of the long, persistence of slavery in some of the Latin American countries, the kind of racism, racial discrimination and Segregation which marked life im USA even in the twentieth century, was absent in Latin America Except for later Asian immigrants. the Population of Latin American countries comprised American Indians, people of, Enropean descent, and Blacks who were descendants of slaves who had been brought from Africa and their admixtures. More than half of the population of Latin America was, of mixed blood. However, in most countries which had a large American Indian population —such as Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia. Venezuela—all power was concentrated. 1n the hands of White ruling cliques. Large estates) were owned by mainly absentee landlords: while the American Indians were forced to live in conditions of extreme Poverty. Only in’ Mexico — another country with a large’ American Indian population —did urited popular movemets grow with ‘American Indian participation on a massive scale to put an end to social inequalities. to oe ~ bring. about equitable distribution of land. Td Porte REMI HEA st buld a state system based on the suppon Moca inbicgce ‘inom 189440 1903 of the common people. Mexico, however. s underment a long, period of political turmoil. includisg intervention by USA, before the aims of the Mexican Revolution could, to some extent, be realized. Argentina made some progress. in building up her economy lates, increasingly, to US corporations, With foreign investments. in mines, plantations, railways, shipping, electricity, that is, in almost all sectors’ of the economy, Latin America had become what has been called and democratic institutions. The city of an “informal empire. The increasing control - Buenos Aires was regarded as the Paris of and domination exercised by USA over Latin Latin #merica : ‘America has already been mentioned, By/the time the First World War broke Most Latin American countrigs had social - out, there were democratic stisrings in many systems “which were marked by gross parts of Latin America. Even though Latin frequalites: a Some countries, slavery had American countries had been independent for been abolished as a result of the French about a conuy, they “lingered on the margin Revolution In some others, however, it of international life”, with no independenta : ne zs role to play With little industeilization, they were reduced to the position of suppliers of raw materials. Some of thei were transformed ito. single. crop economies for the benefit of their powerful'neighbour. This made them further dependént, The contrast between North America and Latin America was too glaring to be missed by the people of Latin America ‘There. was.a rise in the aspirations of the Latin, American people ‘and. a growing, sense of hostility to. USA, “the Colossus of the North”. THE FIRST WORLD WAR! The inter-imporialist rivéries, the growing chavyinism and antagonism and conflicts within Europe, the formation of opposing, \Groze0's mural of Mexican peasant guerrillas called Zapatisias, afer the Mexican revolution _ feeder, Zepata d es e Av alliance systems, and the growing, milita- tization and feverish preparations for ware-these were some of the features that characterised the history. of Europe since the last decade of the nineteenth century, There had been a mmber of crises which had been at least temporarily resolved. The tensions in Europe, however, had created a situation in which war had begun to be considered inevitable, Every State was ready with its war plans and strategies. It had also become increasingly clear that oncé the war broke out, it would not-be possible to localize it and ‘that it would become a general war and every country would ger drawn into itcom THE WORTD EROM Tha iaoas no The Immediate Occasion The assassination of Archduke Francis Fer dinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife in Sarajeve on 28 June 1914 provided the inunediate occasion for the outbreak of the war, Sarajevo, where the assassination took place, was the capital of Bosnia which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary a few Years eaulier, The organizer of the assassination was a secret society, called the “Black Hand” or “Union of Death”, of extremist Serbian nationalists whose aim: was to unite. all Serbian into a single Serbian State. Historians are generally agized that the Serbian gov- emment, or at least the Serbian Prime Minister, gesOWe erin wax ~ was aware of the conspiracy to assassinate the Archduke but did nothing {0 stop it Convinced of Serbia's complicity in the assassination, Austria (short for Austtia-Hun gaty) served an ultimatum on 23 July making, eleven demands on Serbia. Austria did not expect these demands to be accepted and hence fixed a time-limit of forty-eight hours for unconditional compliance. Serbia accepted most of the demands, but not all. Total acceptance of all the demands would have meant total toss of sovereignty by Serbia Serbia's reply of 25 July did not conciliate Austria, and Serbia, knowing that it would not, had already ordered mobilization of her troops. Ausuia rejected Serbia's reply, and0 ores immediately ordered the mobilization of her anny for an attack on Serbia. She was determined to put an end to this “permanent danger to my House and my territories", as the Austian emperor called it in a letter to the Gennan emperor On- 28 July Austria dectared war on Serbia, On 29 July, the Austrian amy bombarded Belgrade, Serbia's capital ‘The outbreak of war between Serbia and Austria was soon followed by two other wars, and the three wars, militarily linked together, led to the general war or the First, World War. In order to pressurize Austria (© abandon the war against Serbia, Russia ordered mobilization against. Austria, She could not peninit Austrian expansion in the Balkans, where she had her own ambitions which would suffer if Serbia was defeated. As Germany would come to the aid of Austria if Russia entered-the war against Austria, Russia also prepared for war with Germany. Germany was convinced that in the event of a war between her and Russia, France would join Russia against Germany This would mean that Germany would have to fight on two fronts, with Fratice in the west and with Russia in the east. To be successful in the war, Germany had made plans to first defeat France in a quick war by mobilizing most of her. troops for this Purpose and then tim to: Russia against whom a quick victory was not possible Thus the second war was betweett Austria and Gerimany on the one side and Russia and France on the other. The ‘British position was still unclear as the British government was divided.on the issue. of going to war. She responded to the French request for help by. promising to defend France's northem coast against ‘the German. navy. However, German invasion of neutral ‘Belgium finally ended Britain’s indecisiveness, and Germany and Britain were at “war Thus the rival alliances, formed in the preceding years, had come into play. Only [taly, a member of the \ues cor CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Triple Alliance, remained neutral on the ground that Germany was not fighting a defensive war ‘The Scope of the War On. t August 1914, Gemuany declared war on Russia and on 3 August on France. In the morning, of 4 August, German troops entered: Belgium and at midnight of the same day Britain declared war on Germany. In the meantime,the Serbo -Austrian war which had led to the ‘conflagration involving Germany, Russia, France and Britain, appeared to have become secondary. Till 6 August Austria was not at war avith Russia and till (2 August she was not at war with Britain and France. Soon others joined in as a result of efforts by both sides to win allies by promising them tertitorial gains. In August, Japan declared war on Germany. She had entered into an alliance with Britain but her main aim was to seize German territories in China“ and in the Pacific. Portugal, often referred to by Britain as her oldest ally, also entered the war In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria. Britain and France had promised her Austrian and Turkish territories, Later, Romania and Greece also joined Britain, France and Russia, and these countries along with their allies came to be known as the Allied Powers. Germany: and Austria were joined. by Bulgaria in October having been promised territories in Serbia and Greece Bulgaria was also given some Turkish terntories. Turkey declared war on Russia in November and joined the war on the side of Germany and Austria, These ‘countries— Germany and Austria and their allies —came. to be known as the Central Powers. Various other countries in other parts of the world also joined the war USA entered the war in April 1917 on the side of the Allied Powers. In all, the number of belligerent countries tose to twenty-seven, These com- prised countries. from. all continents. Thuses.c° TH wonD RONETE ems ae SEMR RL wan a nv the scope of the conflict was widened. About different pans of the world. In terms of the {5 huillion’men (soldiers) were mobilized intensity of fighting and killings. the battlse for the war, Of them over 42 million were in Europe overshadowed the batiles in other inobilized by the Allied Powers and over 22 parts of the world. On the Westem Front sq million by the Central Powers Europe, the war began when the German - armies, sweeping across Belgium, entered southern France and by early September had reached in the close vicinity of Paris. The French army, in the meantime, had moved to the France-German frontier to march into Alsace-Lorraine, The German amy hoped to ‘The Course of the War the War in Europe ‘The battles of what has rightly come to be cailed the First, World War were fought in ae A trench on the thur = my 4 fr F 3 a BD > 4 Se = < oO Zz 5 = = & B 3 U x =~ Ss Ss FRANCE ort poresuee® ied Powers tral Powers,toe ronin crown ess OMER encircle the French amy and achieve a quick victory. The French offensive into Alsace- Lorraine was repulsed but the retreating French forces along with the British forces met the German forces in a battle known as the Battle of the Mame (after the river Mate near which the battle was fought). The German forces had to retreat and they entrenched themselves along the river Aisne, There were desperate fights. but by the end of November the war entered a period of a long stalemate fon the westem front when neither side could distodge the other for about four years Behihd a long unbroken chain of opposing, trenches and -barbed wire extending over hundreds of kilometers from France’s southem border with Switzerland to the northem seacoast of France, the opposing amuies dug themselves in. Protected from the machine gun and rifle fire behind the trenches, neither side could break through the other's line of trenches. Each. side conductéd raids on the other in the pre-dawn hours with little success, only steadily adding to the number of the dead on both sides. Germany, in 1915, started the use of poison yas to achieve a breakthrough, and Britain. in 1916, introduced the use of tanks, devised recently, for the saye purpose. Neither made much difference The losses suffered by each side were made up for by bringing im more troops. ‘On the Eastem Front, Russia achieved some initial successes against Germany and Austria but these were shortlived. In 1915, the Russian armies suffered heavy defeats and the forces of the Central Powers entered many territories of the Russian empire. In 1916, Russia launched: another offensive but it was repulsed. After the October Revolution, Russia withdrew from the war On’2 March 1918, she signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and ceded inany of her territories as the price of peace Out of a total of 12 initfion men mobilized by Russia, 17 million bad been killed, about 5. million wounded and about 2.5 million were either com DWAR ay missing or had been taken prisoner In the meantime, Serbia and Romania had capitulated Spread of the War Outside Europe Outside Burope, some major battles were fought in North Africa and West Asia. Germany and Turkey united to threaten the Allied possessions and influence in North Africa and West Asia, Britain and France fought these attempts dnd tried to seize the Arab territories of the Ottonian Enipire. They also established contacts with Arab nationalists and others and fomented anti-Turkish Arab risings, While pretending 10 espouse the ‘cause of Arab countries’ freedom from Turkish ule. Britain and France entered into a secret agreement, known as the Sykes ~Picot agreement, in (916. This agreement provided for the division of Arab countries between Britain and Frange. In 1917, the British government also “pledged itself “to the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people”. This ‘pledge’ by Britain about another country, which was not considered fit to be consulted, was 10 have setious consequences for peace and stability in West Asia Daring the years of the war, German colonial possessions in Asia and Africa were seized by the Allied Powers. Japan made colonial gains in China by acquiring controi over the German sphere of influence and forcing China 19 make further concessions to her German South-West Africa was occupied by South African. troops, Togoland by British and French troops and Cameroons by British, French and Belgian troops. The fighting between British: and German troops in German East Africa continued till the end, of the war, The Stalemate in Europe In the meantime. what has come to be known + as the “war of attrition” was on in Europe It meant cach side uying.to wear out theCONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY. BELGIUM THE TRENCH LINE other side by mobilizing more and more. men and using enormous amounts of artillery and other weapons. Two catastrophic battles were fought as a part of this “war of attrition”. In February 1916, Germany launched a massive attack on the French fortress of Verdun. The French in tum poured hundreds of thousands of their soldiers mto the battle. This battle, which did nothing 10 end the stalemate, resulted in about 700.000 soldiers killed or wounded, more or less equally divided between the two sides. The other was the battle of Somme (named after the river Somme) along, which the’ battle was fought. Here the Allied troops involved were mainly British who launched the attack, On: yyes.co™ | THE: WORLD (ROM THe LesOSiQORRAKEr WORLD WAR | | LL ‘FORWARD MARCH 'k sooms to be a bit different here from around Prague,’ said Svejk, to break the silence. “At home the harvest's already over’, said Vanek. ‘We begin first in the Kealupy region’ ‘There'll be a very good harvest hera after the war', said Sveik after a while “They won't have to buy. bone flour. It's a grest advantage for the farmers when their fields ore covered with the dust of a whole regiment; in other wolds it's a very good means of livelihood. The only thing which worries me is that the farmers shouldn't at themselves be cheated and sell these soldiers’ bones unnecessarily lor one charcoal in the sugar refineries. In the barracks at Katlin theré wast a lieutenant called Holub, He’ was so learned that everybody in the company thought he was an idiot, You see, because of his eating, he never learnt 10 swear at the soldiers and sensidered everything only from the academic point of view. Once the soldiers reported to him that the army bread which they had drawn was not eatable. Another cffice: would have flown in @ passion at such insolence, but not he. He remained quite calm, didn’t call anybody @ pig or @ swine, and didn't sock anybody on the jew. He only called ail his men fegether und told them in his pleasant voice : “First of all, my men, you must realize that the barracks aren't deficatessen. chap where you can choose pickled eels, sardines and sandwiches. Every soldier must be intelligent enough to swallow any ration he draws without complaining about ita quality. And he must have enough self-discipline not to make a fuss about the quality of what's put before him. Just imagine, my men, if there were a var. The soil in which you'd be buried altar the battle wouldn't care a hoot “what kind of bread you were gorged with before you diod. Mother Earth would decompose you and eat you up boots and ail. in this world nothing is allowed to. vanish completely, Out ef you, my men, there'll grow new com for bread rations for new soliders who again like you pethaps won't bs satistied, will start complaining, and then come up against some one who'll clap them in gaol «ntl kingdom’ come, because he's got the right to do that. Now, my ren, \'ve explained everything to you nicely and | believe | aged not remind you agoin that whoever comas and complains @ second time will thank his lucky stare later when he’s allowed cut again into God's, ight”. “It he'd only swear ot us” the soldiors said to each. other, and they didn’t at all like all those refinemonts. in the lieutsnant’s, speeches. And sa. once they chose me from the company and asked ‘me to .go and teil him thet they ‘all liked-him but it's not the army if people don’t sweat at you. And so i went to his house and asked him to cut out all this Jefinernant;. that the army must be 96 tough as nails and soldiers are used to being reminded every day that they're bastards and swine. If. they aren’t they lose respect for their superior officers. At first he defended himscif, spoke about intelligence and said that the umes had “gone by when the birch rod ruled, but in the end he accented it, gave mea sock on the jaw and threw me out of the door so as 10 bolster his prestige. When | told the others the resuit of the negotiations they were all very pleased, but the very next-day he went-and spoiled it all. He came to ma acd said in the “hédting of all of them: Svejk, | lost my temper yestorday. Here's a guilder for you. Go and rink my health, One's: got ‘to know how te treat the men. ‘Svejk fooked at the countryside. [From Jaroslav Hasek’s novel The Good Soldier Svejkl on ot esclues © 45CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY LIVING AND DYING IN A TRENCH One morning two burterlies play in front of our trench. They ara brimstone-buterthes. witht gno%s on their yellow wings. What can they be tooking for here ? There is nota plant nor a tlower for miles, They settle on the teath of a skull, The birds too aro just ab carefco9, they have long since ncusterned themselves to the war, Every morning larks ascend from No Man's Land. A year ago wa watched them nesting: the young ones grew up too ‘We have a spall from the ratsin the trench, They are in Mo Man's Land —we know what : for. They grow fat; whan we san one we have 9 crack att. At night we hear again the rling : behind the ener lines. All day ive have only the normal shelling, se that we are able to report the trenches. There is aliwaysplenty of amusement, the sirmen sea to that, There ace countless fights tors to watch avery day Battin plies don't trouble 6, But tho observation planes ve hate like the plague: they punthe artery on to ws. A couple of minutes after they appenr, shrapnel and high-explosive | begin:ta drop on us, We lage aloven nen ta une day that wy, and tive of them stroteler= eaters. Two are s0 smashed that Thaden remarks youu could sorape therm aff the wal of the Trench with a spoon and Bury them ihe mess-tmn, Another has the lower part of his body and - tn loge torn ott, Dead, his shart leans against the side of the tranch, Ars face #8 fornon yellow, in his beard still burns » ciqarette I glows nt it dies out op his fips. ‘We ut the dead in a large shall ole. Sin tar there ave three layers, one on top of the other \ Suddenly the shelling begins to pound agiin, Soon we ata sitting up ence mors odth the : gj tonennss of black antcipat on i Attack, counter attack, charge, repuise — these aro words, but what things they signify! | Wa have lost good many men, mostly eruits. Reinforgements have again been sent tp 10 ‘ue sentor, Its nie a the new reaiments, cemaased of young fellows called up dering last Your. Thoy have had hurd ony traning, and ae sont anto the feid with only a theoretical Chowitedge: They dp know what a hand-prenade i, its rs, but thay have very litle idea of over, aid what is most amportant of a, Navesno aye tor st A fold in the qround has to be qwite eighteen inches high before they cay sf : Although we need reinforcements, the recruits ave us sirnost more trouble than they | & sro worth, Thay are helplas inthis im fighting area, thay fall ike Mls, Tho present mettiod : |e tighting from posts demands krtsiledge and experience: a man must have a feeling for fhe cnntowrs of the qrotnd, an eat for the sound and character nf the shells, must be able to dmcidernsterenand vinete thoy drop, how they buret, and how to take che'ter “The.young recnyits cf gotirse know none of these things. They get kilad simply bevause | thoy!sam hardly:tef shrapeel from high-explosive, they are mown down because tay are listening seremsy 89 the toar af the big eval-boxes falling tar im The rear. and mise the light. pining wheatia nf the low spreading litle dnay cutters. They flock tagethar ike shoap instaad Msuntzang ain even the wounded are ant down like hares by the ‘wrmen “Their sale twinip faces, ther pital clenched hands, the miserable vaurags of these poor j devils, the dusperate chargas and attacks made by these poor brave davils, who are se territied : that thay dare nat ery ott loudly, but with battered chesta and torn bellies and ams and logs only whimper softly for their mothers and cease as soon as one looks at them. & Thsir sharp, downy, dead faces have the awful expressiontessness of dead children. it-brings « hump into the throat to see how they go over, and wun ard fall. A man would like spank thom, they are so stupid, and to take them hy tho arma and ead them avray from |.” 5 here whers they Nave no business to be, They wear grey coats and trousers and Boots, ut for most nf thomthe uniform is Tar too big, it hangs an that fnabs, their shoulders are too nartovs, their bodies ton slight; no uniform was ever made to these childish measurements. Bernven five and ten recruits fall to avery ofd hand clues corm\ues cor cl . Tk WORLD FROMTHE BEST OLEES wom. Wak A surprise qas-attack carsias off @ lot of them, They have not yet laarned what to do. ie found one dugout full of them, with biue heads and black lips. Some of thorn in a shell hole took the masks off tao soon; they did not know that the gas lies longest in the hollows: tehen they saw others on top without masks they pulled theirs off too and swalluwed enough to seorch thor lungs. Theit condition is Ropeless, they choke to death with hacmommaues and suffocation, [From Erich Maria Remarque’s novel All Quiet on the Wescan Eronet -UUBvutish shell fretary com 0% esclue* wvnotes 3 the very first day of the battle, the British dead or wounded totalled about 60,000, The Policy of Blockade ‘The war had become a total war. It was no longer confined to battles between aries, It required total mobilization of all the resources of the main belligerent countries An increasing amount of muhitions and other war materials were required to'be produced. This miednt changing the production pattern, Every economic activity had to be subordinated to the needs of the war. It also required that no goods —-food, raw materials, war materials, anything and everything —should be-allowed to enter the enemy's country from anywhere. By doing this, that is, by imposing an economic blockade, each side thought that the other would be starved into submission. Britain imposed a naval blockade on Germany and though the naval fleets of the two countries fought only one major battle, and that too indecisive, the British succeeded in their blockade of Germany, To prevent food and other supplies from reaching Britain, Germany started using submarines (U-boat. in German Unterseeboot) which it had developed to sink any ship, incltding, those of the neutral countries, heading for Britain. This, among other things, Jed to the United States entering the war on the side of the Allied Powers, ~ The ‘tse of the aircraft in warfare also started and though cities were bombed from the air and German and Allied aircraft had dog fights, air warfare: played little role in deciding: the-outcome 6f the war. End of the War Russia had. withdrawn from the war after the October Revolution and had been forced to accept a humiliating treaty by Genuany. However, the war between the Central Powers and the Allied Powers was to be decided \ues cor ‘CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY elsewhere and not on the Eastern Front, The loss of Russia by the Allies was more than made up for by the entry of USA into the war: USA had been supplying goods, including, munitions and food, to the Allies since soon after the outbreak of the war and, as a result, the US economy had prospered Now the armies and the vast economic resources of USA were to. be directly used-to defeat the Central Powers. In the meantime, discontent had been rising in the civilian population and among the soldiers of all the major belligerent countries. There were demonstrations and ‘mutinies. The Russian emperor had already fallen, The discoment was much more widespread in the countries of the Central Powers. There was a wave of strikes in Germany and Austria-Hungary and a succes- sion of mutinies in their armies and navies In Austria-Hungary, there were desertions on a large scale among the soldiers of the “subject nationalities” and wiany of them were fighting on the side of the Allies. By about the middle of July 1918, the tide of the” war was beginning to tum against Germany. Germany had launched a series of offensives on the westem front, inflicting heavy casualties on the Allies, But by July, the Gernian offensive was contained and the Allies launched counter-offensives. In the meantime, the Allied forces had started their ‘military intervention in Russia. In the east, thousands of Japanese troops poured. into Siberia. While the Allied intervention in Russia was to outlast the end of the First World War, the collapse of the Central Powers had begun, On 29 September 1918, Bulgaria sur- rendered. By the énd of October the Ottoman Empire had ceased to exist. On 12 November, the Habsburg, emperor abdicated. Most people of the Austro-Hungarian empire —the Czechs, the Poles, the Yugoslavs and the Hungarians had already. declared their independence. +ores FOE WORLD FROM THE 189 \ues corm 870 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 4 Dog fighis between German and Allied planes : Now only Germanty remained and finat Allied offensives ayainst her were launched in September, On 3 November, revolution broke ‘out in Germany, on 9 November, the German ‘emperor abdicated and fled to Holland, and on 10 November Germany was proclaimed a republic. On 11 November 1918, the new government of Germany signed the armistice and at {1 o'clock in the’ moming, of [1 November, th First World War came t0 an end The destruction caused by the war in terms of human Jives was terrible. Out of about 65 million soldiers mobilized, about nine million were killed and about 22 million wounded. To undeistand the true nature of this catastrophe and its impact on European societies, it should be remembered that most of the dead and the survivors, “scarred physically and mentally”, were the “flower of Europe", young people between the ages of 18 anid 35, Erich Maria Remarque, who had been forced to join the German army, published a novel which in the: English translation is entitled Al! Quiet on the Westernnores® feun. The dedication page of the novel carries the statement’ “This book is 16 be neither an accusation nor a confession, and least of all an adventure, for death is not al adventure to those who stand face to face wath it i will try simply Jo tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shalls, were destroyed by the war.” THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Revolutionary Movement in Russia During the war years. the Russian Revotution, an event of great historical significance took place, Certain aspects and events of Russian history — Russian colonial empire. the anto- cratic ature of her political system. the backwardness of her economy. her defeat at the hands of Japen, the role played by her in the conflicts inside Europe, particularly in the Balkans, and her entry into the war have already been mentioned. In the nineteenth, century, there were various reform and revolutionary movements expressing, discon tent among the Russian peasantry who continued to live in misery even after serfdom was abolished in 186]. Vast estates were owned by the Russian nobility. and the Church, and there were! millions of peasants without any landholdings: of their own. The industrial workers, a new “class that “had emerged swith the begittning of undustrializa- tion, also lived in conditions of misery. While the common people were obviously opposed to the existing system in Russia, the middle classes: and the intellectuals also were united in theif Opposition to the autocratic political system, and were drawn fo the revolutionary movernent-as were the peasants and workers, Since about the last quarter of the ninetéenth century, goctalist ideas had begun to spread in Russia and a number of socialist ‘groups had been’ formed, In 1898, the various socialist groups joined together to form the notes yyes.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTHRY, Russian’ Social Democratic Labour Pany Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanoy. popularly known as Lenin, was the teader of the left-wing, section of the party. In 1903, this. section secured @ majority in the panty’and came to be known as Bolsheviks and the minority section Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks, while defining their final goal as the establishment of socialism. proposed their immediate tasks as the ending of the autocratic nile of the Czar and the establishment of a republic, ending, the oppression of the non-Russian nationalities’ of the Russian empire and granting them the right of self-determination, totroduction, of eight-hour working day and abolition of inequafities in land and feudal Oppression of the péasantry. As has already been mentioned..there was a revolution in Russia in 1905, which forced Nicholas 1, the reigning Czar. to agree to grant a parliament. called the Duma, and other democratic rights of the people. During this period, a new form of workers” organization had come into being, called the Soviet. It was a body of workers’ representatives. set up for the purpose of conducting strikes Later. soviets of peasants were also formed —followed by soviets of solcliers —and these sprang up all over the country. The soviets were to play a crucial role in the history of the Russian Revolution ‘The February Revolution The Revolution of 1905 had not ended the autocracy in Russia Though the Duma existed, the power in Russia was wielded by the Czar, the nobility and the corrupt bureaucracy. Russia's imperial ambitions ted her to the war but the Russian government, inefficient and corrupt, was incapable of carrying on a modern war. The war exposed the bankruptcy of the existing, system in Russia, aggravated the crisis of the autocratic sysiem and, ultimately, brought about its downfall, The Russian soldiers. 12 million 6f whom had clues comcl yes.co® Tn WORLD FROMTHE 1908 FORVONGS wor WAR 4 been mobilized, were ill-equipped and itl-fed The heavy josses suffered by the Russian acmy have already been mentioned. The war had further worsened the already poor state of Russian economy, adding to the growing unrest. The country, including the capital city of Petrograd (formerly St Petersburg, later Leningrad, and now again St Petersburg) with its population of two million, was facing, prospects of starvation. There were long queues for bread which was in short supply. From the. beginning of the year 1917, there was a spate of strikes, which took the form of a general strike. The demand for ending, the war and the rule of the Czar ghew and on 12 March many regiments of the army joined the stiiking workers, freed political prisoners and arrested Czarist yenerals and ministers. By the evening Petrograd had passed into the control of insurgent workers and soldiers, These events of 12 March 1917 marked what has been calted the February Revolution (because, according, to the old Russian Calendar. the date was 27 February), The Czar. who had been away from the capital, had ordered the suppression of the insurgents and the dissolution of the Duma, However, the Duma decided te take over power in its own hands and on 13 March announced the formation of a Provisional Goverment. That very day, the Czar was forced to abdicate and ius autocratic rule came to an end. though Russia was proclaitiied * 2 republic a few months tater in September ‘The end’ of the Czatist autocracy. was welcomed the world ever, But the Provisional Government failed to solve any of the problems that had led to the collapse of the \zar's govemment, The policy of pursuing the war was continued and nothing was done lo solve the land problem. The Bolsheviks were the only party which bad a clearcut mogiamme It has been mentioned easlier that two Russian socialists Lenin and Mantoy-—had drafted a part of the Second International's resolution which called upon workers to utilize the crisis created by war, if it broke out, to overthrow the system which had led to the war The Bolsheviks were. consistent in their opposition to the war. There were five Bolshevik members of the Duma. They opposed the war when. it broke out. They were arrested and exiled When the Febuary’ Revolution took place, Lenin was in Zurich, Switzerland. He called it only the initial, but by no means complete, victory, and dectared, “Only a workers government that relies, first, on the over- whelming majority of the peasant population, the farm labourers and poor peasants and, second, on an alliavee with the revolutionary workers of all countries in the war, can give * the people peace, bread and full freedom” The October Revolution At the time of the February Revolution, the Peirograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies had been formed and it became the most important force in the fast-changing situation. On his arrival in Petrograd in April 1917, Lenin addressed the people, “The people need peace: the people need bread, the people need land, And they give you — war, hunger, no bread; they leave the landlords on the land”. He gave the call) No. support for the Provisional Government ! All Power to the Soviets. At this time there was another threat to the Provisional Government. General Kormilov had risen in revolt in an effort to establish hus dictatorship. However. the attempt was thwarted by the workers and soldiers who-rose up to defefid the Revolution. At this time, ‘the Provisional Government was headed by Aleksander, Kerensky, who held liberal and democratic views, He, however, faited to, make any departure from the policies which had been pursued by the Russian government since the outbreak of the war, and proved himself to be totally ineffective He was totally lacking in support.Lenin eaddressing a meeting. T rots) In October, the Bolsheviks made careful preparations for an uprising The All-Russian Congtess.of Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers" Deputies had been convened on 25 October ‘The uprising to overthrow the Provisional Government had been timed to coincide with the Congress, The uprising began in the nores vis standing below, right early hours of 25 October in Petrograd and within a few hours, almost every strategie point in the city was occupied by the revolutionary soldiers and workers under the guidance of the Bolsheviks, At 10 am Lenin’s address “To the Citizens of Russia was broadcast. It said, “The Provisional clues comYORLD cor sox pkowt ns an gees Government has been deposed... . The cause. for which the people have fought, namely, the immediate offer of 2 democratic peace. the abolition of landed proprietorship, workers control over production, and the establishment of Soviet. power — this cause has been secured”, (The date of this event was 25 October according to the old Russian calendar, hence it is called the October Revolution. It actually happened on 7 November.) At 10.40 pan, the nieeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies began. At about the same time, the assault on the Winter Palace, the headquatters of the Provisional Govemment, began. At 150 am. on the next day (26 October according, to the old calendar), the Winter Palace had been occupied and the members of the Provisional Government put under arrest. The head of the Government, Kerensky, had, however. escaped. At p.m. the second session of the Congress of Soviets started. According, to the eye-witness account of | yes.co™ WAR u Reed, an American journalist, Lenin was received with a “long-rolling ovation” as he stood up, As the ovation finished he said simply, “We shall now proceed to constrict the, soctalist order!” The first act of the new government which took over was the adopuon of the. Decree on Peace (adopted at I pam), It expressed the resolve of the government to immediately enter into negotiations to conclude a peace without annexations or reparations The workers of Germany, France and Britain, ihe Decree said. “will understand the duty imposed upon them to: liberate humanity from the horrors and consequences of war, and that these warkers. by decisive, energeuc and continued action, will help us to bring to a successful conchision the cause of peace and at the same ume, the cause of the liveration of the exploited working masses from all slavery and ail exploitation”, As has already been mentioned, Russia withdrew from the war even at the cost of losing,ss nores® CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY AN ACCOUNT OF THE SECOND SESSION OF THE ALL-RUSSIA CONGRESS OF SOVIETS OF WORKERS’ AND SOLDIERS’ DEPUTIES 8 NOVEMBER 1917 ht wes just 8.40 whan a thundering wave of cheers announced the entrance of the presidium, with Lenin—great Lenin-among them, A short, stocky figure, with a big head set down in his shoulders, bald and bulging. Littla eyes, 2 snubbish nose, wide geneous mouth, and heavy ohio; clean-shaven now, but already beginning to bristle with the well-known beard of his past and future. Dressed in shabby elathes, his trousers much 100 long for him. Unimpressive to be the idel of 9 mob, loved and revered pethaps as few Ioaders in history have been. A strange popular tear aleader purely by virtue of intellect; colourless, humourtess, uncompromising and detached, witheut picturesque idiosynerasies but with the powst of explaining pratound ideas in simple terms, of analysing a concrate situation. And combined with shrewdness, the greatest intellectual audacity Kameney was teading the report of the actions of the Miltary Revolutionary Committee: abalition of capital punishment in the Army, restoration of the trea right ef prdpaganda, release of officers and soldiers arrested for political cranes, orders to arrest Kerensky and confiscation of food supplies in private starehouss.. .Tremendeus applause. Again the reprasentative of the Bund. The uncompromising altitude af the Brisheviki would mean the crushing of the Revolution; therefore, the Bund delegates must refuse any tonger to sit in the Congress, Cries frorn tho audience, “We thought you walked out last night! How many more tines are you going to walle aut” > Then the representative of the Mensheviki intemnationalists, Shouts, “What! You here su?” The speaker explained that only part of the Mensheviki internationslists teft the Congress: the rast were going to stay “We consider it dangerous and perhaps even morsal for the Revolution to transfer the: power to the Sovict” interruptions—"but we feel it our duty to remain in the Congress: and vote against tho transfer her Other speakers followed, apparently without any order. A delegate of the coal- miners, of the Don Basin called upan the Congress to take measures against Kaledin, who might cut off coal and food from the capital. Several soldiers just arrived from the front brought the enthusiastic greetings af their regiments... . Now Lenin, gripping the edge af the reading stand. jetting his little winking eyes travel over the crowd as he stoad waiting, apparently oblivious to the fong-rolling ovation, which lasted several minutes. When it finished, he said simply, “We shall now proseed to construct the socialist order” Again that overwhelming hurnan roar “The first thing is the adoption of practical measures to realise peace... wa shall offer peace to the'peoples of all the belligerent countries upon the basis at the Soviet terms--ne annexations. no indemnities, and the right of self-detarmination of peoples. At the same time, according to our premise, we shall publish and zepudiate the secret treaties... “The Question of war and peace is so clear that: think that | may, without preamble, read the Project of @ Praciamation ta the Peoples of AM rhe Belligerant Countries...” His great mouth, searing to smile, épened wide as he spoke; his voice was hoarse not unpigasantly so, but as if it had hardened that way after years and years of speaking and wert on monotencusly, with the effect ef being able ta go an for aver... .For emphasis he bent forward stightiy. No gestures. And hofore him, a thousand simple taces looking up in intent adoration, [From Jan Reed's Ten Deys that Shuck ene World! on ot esclues ©wesc Pi woot rao Tt eas a HeBGNRit Dy wax ss ‘many of her territories which Germany had made a condition for agreeing 10 peace. The second step taken by the revolutionary government, headed by Lenin, was the Decree on Land, which was adopted at 2 am. on 27 October (9 November). This Decree abolished private property in land and declared land to be the property of the entire nation Soon after. it renounced unilaterally all the unequal treaties which the Czar’s government had imposed on countries such as China, Iran and Afghanistan, The right of all peoples to equality and self-determiination was pro- claimed. Civil War and Foreign Intervention The upnising in Petrograd, which led to the establishment of the Bolshevik sovernnient, was followed by similar uprisings in other parts of the former Russian empire, and by February. 1918. the new goverment had established its authority throughout the eourtry. Soon, however, Russia was involved. in a Civil War The forces loyal to the old regime known as White Russians, had organized themselves to overthrow the revolution. The Allied powers — Britain, France, USA, Japan and others —also started their military intervention in Russia, to bring Russia back into the war, to exploit her resources for the war and to aid the counter-revolutionary forces. The Civil War and foreign. military intervention ended in 1920. ‘The dynasty of the Czar was the first to fail during the First World War. Two more imperial dynasties —the German and the Austro-Hungarian — fell before the war was, over. Another — that of the Ottoman Sultans —fell soon afer the war. The significance of the October Revo- ution extended beyond the boundaries of the Russian Revolution, Soviet Russia. tater the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, became a major influence in the subsequent history of the world EXERCISES |. Why is the period from the 1870s to 1914 referred to as the new phase of imperialist expan sion ? Which part of the world was most affected during this phase ? Ewope ? What is meant by ‘the Balkans’ ? Why did it become a source of tensions and conflicts in Describe the policy of the Second Intemational on the question of colonies, militarism and wal 4. Describe the growth of the United States of America as a world power from the latter half of the nineteenth century to 1014 5 What were the causes of tensions within the countries of Europe in the period up to 1914 Discuss ©. Describe the position of the Black people in USA after the abolition. of slavery till 1914 7. Describe the growth of the socialist movement in Europe up to 1914, What was its poticy towards militarization and war? 8. What is meant-by Meiji Restoration ® What were its consequences on the future develop ment of Japan ? 9. Discuss the consequences of the Revolotion of 1911 in China 19. Explanr the main features of the political development of Latin American cownries uy to 1914, Discuss the policy adopted by USA towards these countries.com esclues: " , not CONTLBMPORAY WORLD LRSEORY HL Discuss the causes of conflicts and tensions among the European powers up to 1914. Trace the history of the formation of alliances in Europe 1. What were the developments during the period between 1890 and 1914 that led to the Fust World War? Do you think the war had become inevitable ? Discuss (3. Explain why the war which broke out in 1914 came to be known as the First World War 14 What is meant by the “Westem Front” and the “Eastem Front” ? On an outline imap of Europe. show these “fronts? alone with the countries involved 15. In what respects were the battles fought during the First World War different from the battles i all the previous wars ? Explain the meaning of “trench warfare” and “war of attrition’ 16, On an outline map of the world, mark the places outside Ewrope where the battles of the First World War were fous! . 17. Discuss the causes of the Russian Revolution. In what way did Russia's participation in the First World War contribute to the Russian Revolution ? 18. "Why did Russia withdraw from the war after the October Revolution ? 19. Describe the policy of USA towards the First World War when it broke out When and why did this policy change "? 20. Study the extracts from the literary works which have been reproduced tn this chapter. Write your-comments on, these extracts, Read the full texts of some of the works from which these fextracts have been taken, Collect information and prepare notes on the authors fiom wtiose works these extracts have been reproducedpores 25.co™ CHAPTER 3 The World between the Two World Wars General Features of the Period Trt end of the First World War, “the war 20 end all wars". 1 was believed, would be followed by an era of peace. freedom, democracy, and a better tife for everyone, When USA entered the war, Woodrow Wiison declared. ...we shall fight for the dings, which we have always carried nearest our hearts — for democracy, for the night of those who submit to authority to have a voice in + own Governments, for the rights and liberties of smali nations, for a uaiversal dominion of right by such a conceft of free peoples as shall bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself ai last free”, Seven months later. the Russian Revolution took place and the Soviet yov- ernment issued the Decree on Peace, which called on al! the belligerent nations and Peoples {G,enter into negotiations far 2 peace without annexations and indemmities. The Russian revolutionaries also hoped that their example would be followed by the working classes of. some other countries of Europe ‘The Soviet appeal was rejected by the Allied Powers, and Germany extonted a heavy price for letting Russia withdraw from the war, which continued for another year ‘On 8 January 1918, Wilson had presented his peace proposals, called the Fourteen Points. These included the abolition of secret diplomacy, freedom of the seas, reduction of armaments, and redrawing of the boundaries of European countries on the principle of nationality. In the case of colonies, what was proposed was an “impartial adjustment of all colonia) elaims”. not application ‘of the principle of national self-determination The last point was about the formation of “A general association of nations...for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees. of political independence and terntorial integrity 10 wreal and small states alike” The Founcen Points were expected to form the basis of peace The developments during the next twenty years. however, belied these hopes The countries of the world did noi become more democratic than before in spite of the collapse of four imperial dynasties The tevolution which the Russian revolutionaries had hoped would occur m some countries of Europe. faited io materialize and the uprisings which took place m Germany and Hungary were suppressed. In many countries of Europe, dictalonsal regimes came to power, wiuch fostered navonal chauvimsm and prepared for- war The fear of a social evolution was a mayor factor in the rise of dictatorial regimes and 1 also haunted those countries of Europe that had democratic political systems and influenced their internal and external policies. ‘The power of Europe was much dinn- ished as a result of the war though its hold over the colonies did not end. A number of new itdependent nations emerged in Europe socalgenerally but not entirely, based on the principle of nationality, but the conflicts within Europe over European affairs did not end, Some of the roots of the conflicts in Europe lay in the peace treaties wluch were signed after the war. The inter-imperialist rivalries, which had been a major cause of the war, also did not end and they again became a major factorin international conflicts USA. in this period, became the leading power in the world, Most European economies became dependent on her. Ht became clear Chomencenn, : pores e5.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY when the economic depression, which started in USA in 1929. had sts disastrous effects ‘on the economy of every country in Europe (except Russia}, and in other parts of the world, The social: and economic inequalities that marked the pre-war societies in indus- tialized countries, continued during, this period too though for some time some progsess was made in improving the standard of living of the people. The economic crisis of 1929~33, however, brought into sham focus the fundamental weaknesses of theBVM GTHOM 1S¥ld H3LY 3d0UNa Q on not esclues ©ores existing system of which misery and poverty of the vast masses of the population seemed te have become an essential part Outside Europe and North Ainerica, this was 2 period of growing strength of the ‘movements of national liberation though their success was to come only after another world War had been fought. The League of Nations, cavisaged in Wilson's Fourteen Points, came into being as a result of the peace treaties but it proved totally ineffective in preventing the world from relapsing into another war, & second world war seemed to have become inevitable since.the mid-1930s and when it Stoke out in 1939, barely twenty years after he end of the first one, it was much more widespread and many times more destructive than the first one, “THE PEACE TREATIES Dictated Peace The main enemy of the Allied Powers in the First World War had been Germany, ‘The Peace Conference of the Allied nations opened 1 Paris on 18 January 1919 to draft a peace treaty with Germany. The Conference was dominated by the US President, Wilson, the British Prime Minister, Lloyd. George and the French Prime Minister, Georges Cle- menceau. The German surrender hag been obtained onthe: undérstanding that the Fourteen Points and other statements ‘made by Wilson would be the basis of the peace treaty. Wilson had, besides the Fourteen Points, announced that. “There shall be no annexations, no contributions, no. punitive damages" and that free acceptance by the people: concemed would be the basis of any settlement, This principle was totally viotated-when the treaty ‘vas drafted. Neither Germany nor any other Tenttal Power was represented at the Com ‘erence Wen the victors had finalized the teaty, they yave Germany five days” time to sign it or face an invasion, Germany had yues.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY no choice but to sign what she called “dictated Peace”. Even at the time of signing the Uweaty, the German representatives were humiliated. They were not asked to sit in the hall along, with the representatives of the. Allied Powers where the signing ceremony took place and were “escorted in and out of the hall in the manner of criminals conducted to and from the dock” Germany was also forced to accept her “war guilt” The treaty had a chapter on Teparations, which started by stating that “Germany accept the responsibility of Ger many and her allies for causing ail the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and theie Tiationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and ber allies”, When this was shown to the German foreign minister, he said, “It is demanded of us that we shall confess ourselves to be the only ones guilty of the war We are far from declining, any responsibility... but we energetically deny that Germany and Mts people... were alone guilty... In the last fifty years the imperialist of all the European States has chronically poisoned the intema- tional situation...."" The weaty also bad atticles providing for the trial of Germans whom the Alles accused of committing war crimes. The list of the accused included the German emperor, who had taken refuge in Holland in the Netherlands, ‘The framers of the treaty were guided by the various secret treaties and agreements that the major Allied Powers had signed during the war. One of the signatories to these secret treaties, the main purpose of Which was to divide the spoils of war, was Russia, Afler the Revolution, she not only denounced these agreements but made them public. This exposed the claims of the Allies that they had been fighting the war for freedom and democracy These treaties were Published in the American and the British ress but the scandat did not deter the viciorsVARS. 1a Wont LETWEEN THE TEGO ner from implementing these teaties while deciding the fate of Germany (and later of Turkey and others), President Wilson, for all his insistence on open diplomacy, was persuaded to give his consent, Creation of the League of Nations One of the first acts of the Peace Conference was the decision en the creation of the League of Nations (Wilson's Fourteenth Point). The Covenant (or the formal, solemn and binding agreement) of the League of Nations was approved by the Conference in April 1919. The primary objective of the League was stated to be the promotion of “intemational cooperation, peace and secu- rity”. Three Articles of the Covenant were particularly important for the primary objective of the League, Amticle VII! mentioned that “the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments “. Article X stated: “Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existi political independence of all Members, In case of any such aggression of in cases of any .threat or danger of such aggression the Council [of the League] shall advice upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled”. Anticle XVI related to sanctions It stated, “Should any Member of the Leagué Fesort to war... it shall ipso facto be deemed to have commuted an act’ of war against all other Members of the League...” This Article laid down that other Members would sever all trade or financial relations with that country and, on the recommendation of the Council. make collective use of armed forces against the country resorting, to wai, As will be seen, the Leagué proved to be totally ineffective in maintaining peace and taking any effective steps against. the augressor comutries, Not was any. progress made towards the reduction of. armaments. ‘Two agencies created by the League gid wes com el useful work. These were the Permanent Court of International Justice (popularly known as the World Court) and the International Labour Organization. Major developments relating, to the League will be mentioned later. The Treaty of Versaitles ‘The peace treaty with Germany was signed at Versailles on 28 June 1919 and is known as the Treaty of Versailles. According to the Provisions of this treaty, Alsace-Lorraine, which Germany had seized from France in 1871, was tetumed to France; the newly created State of Poland was provided with access t0 the sea by giving her about ,65 km of “corrigor’ which separated East Prussia from the test of Germany. Danzig, was made a free city under the political control of the League of Nations and economic control of Poland Belgium, Denmark and Lithuania also gained territories from Germany. The Sear coal-mining area was brought under the control of the League of Nations for fifteen years while the mines in the area were transferred to France as compensation. Ger- many was‘debarred from uniting with Austria, The Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized and occupied by the Allied troops for fifteen years, The strength of the German anny was fixed at 100,000 and she ‘was not to have any air force and submarines (she was to have only a limited number of naval ships). Having been forced to admit her “war guilt", she was required to pay reparations to the Allies. These reparations were assessed later and amounted to £ 6.600 million. Germany was also deprived of all her colonial possessions, and. they were divided among, the victorious powers as had been agreed to. im the secret treaties among them. Most of -German East Africa Tanganyika ~ went to Britain, with some, portions going to Portugal and Belgian Congo. Cameroons and Togoland were divided between Britainbe nores® and France. Ruanda-Urundi was handed over fi: Belgium and South -West Africa to South "Africa, The Pacific islands under German control were divided among Australia New Zealand and Japan. Japan also acquired Shantung, which had been a German sphere of influence: These acquisitions have alseady been referred to; now they were given the legal sanction of a peace treaty, which Germany had signed, as well 2s’ of the League of Nations In theory, the German colonies were not annexed by ‘the yictorious colonial powers. ‘The Covenant of the League provided for a system of whiat was called the Mandates This system was applied to the colonies of the defeated colonial powers. The Covenant stated that these colonies and territories were “inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themseives under the strenuous conditions of the modem world” and “that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization”. To give practical effect to this trust, the Covenant stated, the peoples inhabiting these colonies and territories should be placed uncer the: ‘tutelage’ of ‘advanced nations’. However, which ‘ad- vanced nation’ would bring which country under her tutelage had already been determined by the “advanced nations” themselves and, therefore, the League had nothing to do with this aspect. ‘Treaties with Austria, Hungary and Turkey The Treaty of Versailles was the main treaty as it concemed the main defeated country Separate “treaties were signed with other Central Powers. The Treaty of St Germain was signed with Austria on 10 September 1919, According to this treaty, Austria facognized the independence of Hungary, Poland. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, and ceded temitones to these countries and to lialy. Austna was reduced to the position of yyes.co™ ONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY asm: . 2 and was debarred from forming, 2 wes: orth Germany. A separate treaty war sit a with Hungary, which was now an cidevendent State. She was required to cede Lemitories to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Romania, The treaty with Bulgaria Tequired her to cede territories to Romania, Yugoslavia and Greece, The final treaty was signed with Turkey. According to a secret agreement! Britain and France had already divided the Arab territories between themselves, Syria and Lebanon had come under French control and Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan under the British, as mandates, Some Arab tertitories such as Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar had come undef British influence even earlier, while some others which had enjoyed autonomy under local rulers. continued as before. Hejaz became a separate State but was soon conquered by Ibn Saud, the ruler of Nejd, to form Sandi Arabia. The loss of their Arab empire by the Ottomans had been inevitable. The Allies had given support to Arab nationalist uprisings against the Ottomans, only 10 acquire their territories after the war However, the dismemberment of Turkey herself led to a Turkish nationalist revolt. Greece and Italy had occupied large parts of Turkey. The Sultan of Turkey signed a treaty in September 1920 agreeing to Turkey’s near-total dismem- berment, In the meantime, the nationaf revolt led by Mustafa Kemal, who had established a government in Ankara, swept the county. Kemal’s armies drove the Italians and Greeks Out of the country and the Allies were forced fo sign a new treaty with Turkey in July 1923. Turkey was declared: a republic, and. her development as a modem secular nation began. The office of the Caliph (Khalifa) ‘was abolished. These treaties formally brouglit the First World War to an end, Many provisions of these treaties, however, were to become the source of new tensions in Europe, Russia had been excluded from the beginning fromyes.co™ THE WORLD BETWUENTHE Ronee) WARS all negotiations, and was kept out of the League of Nations (as was Germany), In fact, while the weaties were being drafted and the League of Nations created to ensure the maintenance of peace, the tropps of many Allied’ nations were fighting ‘against the revolutionary government of Russia. The colonial question was settled to the satisfaction of the victorious colonial powers and not of the peoples of thé colonies. China had been one of the Allies in the First World War and she was represented at the Peace Conference. However, her territories, formerly under German controt, were given away to Japan. USA, USSR AND JAPAN BETWEEN THE TWO WORLD WARS Three major powers during the inter-war period were USA, USSR and Japan. All the three had been Allies for some time during the First World War until the Russian Revolution. After the war, while Russia was ostracized, USA played the most inaportant role in the framing of the peace treaties and, therefore, in the making of the post-First World War world. She became the world’s dominant economic power. Russia, later a part of USSR when it was formed, emerged from the war, the Revolution, the Civil War, and foreign intervention as the most ravaged country in Europe. However, by the: fate 1930s, she. had emerged as a strong, industrial and military power. Her political, economic and social system distinguished her from the rest of the world and she played a distinctive Tole in world affairs. Japan emerged from the war as the strongest power in Asia ahd the Pacific with ambitions: of establishing, her hegemony in that region, USA, ‘The Treaty of Versailles, in the formulation of which the US President, Woodrow Wilson, 6 had played a leading role, was rejected by the US Senate. USA refused to join the League of Nations, which had largely been a creation of Wilson, In the elections held in 1920 for the offices of the President and the Vice-President, the candidates of the Democratic Party, to which Wilson belonged, were defeated by the Republican Party. The candidates of the latter party also won two more successive elections held in 1924 and 1928, Economic Misery despite Economic Growth ‘The immediate post-war years in USA were years of a serious economic crisis. During the war years, while the European economies suffered: serious damages, the US economy expanded, No battle was fought on US soil and no damage done to her cities, industries and farms. With the end of the war, the expansion which was the result of the war, suddenly ceased and it created a serious trrisis. About 100,000 businesses were reduced to bankruptcy and about five million people lost their jobs, The resulting labour unrest led to strikes and there was a wave of them, In 1919 there were over 3500 strikes, some of them involving hundreds of thousands of workers and lasting for many months. The strikes were put down with a heavy hand, and attempts were made to create a scare of a revolutionary outbreak like the one that had occurred in Russia However, soon after, the US economy experienced an unprecedented growth, During this period, when the rest of the capitalist world was recovering from the destruction caused by te war, USA began her industria! expansion tased. on major advances in technology. She“had emerged as the main ‘creditor nation in the world, and most countries of Europe were her debtors. An indication of the tremendous industrial ex- Pansion may be seen in the fact that in 1929, more than five million cars were coldMounted police attacking striking stee! workers in Philadelphies in 1919 im USA. The industrial “expansion was accompanied by a further concentration of economic power Thousands of small cain- Panies were’ swallowed up by the few big ones. Competition between different’ manu- facturers, which had been a characteristic feature of, capitalist economies, almost ended, In some cases, such as steel.-almost the entire industry im,the country was in the hands of, one. company. These companies enjoyed enormous influence. it used to be said that what was good for General Motors, the chief manufacturer of cars, was good for America, The, growth of coticentration of economic. power led to increased comuption and there “were many scandats involving Politicians and top levels of the bureaucracy, ‘The unprecedented coiiomic growth, however, brought little benefit to the workers. most of whom continued to lead fives of Poverty anid misery. Besides low wages, there was the ever-present danger.of being thrown out of employment 4 strong trade union movement also could not emerge because the companies often got the support of the govemment and the courts and frequently Tesorted to violence against the workers with the help of the police and hired gangs The Crash of 1929 ‘The unprecedented expansion came to an end with an unprecedented catastrophe. Early in 1929, Herbert Hoover, who had been elected President, declared, “Ours is a land Tich in resources, stimulating in its glorious beauty, filled with millions of happy homes, blessed with comfort and opportunity”. The future of the country, according to him. was “oright with hope". Within a few months: ‘on 24 October 1929. the crash ‘which has come to be known as the Great Depression, began, The basic cause of the economicTHE WORLL nore crisis lay in the nature of the economy which went on expanding, making huge profits, while keeping most of the people in a state of impoverishment. The tremendous increase in production facilitated by advances in technology and increasing, profits created a situation in which there were not many people who had the means to buy what was being produced. Between five and seven per cent of the non-agricultural population had been unemployed throughout. the 1920s. In spite of almost a decade of unprecedented economic growth, “more than half the families in America lived on the edge of or below the minimum subsistence level”, and were in no position to buy the goods that were being. produced. It has been estimated that. nn KETWEEN THE TWO WO sacwues CO 6s in 1929, about a third of all personal income went to about five per cent of the population ‘The “fundamental maldistribution of purchas- ing power” is agreed to be a major factor leading to the crash:by even those who were by no means critics of the capitalist system of economy. : The crash began when the prices of shares began to fall, creating a panic, and people rushed to sell their shares, which led to a further fall. This led to the collapse: of the stock market, This was followed by the failure of banks —between 1929 and 1932, over $700 banks failed and another 3500 ceased their eperations. The failures of the banks wiped off the life's savings of millions of Americans. This meant thateven fewer A dlerionsiration by the unemployed66 not esc people had the money to buy goods. The industries could not get loans from the banks, and the goods they produced could not be sold, and so they began to close down, This meant that more people lost their jobs and the demand for goods further went down leading, to the closure of more factories. The number of the unemployed rose from 1.5 million in 1929 to five million in 1930, to nine million in 1931, and © 13 million in {932—the figure of 1932 being over 25 per cent of the total US work force. The-condition of farmers was;no better than that of urban workers. The prices of agricultural produce fell, and millions of farmers lost their lands 25.co™ Cbs OKAIEY WORED HISTORY and were reduced to the position of destitutes Racial Discrimination The 1930s were a terrible Period for the American people. The worst affected .were the Black people, Over 200,000 had served as soldiers in Burope during the war and on their retum home they found that racial Giscrimination against them had further worsened, The lynching had' increased and even the war veterans were victims of humiliation, indignities and lynching. They were the first 10 be thrown out of employment and often their jobs were taken over by Whites.'The right to vote continued to be ON BEIN! It was one 0° clock and | was hungty. | walk ose No, said !, | wish to eat IG CRAZY e6 into a restaurant, seated myself and reached for the billof-fare. My table companion rose. said he, “do you wish to force your company an those who do net want you ?” ‘1 walked thoughtfully t0 the train. (Il taka a sleeper thraugh Texas. I am a bit dissati “Are you aware, sir, that this is social equality 2°" Nothing af the sort, sir, itis hunger— and.) ate. ‘The day's work done, | sought the theatre, AS | sank into my seat, the lady shrank and squimed. beg pardon, | said, “6 you enjoy being where you are not wanted 7” she'asked coldly. Oh no, t said. "Well, you ate not wanted here.” | was suprised. | fear you are mistaken, | said, | certainly want the music and |like to think the music wants mete listen to Ht “Usiter.” said the lady. “ this 1s social equality.” . No, madame, said the usher, itis the second mavement of Becthoven’s Fifth Symphony. After the theatre, | siuught the hotel where f had sent my baggage. The clerk seowied. “What dé you want ?”"ho asked. Rest, | said, "This is a vihite hotel”, he seid | fooked around. Such a golor scheme requites a great deal of cleaning, | said, but | don’t know that | object, “We object”, said he. Thien why, I began, but he interrupted. “We don't keep niggers," he said, “we don't want social equality” Neither do J, Lreplied gently, | want a bed. ied with this. tows, ‘Can't sell You one”. S only want tole it, said |, far a couple of nights. ‘Cant sell you a sleeper in Texas,” he maintained ‘They consider that social equal | consider it barbansm, I said, and | think I'll walk,se WoL ARLES THE Tg esol? e5.co™ s Walking. | met a waytarer who immediately walked to the other side of the road where it was muday. “Niggers is dirty", So is mud, said | asked his reasons ho said My grandfather was so cated “Well then”, he answered triumphantly. Do you live “Sure,” he growled, “and starve there”, Moreover, | added, | am not as dirty as you — at least not vat “But you're a nigger, ain't you 2” he asked. the South ? | persisted, pleasantly | should think you and the Negroes might get together and vote out starvation. “We don''t let thom vote”. | We ? Why not ? | said in curprice. “Niggers is too ignorant to vote” | But, V said, | am not so ignorant as you. "But you're a nigger”. ' Yes, I'm certainly what you mean by that. | he said, “I don’t want my sister to marty a nigger”. | had not seen his sister, so | merely murmured, Jet her say, 90 “By God you shan't marry her, even if she said yes" But—but don't want te marry her, | answered a |ttle perturbed at the personal turn. “Why not!” he yelled, angrier than ever. is she a ri “Well then gave up. Go on, | said, sither you ate erazy of | ant, Because I'm already marned and | rathar like my wife, jor ?”" he asked suspiciously, Well, | said’again, hee grandmother was called that hho shouted in that addly illogical way. “Wall then ?” he returned, with that curiously inconsequential nore of tiumph, Moreover”, “We both ate,” he said as he trotted along in the mud. From W.E.2. Du Bois’, An ABC of Color, first Published in the journal Crisis, Vol. 26, 19221 denied to them, Racial segregation and discrimination had spread throughout the country and was no longer limited to the southern States. White terrorist gangs such as the Ku Kluk Klan were active in many Parts of the country The. victims of their violence now included, besides the Black people, Jews. foreigners, and other groups regarded as “racially impure”. During the Great Depression, the condition of the Black people further worsened White racists de manded that no jobs shoulc be given to “niggers” until every White mar was employed. Hundreds of thousands of them migrated From the southern States to the north but tere, 100, conditions were ne better It has been estimated that, in 1932, about one-third of the. Black population was unemployed besides another one-third which was under- employed. The 1930s were a period of growth of radicalism in US society. A strong trade union. movement began to emerge. There were radical political movements advocating socialism, The Communist Party of USA which had been fosmed earlier, grew in strengta and played an important role in organizing the workers, Black and White, and fighting against racism. The Black people. also onganized themselves‘ to . fight back racism. The NAACP, which has. been mentioned earlier, played an important role in the fight against racism and in uniting the Black and the White workers Two cases of blatant injustice rocked USA during this period and aroused protestsby people in many other countries, The first ose concemed two Italian immigrants, Sacco and Vanzetit, who were arrested en the charge S ing @ murder, The evidence against commi chet was considered “at best questionable”, ‘They were sentenced to death, It was generally believed in USA and elsewhere in the world fal they were innocent and had been framed ima false case to add to the scare that USA ‘was in danger of a revolution by subversive alements, There was a worldwide demand for a retrial of the case-but it was refused and Sacco and Yanzetti ‘were executed. ‘The second, known hs the Scottsboro Case, was a case of racism. Nine young Biack boys were tried in Alabama in 1931 on the charge of raping two White prostitutes. Eight of them were sentenced to death by a jury consisting entirely of Whites, The case was generally considered to be completely fabri- cated and a nation-wide campaign, supported by world opinion, was launched for the defence of the boys who had been convicted, In this case, the executions were not carried out though most of the boys languished in prison for many years The New De: The Great Depression, which had its origin in USA, has been described as “the largest earthquake: ever to be mieasured on the economic historian’s Richter Seale”. It affected almost ail countries-of Europe and, to some extent, almost every country in the world, Its effects on Europe were extremely grave, and would be mentioned subsequently. {n USA, some of the worst effects of the economic crisis began to be remedied after 1933. This happenedduring the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was. first elected in 1932 and won three subsequent elections. The programme of reform which fhe started is known as the New Deal A large programme Ff welfare was initiated, which alleviated the misery of many sections of the population, though the effects of the Franktin 12. Roosevelt who was elected US President 1m1932, with his wife Eleanor Roosevelt Great Depression continued right up to the US entry into the Second World War. Thowh Roosevelt was generally believed t0 be sympathetic to Blacks, little was actually done to improve their tot. USA and the Wortd The US refusal to join the League of Nations was a big blow to that organization, The - main preoccupation of USA during the period was expansion of her economic control over the rest of the world. The growing US domination of the world economy had serious Consequences for Europe and the rest of the world. USA supplied vast amounts of credits to Germany and some other countries in thegcl TIE WORLD HWEEE TR WON EB Axs 1920s, which helped in the economic Tecovery of Europe but the increased dependence on USA had disastrous consequences for these countries as was to happen during, the Great Depression. She was initially. concerned at the growing Japanese ambitions in China as 1 could harm the US economic interests, In 1922, a treaty was signed with Japan, Britain, France and Italy, which aimed at ensuring Open Door in China so that no one country established her exclusive control over China The treaty also imposed some restrictions on Japan's naval‘ strength but left her as the greatest naval power in the Pacific. Like other Western-countries, USA refused to be involved, in any efforts to curb the acts of aggression started by Japan in 193] and later by Italy and Germany. For sixteen years. she refused to recognize the govemment of USSR (as, later, it took her over twenty years to recognize the goverment of China) in Latin America the US economic domination was further strengthened, and direct military intervention continued until the time when Franklin Roosevelt became President, The US domination of Latin America —or “Yankee Imperialism”. as the Latin Americas called it— caused widespread resentment there. USSR Most histonans consider the Russian Revo- futon as one. of the most significant events of the twentieth century. Many people the world over, for a tong time, viewed it as the beginning of a new era in human history They saw it as “an alternative and superior system to capitalism and one destined by history to triumph over it”. By all accounts, it was a major factor in the shaping of the Iwentieth century world. No other revolution in human history had professed to bring, about such fundamental transformation of society as the Riissian Revolution of 1917 Since the beginning, of civilization over 5000 years ago, if we take the world as a whole. 25.co™ ol the common feature of ali ‘civilized Societies had been social and economic inequalities and exploitation of one class by another. The State, whatever its form, was used to maintain the system ‘of inequality and exploitation, ‘The Russian revolutionaries proclaimed as their objective the ending of the system of inequality and exploitation and creating a society in which no one would live off the labour of another. ‘The Decrees on Peace and Land have already been mentioned. Soon after, all industries and banks were nationalized A Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia was: issued. It announced the end of the oppression of the now-Russian nationalities of the Russian empire and proclaimed the right of all nationalities 10 self-determination, equality and sovereignty All the secret treanes signed by the Czar's govemment were anmulled and peoples of the East were called upon to overthrow colonial rule. In January 1918, Russia was proclaimed as the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). By the time the First World War ended. the Bolsheviks had established their control over almost all the temtories of the former Russian empire. except Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Fintand, Which had emerged as independent States Poland also emerged as an independent nation and included al the Polish territories which had easlier been part of the Russian empire in the mgantime, Civil War ‘had broken out and foreign miiniay intervention started. The Soviet policy on land 2% non-Russian nationalities helped’ in the consolation of the Soviet power. In 1920, the Civil. War and foreign intervention came to an end. War Communism and the New Economic Policy (NEP) The First World War, and the Civil War and the foreign intervention which followed the» pores Revolution had totally ravaged the economy of Russia. These and the famine that followed resulted in the death of millions of people In 1921, industrial production was 13 per cent of what it had been before 1914. The Soviet govemmént had “resorted ,to various stringent measures to prevent a total collapse Landed estates tad been confiscated and distributed to peasants but all that the peasants produced beyond their minimum. essential requirements was appropriated by the gov- erament to feed the rest of the population, Almost nothing could’ be bought and sold Whatever, was produced by industries was distributed to workers and other people to meet their minintum essential requirements in liew of wages. The system which came into being as a result of these measures is known as War Communism. It created widespread discontent and in some places there were revolts {n 1921. a new policy, called the New Economic Policy (NEP), was adopted and the measures adopted under War Communism. were withdrawn, Peasant control over their produce was restored, salaries were paid in ash, trade in goods was reopened, and effons were made to rehabilitate the economy. In sonie industries, private manwement was introduced and’ many small industries were allowed to remain in private hands. A large number of cooperatives were set up. In L921, there was a large-scale failure of crops in @ large part of the coititry, creating conditions of mass starvation, A massive nation-wide effort was launched to provide relief People from many other countries also organized relief aid to the Soviet: people. USA, thougt! refusing: to recognize the Soviet yoverument, also sént food supplies sdust ‘al Development and Collectivization The NEP helped the economy to recover to the pre-war level and laid the foundations of further development. This polity reniained 25.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD FASTORY, in force till 1928 when a massive effon was launched to achieve a high level of economic development through successive Five Vear Plans. The first Five Year Plan was launched in 1929 and the second in 1934, By the time the Second World War stared, USSR. for short Soviet Union, which had been set up in 1924 and of which Soviet Russia was @ part had become strong, industrialized and mititay power No other country had industnalized herself as fast as the USSR. Also. the conditions under which her economy developed were totally different from those of other countries. This was achieved by ‘mobilizing her owa iernal resources, entirely under the auspices of the State and under State ownership. Whatever private enterprises existed duriug ike period of the NEP yere taken over by the State, and private ownership of and contcol over industry and trade becanie nowexisiont [tis notable that the only country to escape the effects of the Great Depression was the Soviet Union Vast changes took place in the agricultural Sector, The changes introduced were supposed to facilitate the modernization of agriculture with the help of machines and tractors. They had disastrous consequences in human terns Vast State farms were set up and the rest of the farmlands were collectivized, The individual holdings of the peasants were brought together and collective farms, ealled Aolkhozes, were set up. By the end of the 1930s, almost ali land was brought under collective farms, The peasants worked on these fanuis, collectively, without owning any piece of land. This was often done by adopting measures of extreme coercion. The class of rich peasants was eliminated. Many million peasants are believed to have perished during the period of éollectivization Formation of the USSR According to a new Constitution proclaimed in 1924 all the Soviet Republics such asyes.co®™ Ta: WORLD uenwpenTin yh @6O vans the Russian (RSFSR), Georgian, Armenian, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Azerbaijan, Caucasian, ete. were brought under one union — the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) In 1936, when another Constitution came into force, there were’ eleven. Republics constituting the USSR. These Republics were formed on’ the basis of the principle of nationality and the equality of all nationalities, According: to the Constitution, they were even free. to: secede from the Union, The Constitution. gave each bationality of the former Russian empize the: right,to promote its own language and cuhure, The cultural and economic ‘development of the Asian Republics of the USSR were particularly impressive to the peoples of other countries of Asia who were struggling to liberate themselves from colonial nile From One Party-Rule to Dictatorship The political development of the Soviet Uifion was accompanied by gross ‘violation of liberties of the-people-ard-the- principles of democracy. ‘The Soviets, which had been formed ‘during the struggle for revolution, had been acclaimed as the tte and.authentic form of democracy. They ‘involved vast masses of people in the process of decision- making, which affected their lives and brought millions of common people into ditect political activity..A number of political ‘partiés: and groups —suuch as the Mensheviks, the So- cialist Revolutionaries — had their members in the Soviets. During the Civii War and later, when there were attenipts to organize uprisings. “they “Wéteeliminated: from. the political” life .oF the country: Most of the leaders of these*parties either Teft'the country oF were exiled 10 Siberia. Even aftérthe Revolution had consolidated itself and there was no toner any possibility of a counter Fevolubonary movement succeeding. they, «Were not allowed to play any rolé in the a political “life of the countiy. The Boishevik Party, later known as the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, became the sole political party in the couintty. This Party established its exclusive control over the country. Even within this party, gradually all democricy was extinguished The Bol- shevik Pary had grown in’ conditions of Czarist autocracy which had. made’ it impossible for the. Bolsheviks to. function in the open as a legal party, As a ‘pany: which was working to bring abort the, revolutionary overthrow of the..existing order, it had developed a cenain system of functioning that allowed debates and controversies, sometimes very fierce ones, within the party but obliged the members to follow ‘the decisions ‘once they had: been taken by the majority. This way of functioning of the Party, continued as long ag Lénin, the greatest leader of the Russian Revolution, was-alive, “There Wels occasions when other Comthuitist leaders “openly “dpposed™ Lenin's “views: and there aré also instances. when Levit was isolated. However, the expression of these differences. did not. lead: to. suppression’ of the people who differed with the: view of the majority or of the. léadérship,’ Tlius, democracy within, the Party was: mairitained After the death of Lenin -in 1924. there was a fierce struggle for. power within the party. There were serious differences over the “means “and. inethéds' “whieh” should: be adopted for building socidlismi and also ‘on whether it was at all possible. to build socialism in one country. and: whether. the primary task-of the Soviet governnjent should be the. promotion: of world. =volution:“There were. differences .on_ the question’ of ‘collec tivization and the méthods of industnalization: ‘The miethod which Was: adopted in resolving “these differences was not just taking a decision. by thé- majority © and~gotag ahead with implementing it but also treating, those who had opposed tie decision ag ‘enenties of theny meo9e {261 ot wssn fo sonandon moononeyes.co® cll ewer TI AS Eran wars ” ~ THE WORLD # THE CULT OF STALIN Soon att my arival in Moscow tho editor gave rw a ticket, fora conteyenee’ of Stakhiinovites. | came an hour before the appointed time, but the Groat Hallin the Kremlin was already packed. Peaple in their seats talked in iow voices; no one stood about. twas quite unlike the oly Pare mectine in halis filled with tobacco smoke,..i asked my neighbours to point out Stakhandv end wheithes they know Xnvorse, Izotov. the Vinogiadove : = : Suddenly overyona tose and began to clap firiously: entering tom, a aide’dor, which I could NOt see, Stalin appeared followed by the members of the Poiitburo—| had. metithem at Gorky’s dacha” | The audience ciapped and shouted. This went on far a long time, possibly ten or fifteen minutes. Stalin clapped in rasponse. When the applause began to die down sameone shoueds "Hurvah forte sent Stalin" and it starved up all over again. AtTast everyana sat down and then a women’s ola ery weht up: ‘Glory to Stalin!" We juimped.to our feet and started clapping ence. more. - By the ttne this camo to an end, my palms positively hurt. Iwas seeing Stalin forthe first time and could not take my eyes off him. know film from hundeeds of portraites knows he tonic and he ‘moustache, but | had imagined hit taller. His hale wes very black, hs forehead fom. re oven kegs and expressive. ‘At times, leaning to the night or lefeie smiled, at others he sat motionlons anetgn tis eves continued to gleam brightly, I found that | was haelyatorings | wat so intent on watching Stalin. Turning round sau that averybody else waa dciad the sore, On my way home | feit uneasy. Of course Stalin was a great man, but he was a Communist, 2 Marsist: we talked alot about anew culture, nut behaved not unlike the shaman short hel ecaee tn Upper Shoria. | immediately pulled mysolf up shert | was piehably toasoning in an inteloctosts way. How many times | had heard it said that we, the intellectual Is, dil not unde?stand the ‘needs af the age! “inteligantik’, ‘muddle’, “wetton liberal". “And yet h wae incomprohenalion Wren lenders. ‘people's leader of genus, “beloved father: great helynaman, vefoner of the wat, Pa demiy |. 7NVavOr-sNi} ity. * Pepubta: {LT oepuew. youosy ane A aepuew usivg wonvasy (uanuaas VISV LS4M NI-S3LVONVW HON3Yd ONY HSILINE & aun, com not esclue"« yues-cO™ nores© ideas and the danger to their oil interests in Iran, threatened £0 occupy the entire countey, in 1919, they signed an agreement with the government of Iran, which established British control over the army and the economy of Iran, There were uptisings in different parts of Iran against. British occupation and. the agreement which the goverment ‘had signed with Béttain..The [ranian: communists tried to use these uprisings to ‘establish: a soviet republic but failed.” However, in 1921, the pro-British government of lran was overthrown With the help of Reza Khan, an army officer, ‘The new governtient, while it ruthlessly ‘put own the sevalutionary uprisings, also annulled the 1919.agreenient with Britain, which had made ‘Ini “more or fess a protectorate’ of “ritain: Mahy Iranians looked up to Réza ‘Khan as: the Mustafa Kemal of Iran and supported him in his quest for absolute power. In 1925, the “Iranian Constituent Assembly called the Majlis, deposed the ruler of Tran, and made Reza Khan the Shah of Iran. The dynasty of Reza Khan is known as the Pahlavi dynasty. The. new ruler took many steps for the modernization of Iran, Industry and transport were developed, and effors were made to introduce modem education and curb the influence of the nnillahs. Many reforms were made in the legal system. While the Angfo-lranian Oi} Company continued to" remain important, a larger share of its profits: now went to Iran. However, in’ spite of these measures, “the Shah's rule was tyrannical and brought few benefits to the commori people of Iran. Iraq As mentioned earlier, traq, Palestine and ‘Transjordaf. had been given to” Britain as mandates. The decision to hand over Iraq to Britain provoked. a rebellion theie,- which swas* suppressed ‘by “the. British “troops, In 1921, the British instalied Faisal, ‘who had ‘been deposed in Syria by the French, as the King of lraq but they retained with them CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY the ultimate military, political and economic control of the country, Iraq's rich oil resources were also brought under British control. in 1930, Iraq was granted full independence, and soon after it became a member of the League of’ Nations. However, the British troops continued to remain in Iraq, and the British hold on Iraq's economy also temained {raq had become a constitutional monarchy with a pro- British government, In 1936, the Natiorial’ Reform Party, with the help of a section of the army, overthrew the pro- British” government, and tried ‘to introduce agrarian teforms and: build Iraq's. economy. In 1937, however, this goyemment. was overthrown and was replaced by one headed by the pro-British Nott Said Palestine The British followed the same policy in Transjordan, They installed Faisal's. brother Abdullah as the king and, in 1928, granted independence to that country while retaining military and financial control in their hands n Palestine; however, the British policy ran ‘nto serious difficulties, and the region became 4 source of tension and conflict...” In the late nineteenth century, a movement to secure for the Jews a home in’ Palestine was started in Europe. The movernent ‘was called. Zionism. The Jews in Europe and USA had been fighting for equal rights and for an-end to discrimination which -was commonly practised against them. Many of them had joined radical political movements. Zionism, however, proclaimed that all Jews, inrespective of the countries to which they belonged, constituted a single nation and that they should have a State of their own in Palestine where they had a kingdom over 2,500 years ago. The influence’ of, Zionism among the, Jews was limited as many Jews viewed it asa divisive force which would isolate them from the people of the countries in which they had been living, for centuries,rescue?” THE WORLD BETWEEN THE TWO WORT.D WARS During the First World War, as mentioned earlier, the British government, under the influence of Zionist leaders, had promised the setting up of a ‘national home for the Jewish people’ in Palestine. During the war, Arab nationalism” fad grown, and-as soon as the British. mandate in Palestine was set up, serious disturbances broke’ out. However. while the nationalist aspirations of the Palestinians were suppressed, there was a massive, migration of Jews from the West, ;The Jews took over some of the best lands from the Palestinians, who were tendered landless. In 1919, the population of Jews in Palestine was $8,000, In 1934, it hid gone up to 960,000. In 1929, there was an Arab rebellion for the independence of Palestine and an end to Jewish migration to that country. The rebellion was crushed, and hundreds of Arabs were killed by the British police and army. The nationalist struggle, led by the Arab Palestinian Congress, however, continued, In 1937, a British Royal Commission recommended the partition of Palestine into three States. one of which would be under Arab control, another under Jewish control, and the third under British control. This recommendation was rejected by everyone, and there were: strong. protests by:the Arabs of Palestine and of other Arab countries. In 1939, the British goverament isstied a White Paper in which independence was promised ‘to Palestine after ten years, with guarantees for the rights of both Jews and Arabs. In the meantime, the Jewish migration was to ‘be ‘restricted. and then completely stopped. Restrictions’ were also placed on the sale of land. However, the issue took a serious turn-after the Second World” War ‘was ovér “with dangerous consequences for the peace and stability of West Asia : ‘Syvia and Lebanon Syria’ and Lebanon had become French mandates, and the French troops occupied nores 85 these countries in the face of fierce resistance. Faisal, who, earlier, had been made king of Syria, with French support, was deposed by the French. The people of these tivo countries resisted the imposition of French rule from the beginning. In 1925, a rebellion broke ‘out in Syria and the rebels occiipied almost the entire country, including the capital city of Damascus. The rebsilion also: spread to parts of Lebanon. It took’ the French two Years to suppress the rebellion, During this rebellion, Dantascus was subjected to’ heavy bombing, which killed about 25,000 people: However, strikes, demonstrations and armed uprisings for ending the French mandate continued, In 1936, when the Popular Front came"fe° power in France, the French government signed agreements with repre- sentatives of Syria and Lebanon, promising independence after three years. However, later, the French government went back on its promise. and both Syria and Lebanon failed to win their independance. AFRICA By the end of the First World War, there were about fifty States in Africa and, with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia, they were under the rule of one’Europeai colonial ouniry-or the other. While the stirrings of nationalisin’ were felt. everywhere, the level of political struggles varied from country to country. During the inter-war years, generally. speaking, the resistange. and’ revalts -of the ‘ype that had occurred during’ the satly period Of colonial rule, were’ no longer’ the. form of striggle waged’ by the’ African On’ thé: surface: coloni: ‘Seemed'to have established itself. and the stability of colonial “rule? led sofne ‘people to refer 0° this period as the ‘golden age’ of colonialism in Africa However, the: stability: was. more. apparent than real as new -anli-colonial forces had already begun to take shape. In some countries clues comof North Africa, this period saw the emergence of powerful snationalist. movements and struggles. In others, including most countries of Southern, Africa, this. pened marked the cbeginning, of the.rise.of modern nationalism. and of nationalist political ‘movements, 0st, powerful nationalist move-'« Africa arose in Egypt. in 1918, an organization, called, the Waf’, was setup, which ed the Egyptian: struggle for” independence. A. delegation of Egyptian nationalists.prepared .to. go. to. Paris during, the Reace Conference to demand independence for Egypt but the members of the delegation were arésted by ihe British and the Wafd leader Saad Zaghlul Pasha was deported, This.:provoked a rebellion in Egypt which was suppressed. However, anti-British dis-, turbances continued and, in 1922, the British goverment was forced to end her protectorate over Egypt. Ahamd Fuad was made king of ny “ Zaghtul Pasha addressing a mect to demand the sihchavel of Brick troops from Fay nores CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY the independent Egyptian kingdom, In 1923, a constitution came in force, which -gave Egypt a parliamentary system of government. The-British forces, however, continued to retain in Bgypt in the name of providing “defeice of Egypt and the Canal” and for continuing British rule over Sudan which, nominally, was. under joint Anglo-Egyptian control. in thé elections: to the Parliament, Zaghtul Pasha’s Wafd party swept the polls -and.formed the government, The government demanded compleie inde pendenceThe Egyptian king, dissolved the Parliamient, The Wafd party swept the polls in every free election and the king, instigated by the British, dissolved the. Parliament four times in a period. of six years. After the death of Zaghivt Pasha, Nahas Pasha became the Teader of the Wafd party, which continued to puitsue an anti-British policy. In-1930, a Rew constitution was proclaimed, which increased the powers of the king and reduced those of the Parliament, There were widespread clues comese THE WoRLD BETWEEN THE TOR ou wars popular protests and. in 1935, the constitution of 1923 was restored. In the elections held in 1936, the Wafd party again came to power This “marked -a_victory for. the nationalist forces, The new goverment signéd a treaty with Britain which ended the British occu pation of Egypt: but Britain“ was allowed to keep 10,000 Soldiers in. the Suez Canal zone, The continuation 6f the British troops in Eeypt was to become a iajor source of conflict bebveen Britain and Egypt after. some years. Morocco * Powerful nationalist. movements. also arose in Tunisia, Libya, Algeria and Morocco. In 25.co™ a 1921, the Rif tribes of Spanish Merocco rose anf rebellion under the leadership of Abdel Karima. ‘They inflicted a crushing defeat on the Spanish ‘troops and proclaimed tlie Rifian Republican Nation: Soon after, the French sent their troops against the Rifian Republic but they were repulsed. Finally, in a war which continued for two years, Spain and France launched .joint military’ ‘opeiations ‘witha disproportionately large army. of 400,000 soldiers:In May 1926, Abdel Karim surrendered and, by 1927, Spain and France.were agai mastérs of thir respective parts in Morocco. ‘The Rif Rebelion became a source of inspiration to.anti-imperialist move- ments afl over Africa, During’ the Freneh‘war against the Rifian Republic, many people France, notably the Communist Party and the tade unions, extended their support to the’ Riffs. On 12 October 1925, the French workers went on strike and held demonstrations against-the.French- policy in Morocco. They also extended support to the cause of Algerian and Tunisian independence. Southern: Africa In the countries, of Southem Africa,” the growth of nationalist movements was uneven. ‘The States which the colonial rulers created in Southern Africa, were mostly new entities and thé people inhabiting most of these States did not vecessarily share a common past, Thetefore, it took the people in these States time to develop a sense of national identity. This situation was different from the one ia most Asian countries or, earlier, in the countties of Europe. The growing sense of national identity among the people of these States was a major development during the inter-war years, In every country, the grievances of the Peasants, workers, the intelligentsia and Other sections of society ted’ (0 ‘the formation of CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY of Indians who had been able to get education organized a powerful nationalist movement to overthrow the’British rule, However, some Africans did receive education, the colonial administration. could not:be run solely with the help of people from the mother countries. The educated Africans, many ‘of-whom were absorbed in. colonial adiiihisttation, experi- enced the discrimination against them practised by the colonial rulers and were increasingly made aware of the exploitation of their people. Many of them went to other countries, Particularly Britain, France and USA, for higher studies, and came into contact with the revolutionary and democratic ideas and ‘movements. Some of the future leaders of Africa who rose imo prominence during, their stay in other countries were Jomo Kenyatta trade unions’ and various” other types of § organizations, ‘These organizations inevitably had an anti-colonial political character as the Source of. all’ grievances. was. the existing, colonial regime, The uitetligentsia played ‘a | leading role in atousing political consciousness and setting up nationalist political organiza tions, secondary’ for - the < of the: colonial rule. Many 'Affican. historians are of the view. that thé “Burdpean. colonial rulers of Africa deliberately kept thé’ level and° facilities of education. in. the colonies extremely low ‘becatise of the experience of the Bi colonial rule in india, There a large umber notes clues coms | ott THE WORLD BETWEEN THE Twen yweluee™ not of Kenya, Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first President of the Republic of Nigeria, Kwame Nkrumah of Gold Coast (Gliana} and Leopold Senghor of Senegal A number of organizations were set up in different countries of Southem Africa in the 1920s. In the countries where some epresentative institutions had been introduced, regular political parties came into being For exainple, the National Democratic Party of Nigeria was formed with the. introduction of constitutional reforms in that country. Some of the, organizations which were formed during this period were the. Young, Kikuyu: Association, the Gold Coast Youth Conference, the League of the Rights of Man and Citizenship, and the Liga Affican in Angola, Pan-African Congress Many international organizations and move- ments played an important role in the WEB. Du Bois nores affirmation of Black culture, the beauty of common cultural heritage.among. all African a emergence of anti-colonial movetients in Africa in this period. Many of these movements were initialed by the leaders of the Black people's struggle for equality in America Some had their origin among the Black people in the French and British colonies in the Caribbean."A common’ feature of these movements was the advocacy of the unity and solidarity of all the Black peoples. The ‘most important among thesé were the Pan African Congresses organized by W-E.B. Du Bois whose: role in setting up the National Association for-the Advancement of Colored People has been mentioned earlier. Du Bois convened the first Pan-African Congress at Paris in 1919 during the Paris Peace Conference, The Congress. passed resolutions demanding equat political rights for the Black people in the US and other parts of the world and the right of self-determination for the African people. In 1921, 1923 and 1927, the Pan-African Congresses were held in different capital cities of Europe and brought together Black intellectuals from Africa, USA and the Caribbean. Another Pan- Africanist movement was initiated by Marcus Garvey, who was, by birth, a Jamaican. In 1914, he hhad set up an organization, called the Ur versal Negro Improvement Association. He organized 2 campaign to encourage Black Americans to-omigrate to Africa, and played an important role in developing..a. sense of pride among, the Black. people everywhere. Negritude Movement In the 1920s and the’ 1930s, there also emerged a cultural movement which promoted @ sense of identity “and pride .among.. the Black people and a rejection ‘of White and colonial domination. This is known as: the negritude movement. It was based on an African’ art and music, and’“a belief in a clues comnore iF WE MUST DIE 3 wa must die, let it not be lke hogs Hunted and penned in an inglrises spat, . While: sound us bark the mad and unary dogs, “Making their mock at our aecureod lot Af we mast die, Ostet us nobly di, So.that our precious blood may not be shea Jn-vain: thon aver, the monsters we oO dety ‘Shall be constrsined to” honor us though deedt © kinsrment we: must meet the com: mon foo! ‘Though far outnumbered tet vs sho us brave, Aad for th deathblow! Yihat though betére us ties the open grave ? ‘ Like men we'll face the murderous, cowardly pack, Pressed to the wall, dying but fighting back! “ thousand blows deat one Claude McKay «and African-descended peoples” Some of the prominent figitres-in this movement were Aime Cesaire of Martinique, a French colony in the Caribbean, Leopold Sedar Senghor of Senegal, who later became: the President of Senegal, and Langston Hughes of USA. All the three were poets of great eminencé, the first two of French and the last of English, Another poet, of Jamaican origin, who inspired Black people to “protest against their common suffering and assert their dignity” was Claude Mckay: ‘The * anti-imperialist movements “which had: their -origin in. Europe also prombted nationalist “movements: in Africa. fi :1927, aan International Congress was held in Brussels at which the League Against Imperialism was formed. This Congress was attended by leaders of left-wing, movements and radical scl 25.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HaSTORY intellectuals from Europe and representatives of Asian and African countries which were under colonial rule. They included delegates from Egypt, Kenya and South Africa, Among, them were Jomo Kenyatta and La Guma Jawaharlal Nebni. tepresented the Indian National Congress at this Congress The Italian invasion of Ethiopia and ‘world-wide protests against it also strengthened anti-imperialist feelings in: Africa Racial Oppression in South Africa ‘The’ inter-war years saw the further strength- ening of the system of racial oppression in South Africa as well as of the struggle against it, In 1910, the British colonies, Natal and Cape Colony, and the Boer States, the © Orange Free State and Transvaal, had been brought together asa self-governing State— called the Union of South Africa—of the British empire. After the First World War, the White population of South Africa was about 18,00,000, which was about 20 per cent of the totals population. The Whites comprised people of British origin and Boers, who were of Dutch origin. The majority of the population was African. There were about 200,000: people who were of: Asian, mainly Indian, origin. The government was completely in the hands of the Whites. You are familiar with the’ struggle which Gandhiji had waged in South Africa against racial discrimination to which lridians were subjected, In 1912, the African National Congress ‘was formed. It was to play the-teading role in the struggle against racial oppression in South Africa. In 1921 the Communist Party of South Africa was formed. ‘The Nationalist Party, which was. mainly a party of the Boers’ (or Afrikaners), was dominated by ideas of extremé White racism. It advocated a poticy of colour bar to maintain < the: social and political supremacy .of the Whites who, it said, were threatened by the Biacks. From the nyd-1920s onwards, the White nulers, influenced by racist ideas,yes.co™ ea THE WORLD BETWEEN THYQA@IORLD WARS Passed laws to exclude the Black people from getting skilled jobs or getting training for skilled jobs, or living, in areas where the Whites lived. All the best lands had already been taken away from them. They were asked 10 move to areas called “tiibal reserves", and were required to seek permission to work in the cities or on the farms owned by Whites, ‘They had to camy identity cards and passes in the ‘cities to prove that they had. been permitted t6 be there, and were arésted if: found without them. They were forced to’ live in the aréas-in towns which were allocated’ to them,, under horrible conditions. The average wage of a White worker was about ten times that of his African counterpart. The Blacks were debarred fiom forming trade unions or Joining unions of White workers. They had no right to vote, and were completely debarred from having any say in the political life of their country. In the 1930s, the White racists organized fascist movements on the mode! of the Nazi pany of “Germany. There was ‘widespread discontent against the racist policies, and a united struggle to overthrow the vicious system began to be built: up. LATIN AMERICA, Most of the countries of Latin America Continued to have regimes dominated by big landlords and the army. However, in almost every, country, democratic. and’ left-wing, political-movements and workers” and peas. ants’ organizations gained in strength, In most Latin American countries, communist parties were also formed during this period, ‘There was.a popular uprising led by Augusto Cesar Sandino against the: puppet government in Nicaragua, which had. been. installed. with (he help. of the: US troops, The ‘uprising continued for. many years and, in 1933, the US troops were withdrawn, However, Sandino ‘was assassiflated and power was captured by Anastasio Somoza, who established his dictatorship in Nicaragua. The ‘popular uprising: 91 led by 'Sandino had won the sympathy and support of people in all Latii American countries and, because of this, the US policy of sending troops to intervene in the affairs of Latin American countries had clianged, The economic crisis of 1929 had. affected the economy of all Latin American countries, Most.of the economies were heavily dependent on exports and they faced a. serious crisis when USA and other countries impdsed severe restrictions -on imports, This resulted ina vast increase in the number of unemployed ‘in industry. The impact on the people engaged in agriculture was-even worse, and they. constituted an overwhelming majority of the Population iv these countries. . Me; Significant developments took place in Mexico daring the inter-war period, Mexico had been ‘one of the first countries in. Latin America ‘Yo assert her independence from the US as well as to adopt social and economic policies in the interests of the peasants, She was the fifst country in the Americas to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union Between 1934 and 1940, Lazaro’ Carderias ‘was the President of Mexico. He introduced many radical steps to end thé power of big landowners and to build up the economy. Many landed estates were confiscated ard lands distributed to the peasants. He nation- alized the railways and some other industries and, finally, the entire petroleum industry which had been owned by the British and American oil companies, The nationalization of the petroleum industry had a far-reaching significance as it meant an assertion’ by the people ‘of :their ‘ight over the wealth and Fesources of their couintiy. In course of time, the: example’ of Mexico was followed’ by many, other Latin American countries ‘Changes in US Policy A. major feature of this period was the assertion by the Latin American’ countriespores 2 of their mdependence from foreign interference as well as their independent sole in world affairs, This was the major objective behind their joining the League of Nations. An all-American Anti-Imperialist League was formed, atid its. representatives attended the Brussels“ Conference in 1927 where the League ‘Against Imperialisin was set up. All Latin Athérican coiftitries were united in their ‘ppositidn’ to ths ‘the US domination of the Pan-American Union ‘which had been set up on US initiative éarlier. They also opposed the claitit by’the US of her right to interfere in the affairs of other countries in the Americas. Ata conference of the Pan- American Union in 1933, the US had to formally affirin its support to the declaration that “no state has the right to interfere in the internal or foreign affairs of another”, ‘There were some important changes in the US policy towards Latin America. From the 1920s, she relied more on what is called “dollar diplémacy’ by increasing, investments in Latin American countries and controlling their economy rather than on direct military interference. The’ withdrawal of troops from Nicaragua fas already been mentioned. The US policy towards Latin American countries during the period of Franklin D. Roosevelt's ‘presidency is described as the Good Neighbour Policy.. In some respects, the changes in policy were significant. The US annulled ‘what is.kinowa as the Platt Amendment which gave her the self-assured right to send troops to Cuba. She ‘withdrew her troops from Panama, except from the Panama Canal Zone which continued to remain under US control ‘These.:steps, however, did not end the begemony of the US over Latin America, and_ the’ policy. bf non-interference was not adheret!'to in the subsequent years. After the rise of fascism in Europe, fascist groups. and panties began to be set up in some Latin American countries some ‘of whont had many immigrants from Germany, yes.co™ cl CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Italy and Spain, The peoples of Latin America were awakened to the danger of fascism, and efforts were made to set up united fronts to curb the activities of fascist groups and parties, and the aggressive acts of fascist countries and Japati were condemned. Mexico consistently followed an: anti-fascist policy. She condemned the Japanese aggression. in Manchuria, the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia, and Germany's antiexation .of Austria She also provided shelter to thousands of Spanish Republicans who had to leave their country after Franco, with Italian and German support, had destroyed the Spanish Republic. DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE Europe from 4919 to 1923 New States in Europe ‘The. end of the First World War, as already mentioned, was accompanied by the emergence of a number of European nations as independent States, These included Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Poland and Czecho- slovakia. Some new States wore formed such as Yugoslavia by merging, new territories with an already existing State. By 1922, Ireland, which had been Tighting for independence from Britain, was partitioned, An Irish Free State ‘was given the Dorninion status while Noithein Ireland (Ulster) comprising six counties retained her connection with Britain, A few years later, the Irish Free State proclaimed herself the Hire, a sovereign State (subsequently the Repub! of Ireland). Hungary and Austria became _ separate States with the end of the Austro- Hungarian empire. ‘The settlements of. the boundaries: of various States in Europe as a result of the peace treaties became. a source of tension and conflicts. Most countries of «central, southern and eastern Europe were dissatisfiedseetra OA sveny OT) sumo ES seen por eang [=] sq 7901 sapojues % . vag NV uaztig BONvEd Buneer-a2eny ates ounewaxn \ dpounew purde: hong, Anensa9. VIAL NaavLs' Naa MSIE; Wacams / Vavmuon so UV GTHOM 1Suig WSL: ‘anya! ee AdOUNA NI SADNVHO TINOLIUEAL on not esclues ©AaMun squawuserop syers0ueq ONVANI| susunueapy yeunuog —] UyCl ores THe: WORLD BETWEEN THE MMS WwoRLD WARS with the boundary settlements and many of them continued to feel insecure Many ententes, alliances and weaties of friendship and hon-aggression were signed between different countries during. this period and, later, many slvfts in alliances and friendships took place Some of the territorial disputes within Europe were to provide the immediate ‘causes of the Second World War twenty years latér. Kise of Authoritarian Regimes In almost’ every country of Europe, the immediate post-war years ‘were a period of unrest. The dislocation of the economy during the war years, the problem of reorganizing it to meet the requirements of peace, ihe misery caused by the war in terms of the millions who had been killed and the millions who had survived but were crippled, the problem of survivors who had to return’ now to civilian occupations, the: unemployment— all these, had given rise to widespread discontent. There was a wave of strikes in every country of Europe and attempis at -a revolutionary overthrow of the existing order in some countries. Tie example of the Russian Revolution was a source of inspiration: to the working class of many countries, and the communist parties and some sections of Social Democrats tied to organize Sovier- (ype revolutions, The most, serious: revolu- onary Gutbreaks took place in Germany. In Hungary, a ‘evolutionary government, under (he leadership of Bela Kun, came to power tn 1919. However, by 1923. the prospect of, @ socialist revolution succeeding in other parts of Europe had receded — the Hungarian revolution having lasted bately:five months, ‘The collapse of expectations of revolution, often due to lack of- unity among vatious socialist parties and radical groups. led 10 the strengthening of anti-democratic and authoritarian forces in Many countries, and by the early 1930s, only’a few countries of Europe had succeeded in maintaining the ues.co™ 95 democratic institutions and the democratic forms. of their governments. in Hungary, an authoritarian government came to power under Horthy as Regent. In Romania. and ‘Yugoslavia, authoritanan monarchical gov- emments came te power...[n Poland, a dictatonal government was established under Josef Pilsidski. In Greece, ‘where monarchy had been restored, political conditions re- ‘mained, unsettled for many years, with kings changing ‘and army generals staging. coup Petats, In 1936, a fascist seA Nasi rally in Nuremburg, 1937 in 'the:First World War and was now in‘his eighties, was elected, polling over 18,5 million votes, He had been supported by’ the Social Democrats. Hitler polled over 11 million votes in this election while the Communist candidate Enist Thalmann, polled over 3.7 million votes. In the elections to the Reichstag, in July 1932, the Nazi Patty emerged as the Single largest party, polling over 13.7 million votes’ against the Social Democrats’ about eight million andthe Communists’ 5.2 million, In November that year, there was another election to the Reichstag in'witich the Nazi vote declined by! about 2-million while the Communist vote tose to about 6 million However, other forces were now at work, which would bring the Nazis to power. On 30 January 1933, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as the Chancellor of Germany, Thus his coming to power was not the result of a victory. in elections nor of a violent overthrow of the existing government but it was."part of a.“backstage déal” with the politicians of the right-wing parties. These parties and the bankers, the industnalists and the bi landowners of Germany, had persuaded Hindenburg to make him Chancellor. ores Soon after coming to power, Hitler set about consolidating his tule, He persuaded Hindenburg, to dissolve the Reichstag and cait for another election on 5 March 1933 On 27 February 1933, five days before the elections, the Reichstag, building was set on fire. It was widely believed, though it has not been established, that the Nazis themselves had set the building on fire in order to create terror and to intimidate voters. The goverment blamed the Communists forthe fire, Thousands of people were immediately arrested, including, Georgi Dimitrov who was a leader of the Bulgarian “Coninaunist Party and was in Germany at that time. The elections were held in the midst of these developments but even then Hitler failed to secure a majority. Within a few months, however, Hitler consolidated bis dictatorial rule by the use of terror anid assassination against. Social Democrats, Comnninists, trade union leaders, and other anti-Nazis. The Sociat Democratic Party and the Communist Party were banned Over 60,000 people were imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. By mid-1993. all other partiés were also dissolved. some of them dissolved themselves. In 1934, Hitler ues.cues.o™ THE WORLD HETWEEN tI ONEBORLD wans 107 THE BURNING OF THE BOOKS When the Regime commanded that hooks with harmful knowledge Should be pubticty burned and on ail sides Oxen were forced to drag cattleads of books To the bonfires, a banished Writer, one of the best, scanning the list of the Burned, was shocked to find that his Books had been passed over., He rushed to his desk On wings of wrath,’and wrote a letter to those in power Burn me! he wrote with flying pen, burn me! Haven't my bor ‘Troating me like a far! | command you: Burn me! Always reported the truth ? And here you ato Bertolt Bréeht became President of Germany. Within a few months of coming to power, Hitler perfected his machinery of terror and had begun to command the absolute obedience of the German people. The entire country was soon transformed into an armed camp Soon after coming to power, Hitler began, secretly, the rearmament of the country and took a whole series of steps in violation of the “Versailles Treaty: In October 1933, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations. The building of an air force was taken. up, which had. been specifically Prohibited by the Treaty. In March 1935, Hitler announced that Germany was no longer bound by the restrictions which the Treaty had imposed on the strength of the German military, and along with the army and the air force started building a navy..In March 1936, the “Rhineland, which had been de- militarized, was occupied by German troops All these moves, which were in total defiance of the Treaty, met with no resistance. from the other Western powers, By 1936, Germany. had built her military strength and the stage was set for acts of aggression which would Jead to the Second World War. ‘The League of Nations 'tmay be appropriate to deal with the League of Nations here. Although its _ members included countries from all continents, its fate was ultimately decided by the major European powers who dominated .it. At the time: of its formation, it had forty-four members — most countries of Europe, except Russia and Germany which were kept out, tiost countries of Latin America, Iran. Japan, China, Thailand and India (which was still a colony) from Asia, the Union-of South Africa. Ethiopia and. Liberia from Africa, and Australia and New Zealand. The League had an Assembly, a Council and a Secretariat In the Assembly, all the member-countries were represented, and each coulitry had one Vote, The Council initially had nine members Out of whom five— Britain, France. Italy.. Japan and USA — were.to be pefinanent and four non-permanent’ meinbers. The US did not join the League and her place -on the Council was taken by Germany when she was admitted in 1926. Germany's admission came after a conference held in October 1925 at Locamo, Switzerland, and attended by seven European nations, including Germanyow but excluding the Soviet Union. At this conference, a Pact was signed guaranteeing the existing, frontiers between Germany and France, and Germany and Belgium. These thee countries undertook not to commit ‘augression against each other. By 1928, all countries of Europe had become members of the League of Nations. The Soviet Union was adinitted as @ member in 1934. By then both Japan and Genmany had walked out of the League of Nations The League, as tas been stated earlier, was dominated by the’ major European powers, notably Britain and France. It-was able to resolve minor disputes between small States but it proved a dismal failure where a big power was involved, to prevent aggression, maintain the independence and_ territorial integrity of member-states, and preserve peace. ‘The League's dismal record in this regard Was a reflection of the policy of appeasenient which the big, powers had adopted towards aggression by fascist and militarist powers. The Covenant of the League, as has been pointed out earlier, provided for effective means to prevent aggression. These means were, however. not applied The Japanese occupation of Manchuria and the subsequent setting up by her of a puppet yovernmient, called the Manchukuo, were the first major acts of naked aggression after the First. World War. The League refused to’ recognize the Manchukuo government but it did not ask Japan to restore’ the pre-1931 position in Manchuria and end her aggression. Japan ieft the League of Nations and nothing, further was heard:of the matter. A few years later, Japan launched a massive attack on China : In October 1935, Italy. invaded Ethiopia with an army of 600,000 people. In Novernber, the League announced limited economic sanctions against Italy but in May 1936. despite stiff resistance by the Ethiopians, Ethiopia, a member of the League of Nations, ores? \ues cor CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY was annexed by Italy, In July 1936, even the limited sanctions applied earlier were withdrawn. The countries dominating the League showed total unwillingness to resist acts of aggression. USA, which was not a member of the League, followed the same policy ‘The only country which advocated the use of sanctions to stop aggression and. the formation of an anti-fascist front comprising Britain, France and herself, was the Soviet Union, The position adopted by the Soviet Union was supported by antifascist opinion: the world over However, the Westem countries” appeasement of fascism and ag- gression was based on the belief that fascist countries’ aggression wouldbe directed against the Soviet Union. During the next three years, the world slowly relapsed into another world war, In October 1936, Italy ard Germany signed an agreement on political cooperation. This is known as the Rome-Berlin Axis, In November 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact which Germany and Japan had signed in November 1936. In 1937, Italy left the League of Nations. Even before the Rome-Berlin Axis came into being, Germany and Ttaly had already stared cooperating with a view to installing a fascist dictatorship in Spain. AGGRESSION AND APPEASEMENT During, 1936-37, the bloc of aggressive powers— Germany, Italy and Japan — had emerged, It had been strengthened by the policy of appeasement followed by major Wester powers, notably Britain and France. The US also remained indifferent to the various.acts of aggression commutted by. these countries. ‘The policy of appeasement contimied, and Hitler was convinced that his invasion of Poland which precipitated the war in September 1939, would not provoke Britain and France into action, The basic cause of the war was\ues ‘corn HE WORLD KETWEEN THAR @BELD Wane the imperialist ambitions of these three countries — Germany’s to conquer Europe and establish fier world supremacy, Italy's fo conquer the Balkans, the Arab countries and large parts of Africa, and. Japan's to “become: master of Asia and the Pacific ‘The Spanish Civil War * The: first victim’ of joint. German-Italian aggression in Europe was Spain. The victory . Of the Populatt Front in the elections held 109 in February 1936 has already been mentioned. The new’ government Started introducing, teforms by restoring political liberties, meeting, the peasants’ demand for Jand-by breaking up big estates, and improving the lot of miners and ‘other industrial workers. A Programme of ‘educational development was taken up, The Falange and other right-wing, parties ‘and groups, representing, interests which had kept Spain al backward country,’ and their Mio of he seat® tow sine the Lincoln Battalion held for four and a half months along the readhs of the Jarama, and the fst American dead have been a part of the earth of Span tor a long time now, The dead sleep ‘cold in Spain tonight and they will sisep cold all this winter as the earth Sigpes with them. But in the spring the rain. will come to make the earth kind again, The seine saaven, nat over the hills trom the south, The black trees will come to lifo with small grece sees and there wil be blossoms on the apple traes along the Jarama River, This springs the dead will fee! the earth beginning to live again For our dead are a part of the earth of Spain now and the carth ef Spain can never die. Each winter t will soem to die and each spring it will come alive again. Our dead willlive with tors, SSL as the oarth can never dle, neither wil those whe have ever boan Frbe return to slovery [he Peasants who work the earth where our dead lie know what these dead died fer Tha wee Thonn tating the war for them to leam these things,-and there is forever far them to remenmey them in ae dend Tye in the hearts arid the minds of the Spanish peasants;-of thie Spanish workers, 2b pl the geod simple honest-people wha believed in and fought for the Spanish Nevubve, ees 25 Jeno. all Our dead live in the Spanish earth, and they-nill ive as long a3 the earth ices ne ‘system of tyranny ever will prevail in Spain oo * [Ernest Hemingway's article published in Mew Masses, 14 February 1939)mu w allies — the amy generals — now made plans to overthrow the government of the Popular Front and establish fascist rule. In July 1936, the fascists omanized mutinies, supported by most of the Spanish acy, both within. the country::and’ in Spanish colonies: The, main leader of thé muitineers was. General Franco, who led-his army from Spanish Morocco to Join-the rebels int Spain. Three years of brutal wat followed. The Nationalists, as the anti- Republican fascist forces and their allies were called, had in the meantime secured the help of Italy and Germany to overthrow the Republican goverment. Infact, the Civil War in Spain brought the two fascist countries of Europe together and they poured in vast quantities of arms and ammunition and aeroplanes as well as troops to siipport the Spanish fascists, ‘The rebels, with foreign support, captured many parts of the country and unleashed a reign of terror against the peasants and all those who were suspected of being supporters of the Republic. At this time, Britain, Prance and USA adopted a policy of non-intervention. This policy. meant that no aid could reach the Republicans while the German and Italian ‘CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY. Inilitary “Support “to Franco contimied un checked. The only coiuntry that came to the support of the Republicans, was the Soviet Union. The Republicans organized the defence of the Republic with the help of the citizens. who formed their militia and fought many fierce battles. In November. 1936, they heroically defended Madrid, the: capital city. and prevented its capture by Franco's. troops. ‘The. Spanish Civil War had aroused the conscience of the world, Anti-fascists from over fifty countries enrolled themselves as voluntéers, to fight in defence of the Spanish Republic. An Intemational Brigade with over 40,000 volunteers was formed and fought in Spain and thousands of them died on Spanish soil. The volunteers. included anti-fascist Italians and Germans. The battalion of the German volunteers was named after Thalmann, the German Communist leader who- ad been put in a Concentration camp by. the Nazis and ater wiurdered. The American battalion ‘was tamed: after Abraham Lincoln, the US President who had abolished slavery in USA ‘The iniemational solidarity: with the, Spanish Republic: reflected: the growing, concern ail ‘over the world at the rise of fascism Pablo Picassu painting Guernica’e5.co™ Wop awe ti GROSRYWars The Civil War in Spain was not viewed as merely a Spanish affair but one in which the entire world threatened by fascism and aggression was involved. Jawaharlal Neha went to: Spain to express the solidarity of the indian freedom movement with’ the cause of the Republicans. Many writers, poets and artists from different parts of the world fought in the ‘Spanish Civil War and mobitized world” public opinion. in support of the Repiiblic. Pablo Picasso, the greatest artist of. the twentieth century, painted; Guernica, a great work of art Guernica was a Spanish town which was destroyed by aerial bombing by fascist planes. ‘The painting, named after the town, was a powerful protest against the brute force which fascism represented. By'February 1939, most parts of Spain had fallen to the fascists and Franco's government was recognized by Britain and France, and, a little later, by USA. The city of Madrid continued to resist till about the end of March and after the fall of that city the fascist take-over of Spain was complete. The Spanish Civit War is often described as the “Dress rehearsal” of the Second World War in which the fascist countries tested their new weapons on the battlefields of Spain. Japanese Aggression on China Japan consolidated her conquest of Manchuria and in July 1937 launched a massive invasion of China, Within a few months, large pans of northern China, including the cities ofSetjing, Nanjing and Shanghai, were occupied by the Japanese troops. The Japanese bombed the Chinese cities. which had no nuilitary significance, and committed atrocities on the Chinese population, in 1938, they proclaimed what they called a. “New Order in East Asia’ which would bring Japan, China and Manchuria into ‘apolitical union. By this time, united Chinese national resistance to Japan had emerged. The League of Nations condemned the Japanese aggression but nothing was-done to put an-end to it Annexation of Austria The treaties with Germany and Austria had Prohibited the political union of the .two countries, With the rise of Hitler to power, however, the danger of Germany annexing Austria had emerged. A Nazi movement had also begun to growin Austria with the aim Of bringing ‘about an-nschluss (union with Germany), During the early 1930s, Engelburt Dolifuss:had established -his dictatorship in Austria. He suppressed the Socialist and Communist parties in Ausiria but_he was also opposed: t6 the union with Germany. He was: suppofted .by Mussolini, who. till then was not allied’ to Germany and was Purstting.his..own ‘independent great’ power ambitions. In 1934, Dolffuss was assassinated, and Austrian Nazis tried to capture power through a puisch, There were. violent clashes between the Nazis and the communists and other antt- Nazis. The attempt at pufsch failed, Mussolini also: moyed.his troops to the border with Austria, and Hitler, who was still not confident of Germany’s strength, decided not to-intervene in Austria, By. 1938. However, the situation had’ changed. After the “idtian conquest of Ethiopia and during the. Civil War in’ Spain, ‘Italy'"and: Germany had’ been drawn together thirough the Berlin Rome Axis and the Ahti-Comintern Pact, Hitler, with Mussolini's connivance, marched his troops into. Austria on 11 March 1938, pores” \ues cor CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY and the Austrian Nazis captured power. Hitler announced that German troops had been sent to Austria “to the help of thege brother Germans in distress” who had been suffering under the misrule and oppression of the Austrian government.” The Anschluss was achieved without any opposition from the Western powers, even though it was in total violation: of the peace treaties, Britain's Prime Minister Neville. Chamberlain was of ‘the view that Germany's eastward expansion and the satisfaction of-Germany’s “ust territorial demands” would: save Western Europe and help in safeguarding peace. ‘The Munich Pact The worst act of appeasement and shameful betrayal took place when Czechoslovakia's Western allies handed her over to Germany, Czzchostovakia itademenged.as an independent State after the First World Wer. She was one of the few States in Europe which had maintained her democratic political” system while most other parts of eastern. southem and central Europe had fallen victims to authoritarian rule. She was also the most industriatized country in eastern Europe. A part of Czechoslovakia, called Sudetentand, had a large Germain popelation. It was also the centre of some of Czechoslovakia's most important industries After the annexation of Austria, the next target of Hitler's aggressive designs was Czechoslovakia. The initial German demand was the handing over of Sudetenland to. her, France had been allied to Czechoslovakia since the 1920s, The tejection by Czechoslovakia of Germany's demand to céde Sudeteniand was sipported by the Soviet Union, which had signed a ‘weaty with that country in 1935. The Soviet Union offered to immediately come’ to the aid of Czechoslovakia if she decided to resist German aggression: However, on 29 and 30 September 1938, a meeting was. held in Munich, which was attended by Hitler,or 25.C ORD HEDWEEN THE AA sees ON THE BRINK ithas also been clear that it a pawerful peace front was ereated agsinst Nazi or fascist aggression, this war could be checked and peace ensured. This peace front could have consisted of the Soviet Union, France, England, and Czechosiovakia with the goodwill of the United States of America, Ta this peace front would have inevitably gravitated Poland, Ruriania, and some of the lesser powers. It would have been an overwhelming combination against Germany and itely tit italy joined Germany, which was by no means certain). If this had -happaned, it would have been madness on the part of the Nazi government to play the part of the aggressor and peace would have been assured. : This straight and obvious poliey, inevitably leading to peace, was not to the iiking of the British Government, for it meant cooperation with the Soviet Union. It meant the strengthening of the, Soviet.Union. and releasing of popular forces all aver the world, The class sympathios of the British Government made thorh view the Soviet Union with horror and.inclined them towards Nazism and fascism. And so although they talked of democracy and peace, they pursued a policy of appeasement of fasciam and thus directly led to var Chamberlain is at Berchtesgaden. What further infamy, what greater betrayal is afoot 2 incredible, unbelievable things have already happened and one’s capacity for astonishment is already past. A British Prime Minister functions as an emissary of Hitter anid fascism and works for fascist domination aver Europe, & Fronch Foreign Ministor, 4. Bonnet goes even a step further and actively works for the destruction of, his ally Czechoslovakia, for the greater glorification of Hitler. Patriotism, nationalism, peace ore mouthed by ail these gentlemen, but the ebjoct in view js the triumph of Hitler. Suddenly, as if by a flash of lightning, the true motives of the statesmen are lighted up. The ruling elasses; the top. dogs have no use for freedom or democracy. They fear both and thay see in Hier the champion of reaction, who, though haed and difficult to tolorate, is infinitely better than real democracy. They forget corvpniently that Hitler aims at the déstruction of France and complete domination of Europe, They forget that Czechoslovakia Is the sole rampart of democracy in Europe. If that goes, France also goes. What does it matter provided the class interests of M: Bonnet and Mr, Chambertain ara safo ? We ses how class feslings are the final criteria in meeting a crisis. Frenchmen and Englishes hang their héads in shame. Stupefied at the rapid turn of events, with not only dishonour but ulmate destiction of their proud countries facing them, Chamberlain ‘and Bonnet send theit ultimatum to the Czechs. Accept Hitler's demands, or we aiso will range. ourselves, against you. Note this: it was not only an abandonment of an ally and friend, it was also a threat of supporting the enemy. In torment and ageny of spirit the Czech cabinet sité cominugusly for hearly forty-eight houis. Chamberlain gets very angry at the delay in the answer and his minister and the French minister keep on: calling on the Czech ministers vifoughaut the night ever adding to. their threats. The Czech Government surrenders How shall we deseribe this ? The perfect decription has been given by someoné. It was thé fape of Czechoslovakia by Germany with England, and France holding her focibly dow. Patllaments ore not consulted, They are not even called. Chambedlain says that it would be inconvenient 19 call it while. delicate negotiations are going .on; In Fretice, imeétings and demonstrations’ are forbidden, We have the fascist methods developing in England and Franca. Englishmen say that ‘they. ate ashamed of being English. In France, the: news of one: deed shreads like 2 flash and-brings some pride to-a disillusioned people. A French general, serving on ‘2 Frerich military mission in Prague, declares that the betrayal of the Czechs by his Sountey has disgusted him so. much that he renounces his Fronch citizenship. and swears he will never return, 19 France. Henceforth, he’ censidors himself a Czech citizen; Strange that this act of renouncing French citizenship, heeause he thought it dishonout, should fil with pride large numbers of Frenchmen. They were proud that one brave Frenchman had gaid frankly what he thought and braved the' consequences,25.co™ Conmmaponagy wort History un pores Chamberlain is meeting Hitler. Meanwhile the massos stir and strange rumblings are heard in | France and Britain. They had been fooled long enough by these ministers and governments of theire Yet their predicament is a hard one. They least of ali want wat. Itis they and their sana and brothers and husbands who will die, and their children and wives and mothers and sisters who will be bombed What are they ta do ? Alf this could have been stopped so easily i England and France and Rureia had stood together in the cause of peace. But Chemberlain and ‘Bonnet prefer Hitlor, From an article written by Jawaharlal Nehru in Paris and published in Mationial Heraid, 5 Qotebar 1938] Mussolini, Chamberlain, and the Prime Minister of France, Daladier. Neither Czecho- slovakia, the fate of which was being, decided. nor the Soviet Uiion, which had’a treaty with Czechoslovakia, was invited to the meeting, At this meeting it was decided to hand over Czechoslovakia to Gesmany. Czechoslovakia was made to surrender Sude- tenland to Germany by Britain and France She chose not to seek Soviet help, and surrendered. Sudetenland was, occupied by German troops and parts of Czech territory were also handed over to Hungary. and Poland. In March 1939 Germany marched her troops into the remaining, parts of Czechoslovakia and occupied them. Around the same time, Lithuania wag forced 16 Chamberlain. Daladier, Hitler and Mussotim (left to right) at Munich . i surrender the town of Memel on the borders of East Prussia t@ Germany. Jawahartal Nehru was’ in. Europe: at the time and went to Czechoslovakia and “watched at close quarters the difficult and intricate game of how to betrary your friend”. In an anticle, entitled ‘On the Brink", which he wrote a week before: the Munich Pact was signed, he said that Nazi aggression could have been stopped “if England and France and Russia had stood together”, But Britain and France preferred Hitler, The Polish Question and Negotiations with USSR, The next threat from Genmany came to Poland. Germany demanded the retum of thecl ‘THE WORLD BETWEEN THE WARS, corridor and the city “of Danzig which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany, After the First World War, the comidor had been given to Poland. and Danzig had been tumed into a “fie city”. The British and French governments declared that “tin the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence”, they. would extend to Poland “all support in their power”..Germany did not seem to have taken these promises of support to Poland seriously. For the: first time, however,. since the aggressionby the fascist powers began, Britain and France started negotiations with the Soviet Union for an alliance against Germany, Both Britain and France had.no border with Poland and ‘could not directly come to the aid of Poland in case she was attacked by Germany. Poland had a long fromtier with the Soviet Union and an alliance between France, Britain yes.co™ us and the Soviet Union alone could, effectively check. German aggression against Poland. However, Poland, which had been consistently following anti-Soviet policies, was not pre- Pared to let Soviet. troops enter Poland even when her existence was. in danger. This hampered the talks which’ were held in ; Moscow by the military missions of Britain, , France and the Soviet Union from 12.to 21: August 1939. The talks‘ finally broke down when the British and French military’ missions made it known that they: had not been given the ‘necessary’ powers’ by~ their respective governments to conchide any effective alliance with the Soviet Union On 23 August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed*a nomaggression pact, On 1. September, Ger- many invaded Poland. On 3 September, Britain, followed by France, declared war on Germany. EXERCISES ‘L, Describe the main features of President Wilion’s Fourteen Points, How far were they: imple- mented 2 2. Mention the main clauses’ of the ‘Treaty ? 3. # Discuss the consequencés of the First World War opments within Turkey, 4 What effets on the country of its origin and Discuss the reasons for inequalities in section of the US population was the 5. the ‘Treaty of Versailles. What were the unjust features of this on the Oitoman Empire and on the devel- cant by the ‘Great Depression’ ? Where, why and when did it begin ? Describe its other patts of the world, US society between the two world wars. Which worst affected and why.? 6 Trae the main features’ of the economic’ and political developments in the Soviet Union be- bween the two world wars. Assess these developments in the founders of the socialist movement. 7. Describe the foreign policy its distinctive features ? 8. Describe the main features of the 9. Discuss the impact of the First How was the colonial question dealt 10. What were the main features of the the light of the ideals put forth by of the Soviet Union during the 1920s and the 1930s. What were political development of Japan after the First World Wat. World War on the European colonies in Asia and Africa, with in the Peace: Treaties? ‘ationalist movement’ in China during the immediate PostFirst World War years ? Describe the developments that took place there after the death of Dr Sum Yat-sen and their consequences. IL. Trace the growth of the nationalist movem Arab world during the period between the rents in the countries of south-east Asia and the two world wars,12. 1B 14 18 16. i. 18. 19. 20, 2 23, 2s. 26. corn esclues , not CowrenronaRy WORLD HISTORY Discuss the main features of Affican nationalism after the First World’ War, Mention the mi- Jor developments thet took place in South’ Africa during that period ‘What is meant by ‘fascism’? How did fascism become victorious in Italy ? Describe the rise of fascism in Germany. Discuss the developments and factors that led to its ‘triumph. Jn what-respects did the German version of fascism differ from the Italian one ? Describe thé’chianges which took place in the countries of Latin America during the period between the two world wars, Also mention the changes that took place in the US policy to- ‘Wards:the Latin American countries, Describe the. mdin objectives, structure and conipesition of the League of Nations, Assess its “ achievements in fulfilling its objectives. Give specific examples in support of your asséss- sent. ‘What were the factors that ‘brought Japan, Germany and Italy together 2 ‘What is.meant by the policy of appeasement ? Give examples of this policy by citing exam- ples from Eutopean developments in the 1930s. ‘Whea and why did the Spanish Civil War take place? Why was it regarded as an event thit affected the rest of the world ? Describe the reasons that led to the defeat of the Republi- cans. Deseritie the acts of aggression coinmitted by Japan, Ttaly. and Germany before the outbreak of the Second World War, Why were these acts not checked by other countries ? ‘When was the Munich Pact signed and by whom ? Why was it generally condemned as an act of betrayal ? Discuss the reasons for the failure of the Wester powers and the Soviet Union to come to- gether. What were its consequences ? Explain the background of the Soviet German Non-Aggiession Pact Do you think the So- viet Union did the right thing in signing this Pact ? Why ? or Why not ? |i had been hoped that the First World War would be a ‘war to end all wars’. Take a project, to study all the developments and events which belied this hope. On the outline maps of Europe, Asia snd Africa, show the major political changes which oc- curred during 1919 and 1939, Write explanatory notes on these changes, Read the extracts which have been fproduced in this’ chapter. Write notes on the light wilich these extracts throw on the history of the period. Also. try to find out more about the authors whose writings have been quotéd and their works.CHAPTER 4 The Second World War ‘The Beginning of the War ON 23 August 1939, the Soviet~German Non-Aggression Pact was signed, The stage was now set for the invasion of Poland. As stated earlier, Hitler was convinced that, as before, the Western powers would acquiesce inthe aggression, He had told his commanders, “Our opponents are little worms, | saw them in Munich”. On 1 September, 1939, Hitler's armies invaded Poland, On 3 September 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Poland, completely unaided by Britain and France in spite of the declaration of war, was defeated in about three weeks’ time, Britain and France neither directly came nores German troops occupy Warsa clu 10 the aid of Polapd nor launched any military operation against'Germany in the West. The ‘Second World War had begun but it was ‘confined to a small part of Europ’ in the cast, For about seven months after the declaration of war, there was no active war between Britain and France, and Germany, except for a few minor naval clashes, This period in the history of the Second World War is known as the “phoney war’ Soviets Occupy Eastern Poland and Baht States Avfew days after the German invasion of Poland, the Soviet Union occupied the eastem Pola: e5.com18 Pat of Poland comprising the territories which had earlier been part of the Russian empire's Ukraine and Byelorussia. These temitories were merged with the Ukrainian and Byetorussian republics of the Soviet Union. The occupation of these, territories Was justified by the Soviet Union on the ground that they had been seized from her by’ Poland after the First World War and that the advance of Germany in Poland threatened her security. Most historians are of the view that the occupation of the eastem Parts of Poland by the Soviet Union was part of the German-Soviet plan to partition Poland between them. In November 1939, war broke out between the Soviet Union and Finland. It ended in March 1940 with the Signing of the SovietFinnish peace treaty. According to this treaty. the Soviet Union British svoops leave Dunkirk nores CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY gained a naval base and some territory in the north of Finland, and the two countries decided not to join any other country hostile to either of them. During this period, the Soviet Union had established her military bases in the Baltic States of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, which had been part of the Russian empire and had become independent after the First World War, By August 1940, Soviet Republics had been-set up in these countries and they had become part of the Soviet Union. Conquest of Denmark and Norway In early April 1940, the British Prime Minister, Chamberlain, bad declared that “Hitler missed the bus” because he had failed to launch an attack on the West when the West ‘Was not prepared for it. He was to be proved wrong a few days later and to lose his Prime Ministership after a month. Sweden was a major supplier of iron ore to Germany, and the cccupation of Norway was important for Germany to protect the supplies from Sweden {n the meantime, a fascist movement had arisen in Norway and its leader, Vidlun Quisling, was in touch with Germany to facilitate -her conquest of Norway. On 9 April 1940, Germany launched an invasion of Denmark and Norway. Denntark surendered without any fight, and Norway was defeated, with the active support ‘of Norwegian fascists, by carly June. (The ‘word “quisling’ has, after the Norwegian fascist, come to statid for a person who collaborates with a foreign power to occupy his country and is installed by the foreign occupying power as their puppet prime miinister etc). The British and French forces sent to the aid of N had left Norway even earlier. With the conquest of Denmark and Norway, Germany acquired important air and naval bases in northem Europe, Capitulation of Belgium, the Netherlands, and France On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands (Holland), Belgium, Luxemburg, cues com‘THE SECOND WORLD WAR and France. The Netherlands, surrendered within five days, Luxemburg within a few hours, and the Belgian King ordered the surtender of his troops on 28 May, seventeen days after the invasion. The “phoney war” fad come to an end. On 26 May, evacuation of about 350,000 British, French and Belgian troops (the Belgian troops being those who had refused to surrencer) who had retreated to Dunkirk, began, and by 4 June they were transported to Britain, They left behind. at Dunkirk all their heavy equipment. In the meantime, thefe had been political changes in Britain and France, On 10 May, Chamberlain had resigned and was replaced by Winston Churchill as the Prime Minister of a coalition govenmment, with the Labour Party's Clement Attlee as the Deputy Prime Minister, In March 1940, the French Prime Minister Daladier had been ousted. He was replaced by Paul Reynaud. Most of the French cabinet at this time comprised ‘defeatists’, that is, those who wanted to surrender to Germany. On 9 June, the French government left Pans” which, on 14 June, was occupied by German troops. Now the Head of the French govemment was Marshal Hensi Philippe Petain, who appealed to Germany for peace, So far, Italy had kept herself aloof. Now that the defeat of France as well as of Britain seemed imminent, she entered the war on 10 June on the side of Germany. On 22 June, Petain’s government signed an agreement according 16 which Alsace-Lorraine was annexed by Germany, northern France was ‘occupied by the German troops and Petain’s goverment was allowed to retain control over about half of France. Petain’s puppet government, which moved to Vichy, was also allowed to retain control of the French colonies, and collaborated with the Nazis, Charles dé Gaulle, who had been a colonel in the French army at the time of the German iivasion of France, had escaped to Britwn after the surrentier by the French government. Under the- leadership of de Gaulle, now ' ig General de Gaulle, the Free France movement was started and a French army was organized in Britain to fight against Nazi Germany. That part of France which was ruled over by Petain’s government and collaborated with the Nazis is known as. Vichy France. ‘The Battle of Britain After having conquered about the whole of Western Europe, Germany now planned the invasion of Britain. This plan was given the code name of ‘Sea-Lion’. The invasion of Britain was possible only if Germany could gain control over the English Channel which the German armies would have to cross to reach Britain, This required the British air force and navy to be made ineffective for preventing the crossing of the Channel. German bomibers and fighters started the bombing of British ports, airfields and aircraft factones, There were dogfights between the120 aircrafts of the two countries over the Channel and over the ports and cities of Britain. The German air force suffered heavier losses than the British air force, Because of the stiff fesistance by the British air force. Germany started raiding Britain's big cities, particularly London, at night in the hope of destroying the morale of the people, Britain, in return, conducted air raids on Germany, The aerial battle between Britain and Germany is known as the Battle of Britain, Through his resounding, speeches the British Prime Minister kept the morale of the British People high. Some of” these speeches are among the most famous examples of oratory in the world, Offering his countrymen nothing, but “blood, toil, tears and sweat”, in one of his speeches, he said, “Even though many old and famous states have fallen, or may CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY fall, into the grip of the Gestapo and all the Odious apparatus of Nazi mute, we shali go on to the end: we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing strength: and confidence in the air, we shall defend our island whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, We shall fight in the hills: we shall never surrender”, The British were also able to save their airfields from any serious damage and fo increase the production in their aircraft industries so that the losses in the Battle of Britain were more than made up for, As a, result of the British resistance, operation ‘Sea-Lion’ was indefinitely. put off and, by November 1940. the German air raids on London had. miore or less ceased Japanese troops in China| A fl J 4 | THE SECOND WoRLD WAR clu pores Other Theatres of War in the meantime, the war had spread to some other pasts of Europe and to Africa On 27 September 1940, Germany, italy and Japan signed a Tripartite Pact. According to this Pact, each country pledged to give full support to the others in the event of an attack by any other power. Germany and Italy recognized Japan's claims to create what was called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity . Sphere, imeaning Japanese conquest of not only China 25.co™ a1 and Manchuria but of all East and South- East Asia. Japan, in tum, recognized German and Italian supremacy over Europe. In October 1940, Italy invaded Greece but she faced Stiff resistance and appealed to Germany for help. Between November 1940 and March 1941, Germany got Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Bulgaria to join the Tripanite Pact and sent her troops to these countries. ‘These countries thus became the allies of Germany, Italy. and Japan ‘Stalingradi ores? By this time, Hitler had decided to launch an invasion on the Soviet Union. The sending, ‘of German troops to these countries was part of thie preparation for the invasion of the Soviet ‘Union. In April the German troops were sent, to Yugoslavia and to Greece, which had repelled thé Italian invasion, and these countries were subjugited. By June 1941; Germany and Italy had conquered “ali of Europe, except’ Britain ‘and the Soviet Union. — In the meantime,’ Italy fad’ invaded British” Somatiland and Sudan and had Started advancing, towards Egypt. However, by December 1940, the British succeeded in not only ‘recovering, all their colonies in Africa which Ttaly had taken, but also in driving,the Italian troops out of Africa except. Libya, In February 1941, German troops were sent to Libya, and Germany and Italy launched another drive against the British in Africa, The war in Africa, which was to continue for another. two years, will be described subsequently. German Invasion of the Soviet Union In the previous chapter, Hitler’s hatred ‘of communism and the Soviet Union, the Westem countries” appeasement of Hitler, the Soviet Union's efforts to build a:coalition to check fascist aggression, and the signing of the Soviet - German Non-Aggression Pact have been’ mentioned. Hitler had always held the view that the ‘real’ war to. be waged by him would be against the Soviet Union. The conquest of the Soviet Union with her vast resources would, he believed, make Germany ‘invulnerable and give him the power to “wage wars against whole’ continents” The objective of the ‘conquest of the Soviet: Union was also very different from the ‘objectivé of Germany's other military campaigns. This was to be a total war of extemiination, and not only of communism Hitler dreamed of settling 100 million people of ‘pure Aryan blood’ — Gemians — in the Nu > Europeanized! es corn CONTEMPORARY WORLD INSTORY temnitories west of the Urals and as so mary Germans did: not exist, the privilege was to bbe extonded to others — the North Europeans, the Dutch anid the English— who were considered “racially approximate to Ger mans”, During:the war, he described ‘the. new ‘civilization’ that tie planned to build up in this area’ “The area must lose the character of the Asian steppe. It must be ‘The ‘Reich: peasant’. (the German peasant) is to live in outstandingly beautiful settiements. The German agencies and authorities are to have wonderful buildings, the governors palaces. Around each city, a ring of lovely villages will be placed to within 30 or 40 Kilometres... the German cities will be placed, like pearls on a string, and around the cities - the settlements will lie. For we will not open Lebensrawm (the term used by the Nazis for the territory of othe countries which they considered necessary for (e many’s national existence)’ for outselves by entering the ld, godforsaken Russian holes! The German settlements must be on an altogether higher level!” The extermination of the Jews and the enslavement. ofthe Slavs were integial parts of this Plan, The planning of the invasion of the Soviet Union had started in early 1940. It was’ given the cod: name of “Operation Barbarossa’. Hitler liad a low opinion of the Red Army, as the Soviet Union's amy was called, dnd called it “no more than a joke” According to the plan, the Soviet Union was to be defeated within nine weeks or, at the most, in seventeen weeks. As it turned out, the mvasion led to the destruction of the Nazi regime and of Hitler himself. After the German invasion had started, the Soviet goverment justified the Soviet — German Pact on the ground that it had given the Soviet Union “‘peace for a year and a half and, the opportunity of preparing our forces” to meet the, Nazi aggression, Thus it was tactics to gain time, When the invasion took: place, the Soviet Union was’ takenDND WORLD wae ores totally unawares and suffered terrible reverses and devastation. This is explained by some Soviet Writers as due to ‘lack of time” that the Soviet Union had to complete its preparedness to meet the aggression, Most historians, however, are of the’ view that Stalin had put too much trust. in the Non-Aggression Pact and had come to believe that Germany would: remain involved ina war exclusively with ° Western impeiialist countries for long. and’ that there was no immediate danger to the. Soviet Union, It is imponant to note in this. context that. since the outbreak of the war, Stalin bad iniposed a ban on the publication of anti-Nazi and anti-German views in-the Soviet Union, Until the German invasion: of the Soviet Union, the Second World War ‘was presented exclusively as an inter-imperialist war — not a war launched by aggressive fascist powers. The Non-Aggression Pact “and the. Soviet invasion of Poland and occupation of Baltic States had been a ‘major setback’ to -the popularity ofthe Soviet Union - and. the conununist parties the world over. The German invasion began on 22 June 1941 without a formal’ declaration of ‘war. The German tanks, supported by air attacks, Tapidly advanced into the Soviet Union along, a front which stretched over more than 3000 km towards Leningrad, Moscow and Kiev, ‘The Soviet forces steadily retreated, and the German forces occupied Kiev, Smolensk and Odessa, Germany ‘had hoped to end the war with the Soviet Union before the onset of winter. In. early October, Moscow was besioged. By then, however, it was too late Soon, the Russian. winter stared. By the middle of November, the assault on Moscow’ had been halted. By the end of November, the temperature hud falleit to -40°C rendering, ‘uch of the German heavy equipment useléss. The German: soldiers were not sufficiently clothed to withstand the winter. In December the Soviet counterattack stared, and by January the German forces were driven back yues.co™ ios from Moscow. ‘Operation Barbarossa’ had failed but the total rout was to come later In the meantime, niany other significant developments had taken place in the world US Entry into the War. , When the Second World War boke out, the ‘US announced her neutrality. Since the beginning of the aggressions by fascist powers, the US had followed a policy’ similar to that of Britain and France, During .the Munich talks on Sudetenland, the US President had supported Chamberlain's -policy of appease- ment. The US had protested against the Japanese aggression in China but had done no more. Most Americans were sympathetic to Britain in the war but were. opposed to direct US entry into the war. Britain was allowed 10 buy arms on what is known as the cash-and-carry basis from: the US. Gradually, the US support to Britain grew By early 1941; the British were in no position to pay for the arms and other goods for which they were heavily dependent on the US. In March 1941, the US Congress passed a law under which the US President was given the right to lend-or fease armaments to any country whose defence was “vital 10 the defence of the. United States”. This was known as the ‘lend—lease’ system, and Britain began to receive massive supplies from the US. Subsequently, US also undertook the protection of her shipments ‘to. Britain. against German attacks. Simultaneously, US industries began producing enormous quan- tities of armaments, aircraft and ships. In Novemiber 1941, the US “lend ~ lease” system was extended to the Soviet Union, The ‘Adantie’ Charter oH Another important development was. a dec- laration. which the British’ Prime. Minister, Churchill, and the US President, Roosévelt. (he bad been elected President for the third time in 1940) “issued after a meeting’ in.124 August 1941, This is known as the Adantic Cfiarter. This was an important document even though it did not imply any direct mnititary commitment on thé part of the US to take part in the war. The Charter set out certain common principles on which to base “a better: future for the ‘world. .The two countries committed themselves to these principles, and. they became, in-a sense, a ‘statement of. war aims: The two countries stated that they. did'not seek “‘aggrandizement, * temitorial or other™ or any tefnitorial changes “which do.not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the people concemed™. The Charter also. stated: that the two countries “respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of govemment under which they will: live, they wish to see sovereign rights and self- government restored to those who have been forcibly. deprived of them...”, The Chanter also called for “the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny”. The Soviet Union also became @ party to the Atlantic Charter. (It is interesting to note here that when Indian Jeaders demanded independence from Britain and quoted the principles set out in the Atlantic Charter, Churchil] rebuffed then, saying that those principles were applicable only to countries which were under German occupation.) Attack on ‘Pear! Harhor ‘The US ‘had still “not directly entered the war. In July 1941, the Japanese had occupied Vietnam in Indo-China,.In October, an even more aggressive government came to power in Japan, It was headed by General Hideki Tojo. ‘The Japanese made preparations for launching another act of aggression, this time in the Pacific. On 7 December 1941, the Japanese bombers attacked the US naval base at Peart Harbor in Hawaii. The US had expected @ Japanese attack on the British and Dutch colonial possessions: in the area and was completely taken by surprise, In nores “US naval vessets at Peart Harbor damaged in Japanese attack the bombing, 188 aircraft and many baitleships. cruisers and other naval vessels of the US were destroyed and over 2,000 sailors and soldiers Killed. The Japanese tosses were minor, On 8 December, the US declared war on Japan. On 11 December, Germany .and Italy declarsd war on the US and the US declared war on Germany and Italy. A Global War ‘The: events of 1941 — ihe German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Japanese attack on Peart Harbor and the US entry into the war— made the war a truly global war. By the middle of 1942, Japan had occupied many islands in the Pacific, the Philippines, clues comclu THE SkcOND WoL Wan ON eS Indonesia, Burma, Malaya, Singapore and Thailand, During. this period there emerged the anti-fascist coalition comprising, Britain, ihe Soviet Union and the US. Winston Churchill called it the “Grand Alliance” Britain and US waged the war together under Joint commands.-Though there was no. stich Joint action with the:Soviet Union, all the thrée countries actively. collaborated and on many occasions planned common strategies. ‘Besides, the vast resources of the US industry were now geared to the pursuit of war, and massive quantities of war materials. were Produced, which included 300,000. aircraft and 85,000 tanks. The US has been described as “the arsenal of victory”. The Soviet Union Tecognized General de Gaulle, who later sat Up a provisional government, as the leader of all ‘Free Frenchmen’ The Battle of Stalingrad Throughout 1942, :the war in Europe was fought almost exclusively between the Soviet troops-and the German troops and: the forces of countries such as Romania and Bulgaria allied to Germany. After the German attack on Moscow had been repillsed, the GermanStalingrad afier the surrender'0f German troops troops advanced deep into the Caucasus, In March 1942, Hitler had asserted that the Red Anny would be annihilated in the summer of that year. In July, the German troops launched an offensive on Stalingrad (now Volgograd) and by mid-September they reached the outskirts of that city. Then began what tas. been called “the greatest’ single trial of strength” of the Secoud World War By the middle of November, the German armies were in and around Stalingrad, Bitter fighting had been going on in the streets of Stalingrad for every inch of the territory. In late November the German armies in and around Stalingrad were encircled by Soviet troops, and they could find no way to escape. No supplies could reach them, General Paulus, who comufianded the encircled German army, reported on 24 January 1943 that among the surviving German troops there were 20,000 Sounded who were unattended and anotier 20,000 who were suffering from frostbites, had no weapons and were starving. On 31 January, be sumendered, The battle of Stalingrad had. lasted five months and bad reduced that city to rubble. The German defeat in this battle has been described: as “the greatest defeat in history that a German army has undergone”. Germany and the countries allied to her lost over 300,000 troops in this battle, About .90,000 of them survived the battle and they were taken prisoner In July 1941, the Soviet government had appealed to Britain to open a ‘Second Front’ by invading France so that the German strength concentrated against her could be diverted, but it was not agreed to. In May and June 1942, the Soviet Union again appealed to the US and Britain for opening, @ “Second Front’ The US President was willing tut finally both Britain and the US decided to send troops to North Africa instead, The reason advanced for not opening, the Second Front in Europe in 1942 was that they — Britain and. the US — were notTih SHEOND WORLD WAR WOTeS yet equal to the task of launching a frontal attack against the German forces in Europe. This led the Soviet Union to believe that Britain and the US “wanted to bleed the Séviet Union white so that) they coutd preserve their forees and emerge supreme in the “later stages of the war After the German, debacle at Stalingrad, however, there was greater coordination among the three powers. ‘The German and allied troops launched another massive military operation against the Soviet army in the, middle of 1943 but they suffered a. crushing defeat in August, losing about $00,000 troops. This’ is known as the Battle of Kursk. After that they were steadily swept back and. by January 1934, they began to retreat from all sectors of the Easter Front, clues cor German troops retreat from the Sovies Union ‘The War in North Africa and the Pacific While the fascist powers had reached the height of their power in 1942, they faced defeats in almost every theatie of war in 1943. After the Italian debacle in North Africa. the German troops under General Rommel had been sent there to help their Italian allies. They had achieved remarkable successes and in August 1942 had launched an offensive against the British. forces in Egypt A battle was fought between the German and British armies, the-latter under Genera Montgomery, at El’ Alamein, and the Germvin armies were forced to retreat in November, Soon after the battle of E! Alamein, the British and the US troops landed on the Atlantic coast of Morocco and in Algeria, Both these countries were Fiench colonies and were under the control of VichyCONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY France. which was allied t Germany. troops thera, ‘They had succeeded in flowing However, after some time, the French army supplies to Chiang Kai-shek, but his army in these countries joined the Allies. Germany was not able to faunch any attack against cccupied Vichy France, and sent reinforce- the Japanese Ments to Tunisia, which was also a French colony, Rommel’s. troops had been driven back to Tunisia by March 1943. In May The Allied Victoriés in Europe Early in 1943, Britain and the US decided 1943, the British and American forces launched 10 postpone the offensive in Westem Europe an offensive in Tunisia.and the German and to 1944, In July, when the Battle of Kursk Htalian forces surrendered, This marked the was on, they invaded Sicily. By this time, end of Italian an German presence in North ° there was widespread ‘discontent in Italy Africa. Bartier, in 941, a pro-Getman revolt. ‘There were frequent strikes. The disaffection in Iraq had been ctisshed by the British, and’ had also spread to the armed forces, which the [British “and Free French forces had had suffered. defeats everywhere, and they ‘occupied Syria and Lebanon, which had been surrendered in large numbers to the Allied under the control of Vichy France. forces. On. 25 July #943, Mussolini was In the Pacific, there were many naval dismissed and a. new goverment came to battles between the US and Japan during” power aly now wanted: to withdraw from 1942, and though the Japanese offensive ad the war. On 3 Septemiber, the Allied troops been halted. the Allied victories were not invaded southern ftaly, and Italy surrendered notable, In 1943, however, the Allies unconditionally. . Tecovered many Pacific islands from the On 10-September, the Gen Japanese. In China, the Japanese offensive continued and the Allies failed to land their man troops occupied northem Italy, including Rome. They Fescued Mussolini from detention andIE SECOND WoRLD WAR he. guarded by the Germans. set up his government in northem [aly under German protection, In southern Italy. a new government was formed and it declared war on Germany, Though the Allied troops did not advance fo the north for many months, the resistance in northem Italy grew in strength and they fought against the Gernian occupation and against Mussolini with great tenacity, In 1944, the fascist troops were thrown ‘out of Soviet territory and the Soviet Union defeated Fipland, which had become Ger- many’s ally. Most parts of the countries of Eastem Europe ~Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia were liberated In sonie of these countries, fascist goveraments hhad come to power and they had joined the war on the side of Germany, Others, such as Poland, were under direct German’ occu pation, The fascist troops were also driven out of Greece. Yugoslavia and Albania. In June 1944, the Allied troops opened the Second Front in Westem Europe. On 6 June 1944, known as D Day, the first ASlied ‘Woops landed on the beaches of Normandy, ‘on the north coast of France, By the end of July, the number of the Allied troops which were landed in France, had. gone upto 16,00,000, They were commanded by General Dwight D: Eisenhower of the US Amy, who later became the President of USA. By September 1944, France, Luxémbury and Belgium were liberated by the Allied: amties. The last major German counter offensive Was launched in December 1944 in the Ardennes region of Belgium, The battle which followed is known as the Bate of the Bulge. It ended in mid-January 1945 when the Soviet troops led by Marshal Zhukov faunched a massive attack all-along, the eastem front, and Hitler was forced to shift most -of his troops from the Ardennes to the east, Surrender of Germany ‘The war in Italy continued for many months after Germany bad occupied northem Italy 129 TO THE GERMAN SOLDIERS IN THE EAST. |}. Brothers, if | were with you — Were one of you out there in the eastern snovfields: Ons of the thousands of you amid theron chariots . | would say as you say : Surely ‘There must be a road leading home, But brothers, dea brothers Undot my steel helmet, under my skull | would know what you know : There 's no longer a road leading home. On the map jaa Schoolboy's atlas The road to Smolensk is no bigger ‘Than the Fuhrer’s litte finger, but In the snowwfields itis further Wary far, too fae. She snow witt not test for over, just till springtime, But men will not last for ever either. Saringtime Will be too long. So | must die, | know it. In the bandits" tunic | must die Dying in the bloody arsonists’ shirt As one of the many, one of the thousands, Hunted as bandits, slain as bloody arson ists. Brothers, if | were with you Were trudging with you across the icy wastes | would ask as you ask : Why Haye !come hore, whence, Thera is ne longer any road leading home ? Why have I put on the bandits’ tunic ? Why have | put on.the bloody arsénists! shies No, it was not from huagar No, it-was not from desire.to Kil, Meroly because | was a menial And was ordered to | set out to murder and to burn And must now be hunted And.musp,pow be stain. From @ poem by-the German playwright ‘and poet Bertelt Brecht}and rescued Mussolini, who had set up his government in German-occupied Italy. How- ever, by June 1944, the Allied troops had fiberated many Italian cities, including Rome. in the meantime, the anti-fascist Italian forces had intensified their activities. On 23 April 1945. there was an uprising in those areas of italy which were still under fascist ‘occupation. On 28 April 1945, Mussolini. who had been captured, was executed, and the Germans in Italy surrendered. This marked the end of fascism in Italy. By early January 1945. the collapse of Germany was in sight. The Soviet offensive, which was launched in January 1945, swept away the last German resistance in the cast. Warsaw was liberated on 17 January, Budapest CONTEMPORARY WORLD) HISPORY on 13 February. Vienna on 13 April. The Sovier armies moved into Germany and, by 25 April, Berlin was encircled by them. In the meantime. in March, the Allied troops had started their offensive in the west and by mid-April occupied large pans of West Germany. On 30 April 1945, Hitler committed suicide. The same day the Soviet armies hoisted the Red Flag on the Reichstay building, Sporadic fighting continned for another two days in Bertin, On 7 May 1945, Germany unconditionally surrendered 10 the representatives of the US. Britain, France and the Soviet Union at the headquarters of General Eisenhower in Rheims, On 8 May 1945 Germany made another unconditional surrender at the Soviet headquarters in Berlini i On 11 May Czechoslovakia was tiberated, and the war in Europe was over Surrender of Japan ‘The war in Asia and the Pacific continued even after Germany's surrender, The Allies had scored victories in this region in 1944 but Japan was still strongly entrenched with a huge army in China, Manchuria, Korea and other places. On 6 August 1945, a US aircraft dropped an atom bomb on Hiroshima and on 9 August on Nagasaki, These bombs kilied over 320.000 people in these two cities. Japan capitulated on 15 August. On 8 August, the Soviet Union. had declared 1B war on Japan. By the end of August, the Japanese armies in Manchuria had surrendered to the Soviet army, in South-East Asia to the British army, and in China to the arnues of Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese com munists, On 2 September 1945, Japan, surrendered, and the Second World War was over, Fascist Barbarities The fascist’ aggressions and occupation were accompanied by the most inhuman barbarities against the occupied peoples. The term. ‘fascism’ has been used to describe the system set up by all the three Axis powers2 nores© namely, Haly, Germany and Japan. Each of them had its own peculiar features. Of the ‘tuee, the German version, Nazism, was the ‘most brutal. With their theories of racial purity and supremacy of the ‘Aryan’ race, the Nazis considered: most of the rest of Sumanity to be sub-humans deserving exter- mination, or at least enslavement. They tried to convert Europe into a huge slave camp and a death camp. The aggressions committed by these countries led to the Second World Wat, the most, destructive war in history. The war ended with the victory of the anti-fascist alliance, comprising the Soviet Union, the United States and Britain, and their allies This alliance was the fundamental basis, an essential condition, for.the defeat Of the fascist powers. Besides, in each country which was invaded and occupied by the fascist powers, and within the fascist countries, resistance movements of the people grew and they played an important, in some cases crucial, role in the defeat of the: fascist powers, ‘The Nazi ‘barbarities had’ started in Germany itself. Concentration’ camps were set up and anti-fascists and Jews were: sent there and many of them were killed, In 1939. an order was issued to eXterminate ‘the “‘chsonically insane and incurable” and within. that-year about) 70,000. people were killed. However, the real war of annihilation began with the invasion of the Soviet Union. A large part-of the civilian population of occupied Europe was either exterminated or used as slave labour The Jews were particularly singled out. In 1941 alone, one mullion-people of the: Soviet Union were murdered. About half of them were Jews. Concentration camps were set’ up by the Nazis inv’ Poland, “Czechoslovakia, “Austria, Holland, France and Germany. These included Auschwitz, Belzec and Treblinka in Poland and Dachau, Bergen-Belsen and Buchenwald in Germany, Millions of people from all ‘over Europe were transported io these camps \u 25.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY, Some of these were purely death camps. In July 1931, an order was issued on the ‘final solution’ of the Jewish problem, This meant “the planned biological destruction of the Jewish race in: the Eastern, territorie The full facts about these camps came to fight only when the Allied troops liberated the territories in which they were located and subsequently when the Nuremberg Trials took place for war crimes. In the beginning, the victims were shot. But this was found to be expensive and messy and, therefore, horrible means of exterminating human beings were invented. A pest control firm, a subsidiary of the German Company 1.G, Farben, produced 8 gas Which, from 1942 onwards, was used for the purpose. Its first use began on 17 March 1942 at the Belzec death camp in Poland where 15,000 people could be killed in a day. The victims were marched into cellars which they were told were places for bath. The cellars were actually gas chambers with a gas-proof metal door. Then the crystals of the gas were pushed inside and after twenty-five minutes the gas-laden air was removed through exhaust pumps and the metal door was opened. After removing, the gold teeth and hair, the piled-up dead bodies were removed 10 the furnaces where they were reduced to ash, which was scattered in the nearby streams. * Instead of murdering people straightaway, the Nazis generally fet the German industri- alists first make full use of their labour. The inmates of the camps began to be leased ‘out fo some industrial concerns such as the Krupps, 1G. Farben, Siemens, ete. Some of these industrial concerns set up their industrial units near the camps. As.the trains carrying the victims arrived, women, children, the old and the sick were taken straight to’the déath camps and the healthy ‘to work sites where many of them were worked to death. Those found sick were transfered to the death camps every moming. Some industrial, firms manufactured goods from human skins.133 viAvIsODNA vINvWON (0 seveninn x veya x 001» soa JoFou-sseup. 9 A roaaog x ann # ws'sn ewig x ONY TOd nove wodmewmeyes x x * oH viisny Dresmuauane x Hmaw x reused x Dnquosso1y A ANYINURD xeea-vse Besides extermination in the gas chamber, the inmates of the camps were also used for conducting biological experiments by’ the Nazi doctors: Various kinds of disease were induced “in the victims and vaccines tried. Some were slowly frozen to death and biological changes taking place in their bodies studied. These experiments are too horrible to describe. In recent years, information about similar expetiments conducted by the Japanese has ‘come to light ‘The total number of the civilian popu Killed by the, Nazis is estimated to be over ten million. These included killings through mass murders — for example, the entire male population of the village Lidice in Czecho- slovakia was wiped out in retaliation for the murder of the Nazi governor of Czechoslo- vakia, Heydrich — and other brutalities, but most of all by the systematic extermination in the camps, The number of vietiins in the CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Auschwitz camp: is estimated to be four million, A majority of the murdered were Jews — about six million. of thet, that is, 75 per cent of the total Jewish population of Europe. This mass murder of the Jews fhas come to be known as the ‘holocaust’. Besides the millions of Europeans who were brought to the. camps to perform slave labour and: to be exterminated, another 75,00,000 people from various patts of Europe were brought to Germany to work'as slave labourers in German factones. They included about two million prisoners of war, Allied Air Raids and the Use of Atom Bombs About 15,00,000 civilians were killed in air raids during the Second World War, Although air raids on the civilian population were started by Germany, the Allied countries alsoBESCONDWOKLDWAR | ¥ecl esorted to raids on the civilian population on a massive scale. The British dropped over 650,000 incendiaries on the German city of Dresden on 13-14 February 1945. killing about 135,000 people. The two atom bombs used by the US. as stated earlier, killed about 320,000 Japanese men; women and children. The use of atom bombs by the US is considered by many people an abominable act, not only because of the number of people that the twa bombs killed but also because of the very use of the new weapons of mass destruction The argument that witust the use of the atom bombs, the’ war with Japan would have been a protracted war with many more casvalties on both sides than those caused by the atom bombs is not accepted by many scholars, They point out that after the collapse of Germany, Japan was in no position to conduct a protracted war. Around this time, the Soviet Union was also about to enter the war against Japan, The atomic weapons were devewoped in the US during the war by pooling the scientific skills and resources of many countries. Many scientists, of the US and other countries, had worked ‘on the project to” develop atomic veapons because of the fear in the scientific community that Nazi Germany might develop these Weapons first and use them to terrorize the world into submission, However, at the end of the war in. Europe, it had become clear that no other county had made much progress in developing them. Some scholars hold the. view that the. US, the only” country then possessing these’ weapons, used them to demonstrate her nuflitary supremacy in the post-war world The Soviet Union, which suffered the heaviest casualties, both civilian and military, is held guilty of murdering. 10,000 Polish soldiers and burying them in mass. gfaves in the Katyn forest in 1940. Resistance Movements As stated earlier, popular resistance movements grew in every country invaded and oerunied. \ues cor Bs by the fascist countries and within the fascist countries and the countries’ allied to them, These movements grew in strength and intensified their activities particularly after the entry of the Soviet Union and, subsequently, Of the US into the war, The creation of the Anti-fascist alliance facilitated the coming together of all anti-fascist forces in occupied countries and within the fascist countries. Czechoslovakia Many leaders of Czechoslovakia had escaped , when the Nazia troops marched into the country and set up'a puppet goverment in Slovakia, In 1940, a Czechoslovak govern ment-in-exile headed by Eduard Benes, was set up. The partisans of the Czechoslovak resistance moyemeni which included com- munisis, social democrats and others carried on guerrilla, activities against the Germans throughout the war. The assassination of the Nazi governor has already been mentioned. In August 1944, an uprising. was organised in Slovakia and the soldiers of the puppet government there. also joined the paftisans. The uprising of 5 May 1943.in Prague led to the complete and final ending of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia. Poland The Second World War had started with the invasion of Poland, and she was the worst sufferer in the war. About 65,00,000 Poles— 20 per cent of the total population of Poland— were killed in the war Abont half of them were Jews, From the beginning of the German invasion, a powerful resistance movement was built: up in Poland. A Polish gover ment-in-exile;: headed: by General Sikorski, with its headquarters first in France and then in London, guided the: Polish resistance. In 1942, the: Polish communists forméd. their ‘own resistance organisation and carried on anti-German operations, The two organisationsores Sid not always see eye to eye, The relations between the Soviet government and the Polish government-in-exile also worsened as a result of the latter's insistence that Poland's pre-war frontiers, incloding the territories which the Soviet Union claimed as hers, be recognised This led.to'some tragic consequences. On 1 August, 1944, a mass uprising took place in Warsaw. By’ this time the Soviet forces had liberated many parts of Poland. However, the organisers of the uprising, who supported: the governmentin-exile and, apparently, wanted’ to, hand over liberated Warsaw to that government, made no efforts to coordinate their plans for the uprising with the Soviet forces. The people of Warsaw fought most heroically. against the German occupation troops but fio help reached them from outside, and the uprising was brutally suppressed About 250,000 Poles perished in the uprising, Yugoslavia The resistance against the fascist occupation and its local supporters, in Yugoslavia, was Jed by the Communist Party, which was headed by Josip Broz Tito. ‘The various Partisan groups were united to form the People’s Libération Anny. The partisans of this army organised uprisings, and many parts of Yugoslavia were liberated by the end of 1944. The Yugoslav government-in- exile had little support within the country and x'government headed by Tito was set up there. France It has been mentioned earlier that the French government “capitulated. to Germany when the latter ‘invaded France. General de Ganlle formed the [Free France movement with its headquarters ‘in London. In July 1942, on the initiative of the French communists, a National Front which brought together all anti-fascist forces, was formed. The French \ues com CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY. Resistance grew into a powerful movement and in early 1944 formed the French Forces of the Interior with a membership of 360,000 The members of the Resistance carried out thousands of acts of sabotage against the Germans and their French collaborators. They Played a crucial role in the successful landing of the Allied troops in France, and with their own forces liberated many pars of France from German occupation. Under General de Gaulle’s leadership, a provisional government had been set up on which various Aati-fascist forces of France, including the communists, were represented. On 19 and 20 August 1944, the French Resistance ‘organised an uprising in Paris, and the German contmandant, who had refused to obey Hitler's order to destroy the city, surrendered to the Resistance, Soaw after, the provisional gov- emment headed by de Gaulle entered Paris, The Sovtet Union [a terms of the total number of people killed in the war, the Soviet Union was the worst sufferer. The number of soldiers of the Soviet Union's Red Army who had been taken Prisoner and filled by the Gemuans, is estimated to be 40,00,000. Another 60,00,000 Civilians, including about 750,000 Jews, were slaughtered by the Germans. According to the Soviet estimates, the total number of the Soviet people who perished in the war was about 20 million, or 10 per cent of the total Population. Some Western historians fold the view that there was widespread discontent against Stalin’s regime in the Soviet Union and thet people, at feast in some paits of the country, would have welcomed the German invasion in the hope that it would lead to the ending of Stalin's nile. However, the Unparalleled German brutaities against the .. Soviet people in the initial stages of the war itself showed them what Hitler had in store for them. Thus German brutalities united them and they built up the most powerftlTHESECOND WORLD WAR ¢ acl ores and effective resistance against the invaders. Large-scale guerrilla warfare developed in every part of the Soviet Union which had fallen to the German army. The guervilia operations, which were carried on in close collaboration with the Soviet amy, played a vital role in the debacle which the Germans suffered in the Soviet Union. More than a million partisans took part in the ‘guernilla warfare “cgainst the “German ‘amy in the territories of the Soviet Union. Greece | After the slebacle which the’ Italians suffered in Greece after their invasion in 1940, Greece ‘was occupied by German troops. The Greck govemmert and the King of Greece fled to Cairo. The resistance against Germany was Jed by the Greck communists who fad formed a Nationai Liberation Front and the ELAS (National Popular Liberation Army). The various entiefascist groups were brought on, however, there was a.conflict between the Greék government-in-exile “and the Resistance. After Greece had been freed from the fascists in late 1944 by the Resistance, the government-in-exile with the support of British troops was sought to. be installed in Greece. A civil war followed and it continued for some time even afice the Second World War had ended, Haly ‘The leading role in the defeat of fascism’ in Ttaly, the first country where fascism had been victorious; was played by the Resistance Movement.-The Italian fascists had suffered The US government increasingly com- mitted itself 10 the maintenance of an anti-communist regime in South Vietnam. The US policy makers advocated what was called the “domino’ theory. According, to this theory. if South Viemam fell to the communists, “all other South-East Asian countries would also collapse and come under communist rile and this would lead to the expansion of communism all over Asia. The US started. sending her own troops, to begin with as military advisers, but gradually: as regular combat troops. By the end of 1967. the number of US troops fighting in Vietnam had gone up to 500,000. Ht has been estimated that by 1967 the power of bombs dropped on Vietnamese territory by the US exceeded that of the bombs dropped all over Europe during the entire period of the Second’ World War. The US. war in Vietham was the most unpopular” US" wars in history It was condemned by. people alt over the world. Wrchising Gai the United States, Ne other Single event in the years after 1945 had . e5.co™ sTdemonstrution in New York again thes <-> « . oi Feiner united people 2ll over the world as the opposition to the war in Vietnam. The Vs troops withdrew from Vietnain in 1973 Bs April 1975, the South Vietnamese army was routed and the last of the US advisers hse feft_In this war, 58,000 US soldiers were killed and about 300,000 wounded, The Vietnamese casualties. both military and civilian, were much higher. The entire count had been ravaged, Vietnam soon emerged as a united country. Thé defeat of the ureatest military power i the world by the people of a smiat! country in Asia was an event of great significance in the histor uf th contémporaty world,ott \ues-© CONTEMPORARY Wot p HISTORY ores” ISRAEL AND OCCUPIED TERRITORIES Meuiterranean Seg Tel Aviv ‘eo JORDAN . Territories occupied by Israel israel25.co™ THE Waki aa SINGH 1945, \u! 11 pores” The Arab World was proclaimed which was recognised by israel asa Maton Puacter the. United States the very next day. The establishment of the State of Israel was world during the post-war period was the followed by an Azab-israel_war in which hostility of the United Stares and her allies UW Arabs were defeated, The Palestinian to the spread of Arab nationalism, This was fabs were deprived of their lands and homes done im the name of preventing the spread 2d over a million of them had to live as of communism and the influence of the refugees in other Arab countries. Jordan, Soviet Union in the region, The Western formerly Transjordan, fhad become an inde- countries” determination to rétain their control Pendent kingdom in 1946. In 1949, she over the oil resources of this region’ has CCUpied the territory of Palestine which Jay already been mentioned Another major source ‘9 the west of the Jordan river. popularly of tension in this area, and the main ally, Called the West Bank. With the help of the of the US, was the State of tsrael. The US. Israel began to be built up as a powerful conflict between Britain and Arab nationalism State in the region. The Arab States refused over the question of Jewish imniigration to '© 7ecognise the State of Israel and the Arab Palestine and the creation of a Jewish ‘national "ationalists adewed her as an instrument fo home” there has already been mentioned In CU". the, tising strength of Arab nationalism. November 1947, the United Nations had 7 Suek War agreed 10 partition “Palestine into an Arab Egypt, under the leadership of Gamal Abdel State and a Jewish State, However, on 14 Nasser, represented the forces of nationalism May 1948, Britain which held Palestine as in the 1950s and the 1960s, Britain. in 1954, a mandate withdrew from there before partition was asked to withdraw her troops from could be effected. The Jewish State of Israel Egypt At this time, Egypt also began to The main cause of conflicts in the Arab British troops leaving Port Said, Egypt, in 1956ier build her independent military strength with the help. of arms from the Soviet Union. The US had offered to help Egypt build the Aswan Dam across the river Nite. However, when Egypt started receiving Soviet ams, US aid for the Aswan Dam was stopped, On.26 July 1956, the Suez Canal was nationalised. On 29 October 1956, Israel invaded Egypt and on the next day British and French troops were landed there ‘to occupy the Suez Canal. The British-French— Israel invasion of Egypt aroused world-wide protests, including in Britain and France, The United Nations, with" the support of the US, also condemned the invasion. On 5 November, the Soviet Union issued an ultimatum to the invaders to withdraw from Egypt and tlveatened to use missiles to defend Egypt On 7 November 1956, the British-French military- operations in Egypt were ended and their troops were withdrawn, Egypt and Israel agreed 10 a cease-fire The Eisenhower Doctrine The end of the 1956 war in Egypt was acclaimed as a victory of Arab nationalism, It also ted to the strengthening. of the Soviet inflience in the region, Egypt had now turned 10 the. Soviet Union for help in building the Aswan Dam. Nasser also tried to strengthen Arab unity ‘by uniting various Arab States. The US, “alarmed at this development, proclaimed what is called the Eisenhower, Doctrine, named after the US President. According to this Doctrine, the US decided to give economic and military’ aid 10 the countries im this region to protect them, from what it- called ‘international commutiism’.. In July 1958, however, the pro-Western government in Lraq was overthrown. US and British troops were sent to Lebanon and Jordan to prevent the pro-Westem govérnments of these countries from falling, The US also continued to arm Iscael, not esc yes. CONTIHORARY WOR OR The Arab-lsrael Wars In 1967, another war broke out between Israel on one side and Egypt, Jordan and Syria on the other This is known as the Six Day War. The Arab States were defeated and Israel occupied Egyptian territory in the Sinai peninsula, the Palestinian territory on the West Bank of the river Jordan (from Jordan) and Gaza Strip, and a part of the territory of Syria called Golan Heights. Israel also established her control over the entire city of Jerusalem. In 1973, there was another Arab-Israel war. During this war, the oil- producing Arab States announced that they would stop shipment of cil to countries which were supporting Istael, This meant mainly the United States and her. NATO allies. The European members of NATO, however, refused to align themselves with the US in her support to Israel and US herself was compelled to persuade Israel to agree (0 a cease-fire Israel hab refused to vacate the many Arob territories that she occupied during the’ wars in 1956, 1967 and 1973. In recent months, however, negotiation between Israel, and the Arab States and the Palestinians have opened up possibilities of peace in the region, The Crisis over Missiles in Cuba ‘One of the most serious crises in the history of the post-Second World War occurred on the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The development of nuclear weapons had bbeon -accompariied by the: development of new" systems of delivery, that is, of means of dropping, these weapons. For this purpose, missiles were developed. These missiles, or rockets, with nuclear warheads, could’ be directed to hit accurately. targets thousands of kilometres away, anywhere in the world, The US had set up these missiles aimed at Soviet targets at the bases. which she hadTHE WORLD SINCE 94s pores” set up in different parts of the world, The Soviet Union generally had no bases and her missile sites were within her own territory. Each side also had submarines carrying these nuciear missiles. To begin with, the range of these missiles. was limited, say a few hundred kilometres, which had. made the seiting up o° bases near the territory of the enemy countries necessary. New technology for spying on other countries had also been developed. For example, aeroplaries flying at very high speeds and at very high altitudes could take accurate photographs of the enemy. country’s tefritory and find out exactly where fot only: the armies, the tanks, the airports, the industries, etc. were located but also identify tite exact spots where the missiles were located and photograph them In January 1959, there was a revolution in Cuba under the leadership of Fidel Castro. The United States turned hostile to Cuba when the new government started adopting, radical social and economic measures, intro- ducing agrarian reforms, and nationalising industries. Another reason was the friendly relations which the new government began to have with the Soviet Union and China, The United States broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba in January 1961 and stopped all economic relations witli her. In April 1961, she landed 2000 Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs in’ Cuba to overthrow the Cuban government. However, the invasion ended in a fiasco “and within two days it was crushed: Even though the entire world had ‘condemned ‘the US for thé inyasion of Cuba, the US government was not’ willing to give up its intention’ of overthrowing, the Cuban government:: John F. Kennedy, the US President at that time, hiad openly déclared after the fiasco of the Bay ‘dF Pigs:invasion, “We do not intend to. abatidon Cuba ‘to the communists. This was the’ backgfound of the crisis which broke out iri October 1962 As has been mentioned earlier, while the Soviet Union was surrounded by US ues.co™ 16s bases, including those with nuclear missiles, the Soviet Union had ro bases anywhere near US temtory. In Ociober 1962, the US found, from the pictues taken by her spy planes, that the Soviet Union was building missile sites in Cuba which is less than 150 km from the southernmost part of the US. AIE through the wars which the US had fought, her own territory had been inviolable and all the wars had been fought far away. ‘The installation of missiles in Cuba would bring US territory within easy range.of attack. ‘This was perceived as’a serious threat to the security. of the US Although the Soviet Union had done for the Girst time what the US had been doing, all along, that is, establishing military bases in other countries. it created the danger of a war between the US and the Soviet Union, something which had not happened in spite of various teisions and conflicts between them. Such a war would have endangered all humanity, On 22 October 1962, President Kennedy announced a naval and air blockade around Cuba which meant that the US would stop any ship or. aircraft moving towards Cuba. The US also. prepared. to launch an attack on the missile sites in Cuba. This crisis which had brought the world close to disaster. however, ended on 26 October. On that day. Khrushchev, the Soviet Prime Minister, sent a message to President Kennedy that the Soviet Union would remove her missiles from Cuba if the US pledged not to attack Cuba. This was agreed to and the crisis was over The US also agreed to withdraw the missiles which she had installed in Turkey, close to Soviet. territory. End of the Cold War Tt has been thentioned earlier that the world has now. entered the post-Cold War. era, Many efforts had béen made since the 1950s to promote relaxation of tensions and on many occasions in.the past it appeared that* yues-cO™ pores” the two power blocs had entered the period of detente. It has been mentioned that the ‘Non-Aligned Movement played a crucial role in promoting a climate of peace. However, many developments that seemed to matk the beginning of detente were followed by new tensions’ and conflicts. One of the factors that played an increasingly important role in changing the policy of confrontation was the realisation that unlike at any time before inhuman history, the practicability of all-out war simply could not be the basis of conducting international relations. The reports prepared by scientists on the effects of a nuclear war and the voices raised by them against the armaments race and the doctrines of MAD and Nucléar Deterrence, and the popular anti-war miovements in every part of the world played an important role in creating, an atmosphere of detente. The Non-Aligned Movement, since its inception, pressed for disarmament so that the vast resources released by it could be utilised for development and for ending misery. in the world. Since the early 1960s, the rigid military alliances showed tendencies of breaking down, From 1956, tHe Soviet leaders began laying stress on peaceful covxistence. After the split in the communist movement which began in the tate 1950s, the theory of tie danger of the expansion of communism lost much of its relevance. The hostility between the Soviet Union and China destroyed the fear of communism which had been eatlier viewed as 2 monolithic bloc Albania went out of the Warsaw Pact in 1961 and Romania began io play a role independent of the Soviet Union. US relations with China improved in the early 1970s and China was admitted 10 the United Nations in 3971. There were changes in the US-sponsored military alliances also. France withdrew her military contingents from the NATO forces in 1966 and NATO forces and bases were removed from French ‘CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY territory, In the early 1970s, SEATO also began to be phased out as a military alliance Pakistan withdrew from SEATO in 1973 and France in 1974 ‘The process of the end of the Cold War was not an easy one. A number of instances have been mentioned when the world was faced with the prospect of a ‘hot’ war breaking out. In 1956, there was an uprising in Hungary and in 1968 ,a change of government in Czechosiovakia. In both cases, it meant these countries going out of Soviet control and following political and economic Policies which deviated from what the Soviet government considered ‘socialism’. Both these countries were invaded by Soviet troops. In Czechoslovakia they were joined by troops from some other-countries of the Warsaw Pact and a pro- Soviet goverment was installed there. In 1961. Bast Germany built a wall between East and West Berlin to make it impossible for East Germans to escape to West Berlin, This created widespread reseni- Ment in the West. In 1979, the Soviet Union Sent her troops to Afghanistan to help the Afghan government crush the rebels who had been armed by the United States and were operating in Afghanistan from and with the support of Pakistan. There were also many instances of US overt or covert intervention in many countries, particularly in Latin America. In Africa also, the US aided rebels against regimes which sho considered pro-Soviet and pro-communist As has been indicated earlier the elimination of the means of destruction alone can ensure peace. The existence of the weapons whose destructive power is beyond ordinary human imagination is itself a source of tension. The end of confrontation, therefore, must lead to disarmament, 10 begin with, nuclear disarmament. Though disarmament remains a far cry, some positive steps were taken in this direction. In 1963, a Test Ban Treaty was signed by the US. the Sovietores THE WORLD SINCE 1945, Union and Britain which prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in outer space and underwater. France and China, however, had refused to sign the treaty and continued to cary out nuclear tests in the atmosphere. In°1969, negotiations aimed at reduction of ams began between the United States and the Soviet Union and in 1972 an agreement was reached on limiting certain categories of missiles. These negotiations were known as Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) ‘The negotiations for disarmament were hampered in the 1980s when the US stared working on a new system of weaponry called the Strategic Defence Initiative. (SDI), popu- larly Known as the “Star Wars’ programme. This would mean taking the arms race to a new ternible height by extending it to outer space. However, some progress. was made in eliminating some categories of nuclear ‘missiles and in cutting down others. A treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, popularly known as NPT. was also signed by many countries. Its aim is to prevent the countries that do not possess nuclear weapons from acquiring them but’ does not require that countries already in possession of nuclear weapons should eliminate them, Because it ives the few nuclear powers — the countries ‘that presently possess auclear weapons — the exclusive monopoly aver nuclear weapons, this eaty is considered discriminatory by sont countfies, including India, Some of ‘the events that have been referred to earlier can be said to have finally brought the Cold. War to an end, In’ 1989, the Communist parties’ monopoly of power in the countries of Eastem Europe came: to an end. This can be considered 2 major Consequence of the policies’ pursued by the new leadership headed by Mikhail Gorbachev which came’ to: power in 1985. The Soviet coniol over the governments of East European countries was loosened and new governments were formed after free elections were held yues.co™ 165 in these countries. In October 1990, Germany was reunited. In 1991 the Warsaw Pact, the military bloc headed by the Soviet Union, was formally dissolved In 1991, the Com munist Party's exclusive Control over’ the Soviet Union, which it had exercised since soon after the October Revolution in 1917, came to an end By the end of the year the Soviet Union broke up into 1'5 independent republics, The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of Communist parties’ rule in Easter Europe and the Soviet Union and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. ‘The term, Cold War, is used to describe the confrontation and rivalry between the two military blocs — one consisting of West European agd North American countries headed by USA, and the other consisting of the Soviet Union and European. countries mled by Communist parties. It had its impact on almost every conflict in every part of the world because alinost every major conflict in every part of the world was seen in terms of this: confrontation and rivairy or, as is often said, in terms of the Cold War The Cold War was also often seen as confroncation. and rivalry for world domination by two ‘opposing, political, economic and social systems-— capitalist. and communist. This ‘war’ remained ‘cold’ because even though there were many conflicts and tensions and even wars in which the two military blocs were, directly or indirectly, involved, there was no widespread general war between them, The end of the Cold War means the end of the confrontation and rivalry between the two military blocs. It does not, however, mean that ténsions, conflicts and wars have come to an end. The danger of a genetal conflagration. can be said to have cenainly come-to an end. USA, USSR AND EUROPE Certain events and developments connected with USA, USSR and some, countries ofores? tos Furope haye been retierred to in the preceding, section. particularly in the context of the international conflicts in, the period after 1945, It may be useful to study some other aspects of the. history of these countries, particularly, those relating to their interval development. USA. = ‘The period after the end of the Second World War saw the emergence of thé United States as the pre-eminent military, and economic power in the world, Every part of the world éame under the purview of US interests. The US also viewed herself as a great ‘moral force’ in the world, Many Americans liked to think that the period in which they were living could quite legitimately be described as the “American Century”. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US has become the ‘only. Super Power in :the world. Economie Supremacy The Secorid World War had done rio damage to the, US economy. In fact,’ the problems created by the Great Depression had been overcome during the war. The post-war period was one of unprecederited economic prosperity. From 1940 to 1987, the GNP rose from about $100 billion to about $ 5,200 billion while the population rose from about 132 million fo about 240 inillion, The affluence of the American people was reflected in the gromth of what is usually described as “consumer culture” or ‘consumerism’. There vas an unprecedented growth in the production and “consumption of a huge variety of consuiption goods. The motor car became a symbol of this consumer. culture, Every technological innovation, ininor or’ major. made the existing product obsolete and worthless, The US was able to sustain this vonsumerism” because of her ews vast naviral resources as well as the control. she \ues cor CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY exercised over a variety of natural resources of many other parts of the world, The growth of economy was, as in the catlier periods, accompanied by the growing, centralisation of the economy: Most of the economy ‘was controlled by a relatively small number of companies and corporations. There was a tremendous increase in the growth of industries connected with armaments and huge amounts of government funds spent for procuiing defence equipment benefited a few big corporations. The growing “interfusion’ of the military and the industry in peace time alarmed many Americans and US President, Eisenhower, while laying down office in January 1962, warned the country against “the acquisition of unwarraniable influence... by the military-industrial com- plex”. In the US. the relationship between political eaders and higher levels of gov- ‘ernment’ bureaucracy and the military estab- lishment. and the corporations and big financial Institutions has been closer than inmost other democratic countries with capitalist economies. Very often, the government, when faced with a deficit, resorted to cuts on expenditure in medical care and other social welfare” programmes, rather than increase taxes on the corporations. During recent years, there has been a decline in the. economic supremacy of the United States, From 1948 10 1952, the US had provided about $12. billion to the countries of Wester Europe under the European Recovery Plan, popularly known, as the Marshall Pian: after the name of the then US Secretary of State. This plan had helped the European economies io .recover to their pre-war levels within a very short period. In the following, years, the economies of. West European. countries developed at a very fast rate. Japan also emerged ag a major ‘economic power in the world and Japanese woods began to compete with US goods not only in the world market ‘but also’ in the “US -domestic market. The deéline in. US ! .ores? TH WORLD SINCE 1945, pre-eminence wold. be clear froin the data on industrial production. In 1950, -the US share of world "industrial production was more than 60 per cent, in 1980, it was about 43 Per cent. Westem Europe. and. Japan have become the major economic’ ‘tivals. to the United States ‘The US faith in her world supiemacy had been first shaken-when in 1957 ike Soviet Union launched the Sputnik, its first Satellite in space. This was followed’ three Years Tater by the first Soviet manied flight in space, These ‘shocks’ led to Vigorous efforts in areas in which the US thought she had been surpassed by the Soviet Union, Nast resources were made available to the space research programme. The US made-a great achievement when iwo US astronauts landed and walked on the surface of the Moon in 1969) Anti-Commnuist Hysteria The Cold War had a vitiating influence on life im the US for many years. The ‘paranoine obsession”. with “godless communism’ which emerged in the- US has.:been” auentioned before. The anti-communist and antivradical liystenia led (0 branding every opinion which did not conform to the US view of the Cold War as ‘un-American’ and subversive During the Presidsney’ “of Truman (1945-52), the loyalty. of Sovernment officials Nas investigated and thousands of people Were thrown out of jobs. ‘Thousands of school, college and lumiversity teachers were Gismissed ftom their jobs for teaching. what Were Considered ‘un-American’ ideas, Many film writers and Producers were Jailed and HUY blacklisted and debaméd from employ- ment in Hollywood for Tefusing to disclose their past communist connections. The anti fadical hysteria continned for some. yens during the Presidency of Eisenhower who Was slected President twice. in 1952 and ¥956. In 1953. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, \ues cor MRIS executed: op, charges’ of massing atomic SeCIHIs 0 thie Saviet Union. in spite, of protests and appeals’ from all over the world J. Robert Oppenheiier::popularly known as thefather of the ‘dom bob (he had been the “head of the US: Atomic Bomb Project). was denied security Clearance. He had. ‘opposed the: n i was: Senator. Joseph. MeCarthy, From 1950 to 1954, he is described as having ‘terrorized American public. life" by. binding many lanocent people’ as traitors and. levelling* accusations even against the State Deparment and the military of harbounng, “traitors”. He Inimseif was. disgraced in 1954 and there was & gradua) decline in the hysteria even though Most victims of the hysteria vere not rehabilitated Foreign Interventions The ‘containment’ of communism remained the objective of US foreign policy for most Of the’ peiiod after the Second World War The US policy in Latin America continued more or less as before and the US either Sent her uoops or actively aided rebels to overthrow regimes in many Latin Amenican countries which she Suspected of being leftists and, therefore, anti-American, John F. Ken. nedy, who was elected US President in 1960. inaugurated a petiod of ew dynamism in YS domestic policy. However, it was during his Presidency ithat the US began to. get directly involved in the war in Vietnany act , the fiasco of the Bay of Pigs and of the’ Confromiation’ on Soviet’ missiles in Cubs: mentioned earties:: took place. A major peace initiative was taken ih 1963 shen the US under President Kennedy © and the Soviet Union under Khrashchey Signed a treaty: oanting.miictear tests in the atmosphere, in the outer space aud underwaterio (neof the last CS planes leave Saigon, with US Offic tong to prevent «person drone dneniing the overloaded plane President Kennedy was assassinated on 23 November 1063. The Man-who was believed {0 be his lone assassin was killed soon after while in police custody and muiltions of People saw this act of killing on their television screens as it took place. Later, doubts were raised about the view upheld by 4 judicial commission that there was only ‘one person behind the’ killing of President Kennedy, The war is Vietnam which ended in the tgnomincas defeat of the US tas already been mentions? The wer had begun to escalate during the period shen Lyndon Johnson was the US President (1963-69). [t nor ese ‘was further escalated during, the Presideney of Richard Nixon (1969-74). Cambodia was bombed and the government of Cambodia was oventhiown, and a pro-US government under a military general was installed there, The US had also extended the war to- Laos, the third country of Indo-China President Nixon started the process of normalising, retations with China and China was admitted to the United Natioas in 1971 In 1972. Nixon went 10 China The SALT talks referred to carer were started with the Soviet Union, i 1973, the US agreed to end the war in Vietnam and to withdraw her troops from there However. the war \ues com\u Tae WORLD SINCE IDS -YONESE Cominued for another two years and ended when the North Vietnamese uoops and the troops of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam entered Saigon, the capital of the pro-US ‘regime in. Soutli Vietnam, in April_ 1975, soon after the ast US. planes and helicopters had left the ‘city . The war in: Vietnam came: to an end after Nixon had ‘resigned. as. President after a major “scandal popularly known’ as the Watergate scandal. He ‘had been re-elected President in. 1972: but was soon after accused of ‘serious: charges of. comuption, and ‘of authorising planting of spying devices and stealing of files from the office of the Democratic Panty. Although he claimed that he was not a crook, he was faced with the Prospect of impeachment and resigned ‘The US support’ to, many unpopular regimes sometimes created problems for the US and fed to acts which were illegal under US law. The US had long supported and sustained the tegimes of Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines-and Jean-Claude Duvalier, commonly referred. to as Papa‘ Doc, in Haiti, But these regimes became so unpopular that the US had to support the overthrow of these dictators. In the case of fran, the ‘US first took an adventurous step-which ended in a fiasco and later US officials had dealings with Iran which according to her own laws were illegal. In 1979, the Shai of Iran who was one of the Idst “important supporters of the US in Asia’fled the country following, @ revolution in Iran. The government of Itan asked the US 10 hand over the Shah, who had come'to the US for treatment: it wanted fo put him on trial. On the refusal of the US. the Iranians ‘held many Americans as hostages: ‘in April 1980, Jimmy Carter who tad becore“President in 1977, sent US* commandos to rescue the hostayes, The commando action ended in disaster “The hostayes were finally released in early 1981 when the US returned the Iranian assets in US banks which had been frozen’ by the US +33 per cent of Black people, 25.co™ 169 government earlier In the 1980s, during the Presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981-88), 2 ‘major scandal broke out, High US officials had entered into illegal deals with tran to - Support the rebels against the: government of Nicaragua. These officials were believed to have enteréd into the illegal deals with the approval of the: President. Tn” 1989, when George’ Bush was the President (1989-92), US troops were sent to Panama. General Noreiga who riled Panama was overthrown and brought to the US to stand trial on charges of drug trafficking, In 1991, supported by the troops of some other countries, the OS went to war against ljaq following the occupation of Kuwait by the latter. The war which was authorised by the United Nations led to the ending of the Iraqi ‘occupation of Kuwait Poverty ‘An issue which succeeding administrations ia the US have had to contend with is the illion people) were officially classified “as poor in the 1980s ‘The incidentce,of poverty in different “racial’ ‘groups reflected the continuing ‘racial’ im equalities in US society. In the 1980s, about about 20 per cent Hispanics (or Spanish-speaking inhabi- tants and immigrants from Mexico. Puerto Rico, ete.) and 12 per cent Whites in the US were poor, Homelessness in urban. areas has been another major issue. Civil Rights Movement The issue which rocked the US for over a ‘quarter céntury ‘after the end of the war and continues to be a major issue is of racial equality: The oppression of the. Black people and their movement for equality. in the earlier Pericd has been mentioned in Chapters 2c not esclues: om CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY 3.clu rin: WoRLDSINCE vas yore and 3. A powerful civil rights: movement arose in the 1950s which, during the following two decades, achieved ‘significant successes. The major objectives of this movement have been the ending of segregation. and discrimi nation against the Biack people, the exercise of the right to vote by them and the ending of their poverty. Even the US anned forces had been following the policy of segregation, This was endéd during the Presidency of Truman. In the southern States of the US, schools; colleges and universities, buses and trains. cafes, hotels, theatres and other public places, were. all segregated. Black people were not allowed to even register as voters. In 1896, the Supreme Court had legalized segregation and had put forward the doctrine of “separate but equal’, In 1954, the Supreme Court rejected that doctrine and said, “We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of “separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal”. This led to efforts by Black children 25.co™ m to gain admission to schools which were all-White, These effons were sought. to be put down by force’ by governors of some States. In 1957, 17 Black children were selected for admission: to a school in the town of Little Rock in Arkansas. The governor OF the State posted guards outside the school to. prevent them from entering the school. The federal government was then forced to send 1000 paratoopers. to Little Rock to Prevent the governor and the State guards from violating the law. These paratroopers stayed there, for the entire duration of the school’ year. A similar development took place in 1962 when a Black student was admitted to the University of Mississippi ‘The ‘niost powerful leader of the. civil Fights wovement was Martin Luther King, Deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi, he launched a movement of non-violent protest against segregation, ‘The protest began in Monigomery ‘in the State of Alabama where the Black people started a boyrott of buses. The bus companies had to yield. and ended 1 HAVE ‘A DREAM {have @ drearn tha: one day men vill rise up and coma to see that they are made ta live together Se pEs thors. sll have a dream this morning that one day avery Negro in this country, every cel Ghred person in the world, wil be judged on the basis of the content of his character vather thon Tei neous OF Bis skin, and avery man will respect the dignity and worth of humon personelity. | ~ 2,atgan (eday that one day justice vl oll down-like water, and nghtecusnese lke » mighty frgam-t stl Hove adream today thot in all of our state houses and city halls men wells eleceey {fe there who will da justly and love mercy and walk humbly with thelr God. lstil have odin a thantt ane day war will come to an end, that mon will best their swords into ploughshorce Any (heir spears into pruning hooks, neither will they study war any more. eull hove adreons cor Ube and fi tee ond none shall be afraid. stil have a dream today that ane day every vallng shel be exalted and every mountain and hill will be made low. the: ugh plac s wil be'made sraooth eet aked Places stright, and thé gory ofthe Lord shallba revealet, and all lech hall ser morning stars will sing together, and the sons of God will shout for joy Martin Luther Kingnot esc m. segregation in buses, The movement extended tocother areas and took new forms. In restaurants, for example, ‘sit-ins’ were started. People would go to the segregated restaurants and ask to be served and on being refused, would continue to sit there. Students played a very significant role in this moverent. Groups of them, both Black and White, went on what came to be called ‘freedom rides’ to non-viclently protest + against racial segregation and discrimination. A: powerful movement was also launched for the registration of Blacks as voters. The participants in these movements suffered tremendous hardships, physical injuries at the hands of police and white hoodlums, and arrests, There were many killings. The famous song ‘We shall overcome” was the theme song, ‘of these freedom riders. In 1963, a huge mass rally was organised near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, the capital of the US. It was at this aly that Martin Luther King made his: st ‘T have a dream’ speech. In the following years, many legislations on civil rights were Passed which helped in establishing civil fights as legal rights: However, the legal rights by themselves were not very efftctive and the civil rights movement increasingly became a radical. movement. Many. civil rights leaders also became actively involved in the anti-war movement. A militant Black ‘movement called Black Poiver also began to gain ground. Inv 1968, Martin Luther King was assassinated” The assassination sparked off race riots in. many Cities of the US. Martin Luther King was posthumously awarded the Jawaharlal Nehni Award for International Understanding: Similar movements have “also. arisen among the American Indians who number about two: million and the” Hispani¢s whose population is about 22 inillion, Anti-War Movement New radical groups, began to emerge in the US in the 1960s, mainly among the youth nores clu yes.co™ ‘CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY and the intellectuals, A major factor behind their rise was the Vietnam war which fad created a powerful anti-war movement. There were anti-war demonstrations in universities Thousands of students refused to be drafted into the arty. Matty fled to Canada and other countries. There were many incidents of violence in university campuses and the police resorted to brutal methods in suppressing, the demor- strations in many places. In one tiniversity, the Kent State University, four students were killed by the police. The new radical groups, later, - increasingly concemed themselves with various global issues such as peace, disarmament and environmental protection » USSR Failures in Economy ‘The role which:the Soviet Union played in bringing, the Second World War to an end by defeating fascism had won her the’admi- ration of anti-fascists all over the world. To the people of the Soviet Union, the war which they fought was’ the ‘Great Patriotic War’ which they miade every possible sacrifice to. win. The Soviet Union suffered most as a result of the war. The devastation caused to her economy has already been mentioned. The Soviet Union launched a massive effort = at reconstruction as soon as the war was ever, In 1946,: the Fourth Five Year Plan was’ launched and before the end of the 1940s, the industrial production had been restored to the pre-war level. Through greater mechanisation of agriculture and by having, larger collective farms, agricultural production hhad also. been restored to the pre-war level by the beginning of the 1950s, The devel- opment of the. Soviet economy continued through a series of Five' Year Plans in the subsequent period and it became the second most powerful economy, in terms of GNP, in the world In spite of its growth, however, the Soviet economy was. continuously dogged , e5.com“e op cl MENoRLD SINCE INS ores by certain serious problems. The emphasis ‘on heavy industries had helped build a strong infrastructure but the consumer goods indus tries fell far short of the requirements, The result of this disproportion: was that in spite of its economic inight, the rise in the standard of living of the people was far slower than in the developed countries of the West. Even in terms of rate of economic development, the Soviet leaders began to admit in the Mid-1980s that the economy had been Stagnating for many years. The failure in. agriculture had been particularly conspicuous In terms of advances in technology, éxcept in areas connected with defence and space research, the Soviet Union lagged behind advanced capitalist countries. This was in spite of the fact that in terms of numbers the Soviet Union was ahead of any other country in technical and scientific manpower ‘The Soviet Union's failures-in economy are attributed to what is now described as the ‘command system’, The kind of économic planning which was followed in the Soviet Union ted to’its overcentralisation and killed all initiative at the level of individual industrial enterprises. Certain sectors of industry pro- duced goods in quantities for which there Was no demand: Prices of products were fixed amtificially and caused further strains, A setious debate began in the Soviet Union from the mid-1980s about devising new strategies for overcoming, the ils of the economy and making, # more responsive to the needs of the People. However, the changes which were introduced. failed to end the stagnation. In 1991, as already mentioned, the Soviet Union disintegrated. The failure in the economic field can be considered a major factor in the, collapse of the Soviet Union . Military Strength One sector in which the Soviet Union was more or less equal, in its effectiveness, to the US was her military capability. “The advances in technology relating to military yues.co™ 3 Fequireifints were much greater than in other areas, and were comparable to the highest in the world. The same was also tre of development of science and technology relating, to space. programmes. In fact, at one time Soviet space research was considered to be ahead of US space research as was evidenced ‘by ‘the first satellite launched in space and the first manned flight in space as well as space Station with: cosmonauts on board over long periods which were launched in subsequent years. The massive expenditure on the military and the technology of armaments gave the Soviet Union parity in military strength with the US. It can be said fo have maintained the “balance of power’ in the world. At one time, the priority given by the ‘Séviet Union to military strength was Justified on the ground that it prevented the US from imposing her will on the world However, it became a major factor in ‘weakening the Soviet economy diverting vast Tesources away from productive and useful channels Political Developments . Some of the features - of the political development of the Soviet Union since the Bolshevik Revolution -have been. described in Chapter 3, By the late 1930s, Stalin had established his dictatonal rule in the Soviet Union. The: ruthlessness of his dictatorship did not diminish after the war. Stalin niled as the supreme leader of the Soviet Communist Party but the Communist Party and its various bodies.such as the Polit Bureau, had been reduced to. no more than a rubber stamp of Whatever Stalin decided. According to the Party's constitution, a party congress was required to be held every four years. However, the first party congress after 1939 was held in 1952"ater a gap of 13 years. Through the 1930s and 1940s, almost every leader of the Bolshevik Revolution had either died or had been liquidated. A system of représsion174 nore had been institutionalised. Every dissent was considered an act of treason. Thousands of people. had been sent to labour camps and thousands of others languished in prisons. The Soviet security police was. an important instrament of the policy of repression. The repression caused grave damage to intellectual, life and to art, and culture and science. The science. of biology was all but destroyed in the Soviet Union due: to the Suppression of what Stalin considered “bourgeois” tendencies in the work of Soviet biology. In January 1983, nine doctors were’ charged with the murder of a Soviet leader in 1948. Tt was alleged that they had also, plotted to damage the health of several high military officers who were under their medical care. The atest of these doctors was believed to be the starting point of yet another wave of repression, However, on 9 March 1953, Stalin died, End of Terror A number of significant changes took place shortly after the death of Stalin. The policy of large-scale tepression was “ended. The doctors were released and it was stated that they had been arrested illegally. Thousands of people who had been charged with all kinds of offences against: the State and had been sent to labour camps and prison were released and rehabilitated, In-February 1956, the Twentieth Congress of the Soviet Com- munist Party was held, This Congress has become famous for many major departures that it made in political and economic policies at home and in foreign policy as well as for Khrushchev’s report on':Stalin’s. crimes against the party and the people. (Nikita Khiushchev had become the'First Secretary of the Soviet Communist “Party after the death of Stalin) Although’ this report was made at a secret segsion of the Congress and was not released, its main contents became known throughout the world soon scl yes.co™ contextronany woR.D1ISsTORY after. Though these developments did not lead to the establishment of a democratic political system and the restoration of full intellectual freedom and civil liberties, the - period of terror and of large-scale repression wai definitely over-Two literary works which symbolized this change were a novel by Ilya _ Ehrenburg entitled, very: appropriately. The ‘Thaw and a novel by Alexander Solzhenitsyn entitled One Day in the Life. of Ivan Denisovitch, which dealt with life in a labour camp. However, restrictions continued to be imposed on civil liberties, publications, travel abroad and many repressive measures con- tinued to be resorted to for another almost thirty years after the Twentieth Congress. in 1964, Khrushchev was ousted and Leonid Brezhnev became the First Secretary of the Communist Party. From the early 1970s, he became the supreme leader of the Soviet Union. A number of economic reforms were initiated during the 1960s and 1970s but they failed to bring about any notable improvement in the economy. The period of Brezhnev’s rule which lasted till 1982 is now generally considered a period of stag- nation, The system of repression began to be fully demolished and a truly democratic system established in its place only in 1985 when Mikhail Gorbachev was elected the leader of the party and, later, President of the Soviet Union. The changes initiated by Gorbachev were often referred to as marking, the second Soviet revolution. These changes are best described by two Russian terms— glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restruc- turing), The policy of glasnost meant free and frank discussion of every political, economic and social isste and removal of restrictions on civil liberties, The hold of the Cornmunist Party was loosened and’ in 1990 non-Communist parties were allowed to be formed. Peresirorta was an effort to end ‘the stagnation in Soviet economy.scl THE WORLD SINCE 1945 OTS However, little was achieved in this regard and, in fact, the economic situation worsened further. The loosening of the hold of the Communist Party did not immediately lead to, the establishment of astable democratic political system. In the meantime, there was a demand for greater autonomy, and in some cases independence, by the republics which constituted the Soviet Union. Very soon, the Soviet Union broke up. Foreign, Policy The foreign policy of the Soviet Union had been deeply influenced by the fact that right from her birth she was surrounded by countries which were quite openly hostile to her and to the social and economic system that she ‘was trying to build, She had been the only major power in the 1920s and 1930s which extended full support to the peoples of the colonies in their struggle for freedom, During the 1930s she had. also been consistent in her opposition to fascism and fascist aggres- sions until she entered into a non-aggression pact with Germany. The main allies she had in that period were the Communist parties in various countries who considered the defence of the Soviet Union their duty. The Soviet Union had played the leading role in the defeat of fascism, The tremendous good will that she had won for her role in the war, however, suffered due to the-policies that she followed in the countries of Eastem Europe where, with her backing, the rule of the Communist parties was imposed, In some » of these countries, the communists enjoyed much popular support at the time of liberation. and as partners: in the coalition governments which were formed” in-these countries after their liberation, However, they.began'to be alienated from the people when, through undemocratic means, they established their exclusive contol over these countries. Af terwards, under Stalinist influenice and pres- sure, similar types of repressive systems were e5.co™ 175 built ‘in these countries as Stalin had built in the Soviet Union In 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from the world communist movement for her refusal to. accept Soviet control. Following this, some of the most prominent leaders of the Communist parties in the countries of Easter Europé were expelled: on the charge of being agents of Tito, the leader of the Yugoslav communists: Many of them were jailed and many executed. The policy of interference in the governments and Com- munist. parties of Eastern Europe continued throughout the period up to Stalin’s death In the immediate post-war period, Com- munist parties in some countries tried to engineer Tevolutions. Some of these attempts were believed fo have been instigated by Stalin. In fact, except in countries which had been liberated by Soviet troops (Eastem Europe and North Korea), the success of the communists in capturing power (China, Vietnam, Cuba) was not the result of Stalin's or the Soviet Union's instigation or inter- ventions. It may be remembered that during this period, all the imperialist countries had the backing of the military might of the US and that the US made frequent use of her military might to put dowh nationalist and revolutionary regimes and instali despotic governments in many countries, The Soviet policies, however, did little to diminish the Cold War or to end the situation of Great Power confrontation. A major change took place in Soviet foreign policy after Stalin. The most significant shift was in the new emphasis on “peaceful coexistence” “between countries following different social, economic and -political sys- tems. The policy of peaceful coexistence which’ was the’ most significant feature: of © the policy of non-alignment adopted by newly independent countries like India.was, as far as Soviet foreign policy is concerned, the contribution of Khnishchey. The communists had always belived that'though they were16 opposed to war as an instrument of national policy, war was inevitable as long as imperialism existed. The policy of peaceful coexistence meant the giving up of the theory of the inevitability of war. The Soviet leaders, along. with the ‘leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement, stresred ‘that war-in: the present day! World would“destroy’ all -hismanity and must, therefore, be replaced by a policy of Peaceful coexistence and a-policy of peaceful competition between different social, economic and’ political systems. - The Soviet Unipn made many important Proposals for disarmament throughout the period from the Jate 1950s but, as has been tmentioned before, little progress was achieved in the direction of disarmament or in. outlawing, war ‘It may be necessary to mention here that the Soviet Union also almost consistently supported the various initiatives: taken by the Non-Aligned Movement regarding disarma ment and some non-aligned’ countries ex- pressed the view that the Soviet Union and other socialist countries were the “natural allies’ of the Non-Aligned Movement. The Soviet foreign policy also became an important factor in strengthening the national inde- pendence of many newly independent countries and many freedom movements through the material and political support which was given to them by the Soviet Union. The economic relations of the Soviet Union with newly independent countries were aiso seen 28 a major contribution to their efforts at building their national. economies. The advocacy of the policy of peaceful Coexistence became a major cause of the split inthe communist movenient which began “in the tate 1950s, The Chinese Communist Party under the leadership of Mao Zedong continued to”believe in the theory of the inevitability of war. Mao Zedong, stated that even in a nuclear war, though many’ millions would die, socialism would be victorious. Some Chinese communist leaders and their supporters in other Com- corm pores CONTEMPORARY WORLD INSTORY munist parties were of the view that the policy of peaceful coexistence would weaken the struggle for socialist revolution. In spite. of the policy of peaceful Coexistence, the Soviet Union did not cease her efforts at builditly an arsenal of destructive ‘weapons to match those of the US. She did, however, take many unilateral decisions. For example, she declared that-she would never use the nuclear weapons first and shie appealed fo the US to make a similar commitment, She ceased underground tests “of nuclear ‘weapons and declared that she would not esume those tests as tong as the other side did not hold these tests. In. spite of the stress on peaceful coexistence, the Soviet policy towards Easter Europe did not uxdergo any basic change. It can be said that. she continued 10 regard Eastem Europe as her sphere of influence. On two occasions, as already mentioned, she resorted to. massive military interventi in Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovaki: in 1968— to overthrow. the communist feadership in those countries which wanted fo change the policies of their countries in the direction of greater democracy. In fact: Brezhnev, who had replaced Khrushchev, had declared that it was the duty of a socialist Country to interfere in another socialist country if in that country the continuance of socialism was threatened. There were basic changes in Soviet foreign policy after Gorbachev came to power. A reference has been made earlier to Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan. This had led to the Soviet Union's involvement ina protracted civil war. It had also embittered Soviet-US relations and hampered the process of defenie. In 1988, the Soviet Union begin ‘o withdraw her troops from’ Afghanistan and by 1989 all Soviet troops were withdrawn, (it is a different matter that the withdrawal Of Soviet troops did not lead to the establishment of peace in Afghanistan and the civil war is that country continuesa A scene of the uprising in Budapest, Hungary, in 1956. Sovies troops were used 0 suppress the uprising. . unabated.) The Soviet Union also signed two important agreements on arms control with the US. Another important development during this period was the end of Soviet control over the countries of Eastem Europe. This led to the end of the rule of the Communist parties in all these countries. As mentioned earlier. the Warsaw Pact, the military bloc headed by the Soviet Union, was formally dissolved in 1991. . Gorbachev's policies, both intemal and extemal, were acclaimed throughout the world. His foreign, policy initiatives can be said to have been Crucial in bringing the Cold War to an end. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990, Break-up of the Soviet Union . ‘The failure of Gorbachev's economic policies and the demand for greater autonomy by the republics have been mentioned before. By the end of 1990, it was clear that the Soviet Union could not continue to exist as a State in its old form. The three Baltic States — Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania — had decided to become independent and the other republics had decided to assert the supremacy of their Jaws over the laws of the.Union. To prevent the break-up of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev negotiated’ a new treaty with ten republics, The new ieaty would have granted greater autonomy to the republics but maintained the Union. However, before the new treatynotes could be signed, some leaders of the Soviet Communist Party tried to stage a coup against Gorbachev on 19 August 1991 by removing, him from: the’ Presidentship of the Soviet Union and. putting him under house arrest, There was widespread opposition to the coiip, including: by the anny, and it was. thwarted ori-21 -August. Though Gorbachev. resumed office as President, the attempt at a coup accelerated the process of disintegration. Boris Yeltsin, who fad been elected President of the Russian Republic, emerged as the most powerful leader during this period. He had Played the leading role in foiling the coup, Gorbachev resigned from the Communist Party and all activities of the. Communist Party were"ordered 10 be suspended. Gor- bachev's effort to preserve the Soviet Union ‘on the basis of a new treaty came to naught. By November 1991, 13 of the 15 republics had declared their independence, Early in December 1991, Boris Yeltsin, the Russian President along, with the Presidents of two ‘other republics announced that the Soviet: Union had ceased to exist. They invited other republics to join a new federation called the Commonwealth of Independent States.’ On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as President and the Soviet Union. formally ceased to oxist, Its place was taken by 15 independent States which had constituted USSR. Twelve of them, including four Asian republics, became members of the Common- wealth of Independent States. Ten Days that. Shook the World was the title of an American journalist John Reed’s firsthand account of the Russian Revolution, ‘The kind of socialism,’ or what is now generally calied the ‘really existing socialism’, which: was ‘built-over the -vast territory of the Soviet:-Union, formerly the Russian ‘empire, was for long viewed as an alternative to the capitalist system of society. The collapse of the ‘really’ ‘existing socialism’ and the break-up of the Soviet Union was \u 25.co™% CONTEMPORARY WORLD mnsToRY anticipated by few and happened rather suddenly and almost without any resistance, The impact of these developments may tum out fo be as’ world shaking as the Russian Revolution of 1917. These developments certainly marked the end’of an era in world history. Europe . Certain aspects of developments in Europe in the post-war period have already been Teferred to in this chapter. While for a fuller understanding, it would be necessary to deal with each country separately in some detail, only a very brief survey of some major features is attempted bere. Portugal, Spain and Greece The first major feature of post-war Europe till the 1980s, as has already been mentioned, was the division of Europe with the countries of Eastern Europe coming under the rule of thE Communist parties and allied with the Soviet Union and the other countries of Europe having a variety of democratic political systems and allied with the US. The main exceptions to the fatter were the three backward countries of Europe — Portugal, Spain and, for many years, Greece. In Portugal, the dictatorial rule of Salazar which had beon established as far back as 1932 had continued til! 1968 when ill health forced him to retire. In 1974, the dictatorial government was overthrown by a group of Junior army officers with the support. of Portuguese. socialists, communists and other democrats and a new democratic constitution was. promulgated In Spain, the fascist dictatorship estab- lished by Franco after his victory in the Civil War continued tilt his death in 1975, His death was followed by the beginning of Iieeralisation and the release of political prisoners. In 1977, the first free elections‘THE WORLD SINCE 1945 ores? were held after over forty years. The Socialist Party in Spain. emerged as a major political force in the country In Greece, the end of the civil war had not led to the establishment of a stable democratic political system. In 1967, a group of amy officers seized power and established a tyrannical regime. For many years the restoration of democracy in Greece became a major issue exercising the people of Europe. A number of famous ‘Greek political and cultural figures had fled the countty and many others languished in. prisons in Greece: While a'movement of resistance grew inside the country, it was supported by a powerful protest movement outside the country, In 1974, the rule of the colonels, as the Greek military dictatorship was called, ended and Greece once again became a republic. Western Kurope In these three countries mentioned above as well as.in some other countries of Europe, particularly France and Italy, socialists and communists have been major political forces though the influence of the Communist Party in France has declined in recent years. In West Germany and many other countries of Europe, social democratic parties have been a major political force and often, alone or in coalition, have been the ruling parties, in Britain, the Labour Pamty has come to power at different times, | The Second World War had a radicaliging, influence on the political thinking of the people of Europe. Soon after the war, left-wing, govemments had come to power in many countries of Europe. In France and Italy, till 1947, communists were also a part of the government. These governments had intro duced. many - important ‘legislations which helped end many gross inequalities which had characterised most European societies’ before the-war. Some inhportant sectors of industry in these countries were nationalised ‘The existence of powerful labour unions yyes.co™ a prevented, any major reversals in welfare programmes even when the conservative or centrist parties came to, power. A reference has been made earlier to the European Recovery Programme. This plan helped the economies of Wester Europe to recovet to their pre-war level. This was followed by a tremendous growth in the economy of these countries with France and West Germany emerging as industzial giants. The economic development of West Germany ‘was particularly spectacular and it outstripped all other countries of Europe. Peace Movements For many years after the war, Europe became the main centre of Cold War conflicts. “The A poster of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarma- ‘ment, the organisation which led the peace move- ‘ment in Britain180) inajor Cold War issues in Europe have already been mentioned. Most of the West European countries were memibers of the NATO military alliance and had NATO troops and military bases, equipped with nuclear weapons and ‘issiles supplied by the US in their territories, These further added to tensions in Europe. ‘The removal: of NATO bases became a major demand of the peace. movements which grew powerfull in many countries of Europe from the late 1950s. Britain and France began to develop their own nuclear weapons, or ‘independent nuclear deterrents’, as they called them. Britain still continued to believe that she was a great world power and, thorefore, it was necessary for her to have her own nuclear weapons besides those of the US in her territory. One of the most powerful peace movements in Europe emerged in-Britain, Led by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), it demanded the closing, of the US bases in Britain and unilateral clear disarmament by her. End of Europes Hegemony The most significant feature of the position of Europe in the post-war period world. was the end of her world hegemony. Within abouit two decades after the end of the wat, most of the European empires in ‘Asia and Aftica had collapsed, “The European imperialist countries were not willing to give up their empires and in sont cases they got involved in protracted wars with the nationalist movements, Forexample, the French continued to fight a war to retain Indo-China from 1947 to 1954. and Algeria from 1954 to 1962, It is odd but true that the European imperialist country that held onto ber empire the longest was the most -backward country of Europe — Pornigal. The nationalist armed tesistance against the Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambigue lasted as long as the dictatorship in Portugal lasted. After the revolution, the new Portuguese government ores? "0 ues. CONTEMPORARY WoRLD MSTORY entered into negotiations with the freedom movements of Mozambique and Angola ‘Mozambique became free in 1975 and Angola in 1976. European Unity A significant development which would help the rise of Westem Europe as a great world power was the emergence of a movement for the unification of Western Europe. To begin with, the major country to take a lead in this direction was France. She believed that she was the natural leader of a United Western Europe. The first_major step in this direction was taken in £957 with the setting up of the European. Economic Community (EEC). The countries comprising, the EEC France, West Germany, Belgium, Holland, Luxemburg and Italy — set up what is known as the Common Market This was to be a prelude to the formation of a federation of West European counties, ‘Initially Britain kept herself out of the BEC but in 1961 when she wanted to join, France did not let her join She was finally admitted to the EEC in 1973 along with two other countries — Denmark and Ireland. The nine members of the EEC tater set up the European Parliament, Later, Greece, Spain and Portugal were also admitted to the EEC. During the next few years, the emergence of a united Westem Europe as a political " entity has become a reat possibility. Already, plans are afoot to introduce a common currency: in the EEC countries and to do away with the requirement of a passport for Europeans to travel from one EEC country to another. In the meantime, Germany has emerged as the strongest economic power in the EEC. With her unification, the inuence of Germany is likely to grow even further. In spite of the loss of their empires, the countries of Westem Europe together have ‘emerged as a new power in the world. Their economic dependence on the US has diminishedTHE WORLD SINCE 1945 and they are likely to play an increasingly independent role in world affairs Eastern Europe It has been ‘mentioned before’ that in the European countries which were liberated by Soviet troops, Communist parties and their supporters. had established their’ exclusive control. These ‘countries were allied to the Soviet Union as’ members of the Warsaw Pact. They were often described as. ‘satellites’ of the Soviet Union. The latter frequently, imposed its Will, sometimes with the use of armed forces, on the Communist parties and governments of these countries These countries did not receive the benefits of the European Recovery Pro- gramme and had to tely mostly on their own resources. The Soviet Union was in no position to provide the kind of massive aid witich ‘the US had given to Western Europe. The kind of -socialism that was sought to be built in these countries was based on the Soviet modél. The economies of these countries were closely linked with the Soviet economy and suffered from many ils of the latter. Most of these countries had been backward agricultural economies. Although the level of their economic development was not comparable to that of the advanced West European countries, the industiidlisation | of these countries’ was a. significant development. ‘The evils associated with the concentration of economic power in private hands were avoided and the hold of the old ruling classes and big landlords eliminated in these: countries. A reference has, already. been’ made to the end of the ‘Communist: parties’. rule. in these couftries. The events in the Soviet Union after 1985 had a direct impact on the political developments in these countries. In almost ali these countries, Conumunist parties” rule came to an end during 1989 to 1991. nores re Albania . Two of these countries — Romania and Albania—~had freed themselves of Soviet controf in the 1960s following the split between the Soviet Union and China. Albania had also withdrawn from the Warsaw Pact. However, there was no‘change in the exclusive control of the Communist parties in these countries. In. fact, the Communist parties’ mile in these countries can be said 10 have been more authoritarian than: in most other countries of Easter Europe, In December 1989 there was a popular upsurge in Romania against the goverment which was headed by Nikolai Ceausescu, Many army units also came out against the government. Ceauseseu and his wife were captured, tried and executed. A coalitiot’ government came to power after elections, In Albania, the Communist Party's nilecame to an end in’ 1992 Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia In Poland, the movement against the Com: ‘munist Party's rule was led by an organisation called Solidarity. In 1989, an ‘agreement was reached between Solidarity and the government and following free elections, non-communist became the prime minister of Poland, The 1956: revolt in Hungary which was crushed by Soviet troops has already been mentioned. In 1990, free elections were -held and a hon-communist government was formed there. In Czechoslovakia, after the armed intervention by Warsaw Pact countries in 1968, the Communist Party had removed Alexander Dubcek who had started introducing political and economic ‘reforms. In December .1989,” following mass demonstrations and strikes, the dominant role of the Communist Party came:to ati end, An eminent Czech writer, Vaclav. Havel, became the President of Czechoslovakia: The country had emerged independent state in 1918. Since 1968, she had been a Federal Republic comprising Czsch Republic and Slovak Republic. Fol- lowing the end of the Communist Party's clues comera onend3¥ ¥vAOTS fee SORCUEEr EW Negig ctttat aera com esclues no“echosl Sindents demonsinite.m Prague, rule, the two republics decided to separate and two independent states—the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic — came. into being in 1993. East Germany The end Gf the division of Germany has been referred to earlier in this Chapter This was the result of a series of developments which began in 1989. There was change in the leadership of the Socialist Unity Party, the ruling party of GDR, and of the goverment in 1989. In-November of that year, the new leaders of Bast Germany (German Democratic Republic) announced the opening of the Berlin Wall. Soon after. political parties and Organisations which were not controlled .by the ‘niling party of East Germany began to function’ freely. Early- in 1990,- the. East Gentian government madeit’ known that it Nas in favour of uiiification of Germany, Talks were held between the governments of East Germaiy and West Germany and on 3 Octéber 1990, Germany became a unified 1s slovakia, egainst the presence of Soviet tanks state; A new coalition government came to Power in unified Germany after country-wide elections in December 1990. Immediate Problems The end of the communist regimes in Europe, and the speed with which it came about, is one of the most important developments during the past five years, What has been remarkable in this development’ is that it took place, except in the case of Romania, Mote or less in a peaceful manner. However, the change-over has not been without problems, In some countries, the collapse of the highly centralized economies has not been followed by significant economic development based on free enterprise. In some-countries, there has been some aggravation: of immediate economic, problems. In the former: East Germany, the change-over had’ led ‘to’ the collapse of many industrial enterprises, Which ted to increased unemployment. The Cont wunist parties im most of these countries have been reorganised as democratic socialistnot Parties..tn some countries, they have become 2 powerful force, winning, majority support in the elections. The. move towards European unity has* been mentioned in-the- preceding: section, It ray be remembered. that the concept of United Europe: so far is confined to the countries of |Westem Eufope. It does not. includé East European countries Break-up of Yagaslavia: A major developinent in recent years hag been the -break-up. of Yugoslavia and the tragic violence that has accompanied it, It ‘may be recalled that Yugoslavia emerged as escl\ 25.co™% CONTEMPORARY WORD HISTORY an independent State at the end of the Fist World War. During thé Second World War, the people of Yugoslavia had waged a heroic ‘War of resistance against the Nazi occupation She ‘became a federation of six republics after the Second “World War Though ruled by. the’ Communist Party, she had rejected Soviet control, Josip Broz Tito, who had led the Yugoslav resistance against Nazi occu- © pation and subsequently headed the govern- ‘ment of Yugoslavia was, along with Jawaharlal Nehru, Nasser and Sukarno, the pionéer of ‘the Non-Aligned Movement, At the end of the 1980s, as in other communist-nuled States in Europe, there was a demand for ending the Communist Party's exclusive control over AUSTRIA Bost -Henzéc: SvINAs«uv on Bosnia Hercegovina, one people homeless, The picture shows ag [Courtesy United Nations Hi ores’ of the States of former Yugoslavia, hess rendered thousands of Rroup of displaced! persons living in cschool turned into a camp. igh Commissioner for Refugees Photo : A. Hollman] \ues com136 ores? the government. By early 1990, non-com- funist governments had come to power in mast of the republics of Yugoslavia In the meantime, many republics had started demanding, independence. By early 1992, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina had declared their inde- pendence, and Serbia and Montenegyo together formed the new State of Yugoslavia The declaration. of independence by Bosnia-Herzegovina has been followed by most tragic violence in which thousands of people have’ been killed. This republic in inhabited ‘by Serbians; Croats and Muslims The Bosnian Serbs, supported by Serbia, control a large part of Bosnia, territory. They arehostile to” the: idea of a mmulticultural independent State of Bosnia-Herzegovina. A bloody war has been going on since 1992 between Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims in spite of the presence of the UN Peace Foree. The war against Bosnian Muslims has been described by some Serbian leaders as war for “ethnic cleansing’. It is an obnoxious term whick has been ‘used to justify the extermination of one ethnic group by another. ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA, Emergence of Independent Nations Within about’25years of the end of the Second World War, most coutitries of Asia, Africa and Latin Ameri¢a which: had. been under impériatist nile won their freedom. Most of the” others that remained. became free during the next few years. In the year 1995, with the “exception” of ,small “pockets in different pans of the world. every country in tie world is free from the direct political control of another-country. A ‘major country. which. ina fundamental sense was. until recently, not free was South Africa, ‘This country bad been free — in faci, she was formally a republic — in the sense that she was not ruled by another country. South \ues com CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY. Africa was ruled by the White minority and about 80 per cent of the country’s population was denied any say in the political system of the country on grounds of race. However, by early May 1994, the system of. racial oppression bad finally collapsed and a democratic, non-racist government came into being, Another country where a somewhat different system of oppressive rule had been imposed was Palestine, In this: country. a “Jewish” State, Israel, was set up by. people, most of whom had come there from other parts of the world. mainly from Europe After establishing their rule. they had displaced the inhabitants of the country and those Palestinians who coritinued to live in the termitories occupied by Israel were subjected to colonial type rule. During the past few months, some steps have been taken which are expected to lead to the creation of a Palestinian State With the ending of the system of White ruls in South Africa and the oreation of an independent State’ of Palestine almost every art of the world will become free The rise of nationalism and the growth of nationalist movements in Asia and Africa have been referred to in the earlier chapters The role played by the nationalist movements during, the Second World War and the defeat of Axis Powers has algo been briefly referred to. The Second World War-tiad been viewed everywhere as a war to defend freedom and democracy. It had strengthened the forces of the freedom niovements: in countries which were under colonial rule of the imperialist countries who were allied against the fascist aggressions as well as in those where the old imperialist covintries had been ousted by the Axis Powers. In Asia, for example, the British rule over India. had continued but in many other countries, the British. the French, and the Dutch had been ousted by the Japanese, (in the case of French colonies, formally the ruling power continued to bepores” PIE WORTD SINCE 1045 Vichy France. Inall these countries, nationalist moveinents had grown powerful during the wat and there was a wave of anti-imperialist upsurge in al] these countries when the war ended. The.old imperialist countries tried to re-establish their rule over the colonies from Which they had been custed, for example, in Indo-China, Indonesiaand Burma, However, they met with strong resistance, in; many cases armed resistance, by the nationalist movements, As has been mentioned edislier 1m this chapter, some of the conflicts between the imperfalist countries and the nationalist movements became Cold War conflicts and brought in the US in support of the imperialist countries. In many parts of. Africa where nationalism had begun to emerge during the inter-war period, powerful nationalist move- ments took shape after the war. Weakening of Imperialism Many other factors helped in speeding. up the collapse. of imperialism after the - war The Second World War had, besides destroying fascism, weakened the imperialist countries of Europe. Many of these countries had themselves fallen victim to fascist aggressions, For example, three imperialist countries of Europe — France, Belgium and Holland (the Netherlands)— themselves had been under German occupation during, the war. Theit military power as well as’ economies had been shattered during, the war. Britain, which had the biggest empire, had also emerged from the war with a shattered economy, None of these countries was a great power any more. In ‘their place the greatest powers in the world now Were USA and the Soviet Union, The setting up of socialist governments in Eastem’ Europe under the rule of the Communist parties also was’ a factor which ‘weakened the power of the imperialist countries of Burope. They were no longer in a position fo sustain a protracted colonial war The countries which carried long colonial wars \ues cor 137 faced serious internal problems. For example, France's, colonial war in Indo-China and Algeria created serious’ political crises in France which at one time threatened her political systein. The colonial wars. waged by Portugal in Africa was a major factor it: the downfall of the Portuguese dictatorship, In the changed politi¢al climate in the world, imperiatism was to longer considered a_mark of ‘superior’ civilisation. On the contrary, it was now associated in the minds of the people everywhere, including in the colonial countries, with brute force, injustice and exploitation, and was considered inhuman and immoral. The dominant ideas in tbe world after 1945 were ideas of self-dotermi- nation; national sovereignty and equality, and Cooperation in international relations, ‘Thus the efforts to. maintain colonial mle were no longer popular with the people even of the imperialist countries. The colonial wars waged by France: were opposed by vast sections of the French people, Some of the biggest anti-government demonstrations in. Britain were seein in 1956 when Britain, along with France, and Israel, invaded Egypt The imperialists now put forward other teasons for holding on to their power — for example, preparing the people in the colonies for peaceful transition to independence. Preventing fratricidal and wibal wars, safe- guarding the interests’ of the niinorities, fesisting terrorism and communism, educating the people of the colonies in democracy. ete Most scholars. now also hold: the: view that the cost of maintaining their “control over the colonies had become to0:high for the colénial. countries to afford. It was also no longer necessary to establish direct political conttol -over a country in, order. ta .expfou its economy Solidarity of the Anucimperialist Movements An: important factor. which “stengthéne movements for fieecom was. the growth. ofpores? 188 sotidarity among the freedom movements of different countries. Each country's freedom movement supported the freedom struggles in other countries. In India, for example, mass demonstrations were held in 1946 against Indian troops being sent by India’s British rulers to Indonesia and Indo-China to ‘help restore the Dutch and the French rule, and. in support of the independence of Indonesia and Indo-China, This solidarity played a cmicial role as ‘countries gained independence. As a country “became independent, she actively aided’ the independence rhovements in other countries, politically, in international organisations, and in many cases, materially, ‘The forums of the Commonwealth and, much more importantly, of the United Nations, were used by the newly independent countries to support the cause of the counties still under foreign rule, Anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism were among, the most important objectives of the Non-Aligned Movement since its foundation and it pursued these. objectives by extending Support to the movements .of national inde pendence. It is not suprising that the South West ‘Africa People’s onganisation (SWAPO) which led Namibia's struggle for independence was a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement since long before, Namibia became independent in 1990. The Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1976, The independent States of Africa have played a cnicial role in strengthening the struggles for freedom in Africa, In 1963, they set up the Organisation of African Unity (AU) with ‘the eradication of all forms of colonialism from the continent of Africa’ as one of its. purposes. The freedom movements also received the support of the Soviet Union and otier socialist countries Role of the United Nations Tie United Nations also has been a major force in ‘promoting the. process which has yyes.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Hithe ending of colonialism, The “Charter and the Universal ‘OAiifiman Rights have already been mentioned. These documents symbolise the universal aspirations of the international community. The question of colonies was taken up by the Unitéd “Nations from the very beginning of its foundation. As. the number of former colonies joining the United Nations rose, the question of ending’ coloui- alism received great importance in the United Nations and it played an increasingly active role in’ facilitating the achievement of independence by the colonies, Recently, its role was crucial in- bringing about the independence of Nambia. tndia’s Role One of the first countries to achieve independence after the Second World War was India Though the British rulers had succeeded in partitioning the country, India's independence was of great historic importance. India’s freedom movement had been a source Of inspiration to freedom movements in all countries of Asia’and Africa. Even before independence, the leaders of India’s freedom movement had brought together the teaders of many Asian countries on a cofnmon platform at the Asian Relations Conference which they organised. This conference sym- botised the emergence of Asia as a new factor in the world. Independent India became a source of strength to all peoples fighting for their independence. South-East Asian Countries Achieve Independence Early in 1948, Burma (now Myanmar) on 4 January and Ceylon (now ‘Sri Lanka) on 4 February, became independent. Malaya which had been teoccupied by the British troops in 1945 after the defeat of Japan became independent in 1957. In 1963: she, along with Sabah (formerly north Borneo),aONIGNSGIGNI NIM SaIULNNOD NvISY on not esclues ©150 ores ‘Sarawak and Singapore formed the Malaysian Federation, “However, in 1965, Singapore deciared herself a separate independent State ty Indonesia, soon after the surrender of Japan, the Republic of Indonesia had been proclaimed by the nationalists. However, the Duteli,. supported by. British troops. came back::t0 re-establish their rule and a war folléwed. ‘The war ended. in 1949 and on 27. "December that_year, Indonesia ‘became * independent: ‘The war in. Vietnam which ended in the defeat. first, of France and then the US has already: been mentioned. It ended on-30 April 1975" when Saigon, the capital of the US-sponsored regime in Solith Vietnam, was Tiberated. In 1976 Vietnam was united, Saigon was renamed, Ho: Chi.-Mintr city, after the great leader of the “Vietnamese people who had launched ‘the freedom movement in Vietnam and had led it till his death in 1969 {i Cs Mh grsatedh dir the war asgatest se Prewch as F950 nor on \ues-CO™ covresmorany wort mstory He had become the hero of the youth and freedom loving people everywhere Laos, one of the three countries comprising, indo-China, had ptoclaimed her independence in 1945. However. first French and later US intervention in Laos continued, The US Intervention in L868 was ended in 1973, In Cambodia, the third country of Indo-Ciuna, also, the French retumed after the defeat of Japan, ‘The French finally left in’ 1953 and Cambodia became independent. In 1970, the US installed a puppet government there and the US war in Vietnam. was extended to. Cambodia. The pro-US govern- rent was overthrown in 1975, However, a most barbarous government came to power in Cambodia This government was formed by Khuner’ Rouge, @ communist group of Cambodia. It was headed by Pol Pot. it followed a policy of genocide against its ‘own people, 11 is: estimated that between one to three nuillion Cambodians were killed by this government. This barbarous government was overthrown with the help of Vietnamese troops. in 1979. However, the conflict in’ Cambodia “continued for many years, There were three main political groups —the Khmer Rouge. the group led by Prince Sihanouk whose government had been” overthrown in 1970 with US support, and the group which formed the government after Pol Pot’s government was overthrown with the help of Vietnamese troops. The Khmer Rouge had continued the war against the’ Vitinamese-supported gov- ernment from the tertitories it controlled inside the country. and from across the border. in 1989, the Vietnamese troops were withdrawn from Cambodia In 1991, the three. opposing groups were brought together and an agreement was signed under the auspices of the United Nations. In 1993, elections were held in: Cambodia and a coalition goverminent was formed. The Khmer Rouge, however, refused f join the goverument and continusd its policy of war. yues.co™PAE WORLD SINCE 1955 cl ores Nationalist Struggles in Arab Countries The rise of Arab nationalism and the freedom moveinents in a few Arab countries have already been referted to. Lebanon, a mandate of France, had been formally made a separate State by the French. During the war; the French authorities in Lebanon were allied with Vichy France but had been ousted and the country was occupied by Free French forces. In November 1943, the independence of Lebanon was recognised though the French troops continued to stay there till 1946, Since. the 1950s. Lebanon has seen many: turmoils and political instability. Besides the violent clashes and civil war between different Lebanese groups. the country has been devastated by frequent air raids by Israel. In Syria, there was an uprising against the French who were supported by the British. On 17 April 1946, Syria became independent and the French troops were withdrawn, In Egypt, the monarchy was overthrown when a group’ of military officers led by General Neguib and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser seized power in 1952. The new government” asked for the withdrawal of British troops which were stationed in Egypt, in the Suez Canal zéne, In‘ July 1956, the British troops left but, as has beeir mentioned earlier, British and French troops invaded Egypt, along with Israeli troops, in October 1956 but were soon forced to withdraw. Nasser became the leading figure of Arab*nationalism, ‘He’ was also one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement. From 1958 to 1961, Syria and Egypt were joined together as\ one State called the United Arab Republic. The Fevolution. which overthrew: the “pro-British government and the monarchy. in, Iraq has alreatly been mentioned” Kuwait had come’ under’ Biitish controt at the end of -the fineteenth ‘century. Her vast oil resourees were controlled by British and US oil companies. On 19 June 1967, Kuvait became a fully sovereign state, North yues-cO™ . 98 Yemen bad become an independent State after the destruction of the Ottoman empire but in South Yemen, the ‘British had consolidated their rule. The city of Aden had been ‘made a part of British India but had become a separate colony in 1937. It was thade a part of the new State of South Arabia which the British had created. In 1963, an armed revolt began in South Yemen, In November 1967, South . Yemen became an independent State‘and the British troops left the country. The two Yemens were unified in 1990. In Tunisia and. Morocco, French nye came to an end in 1956, Libya had come under Italian rule and, during, the war, many Yasser Arafato oresel important battles were fought there between the German and the Allied troops. The country was later occupied by British and French troops. She became an independent monarchy on 24 December 1951, In 1969, the monarchy was overthiown ‘and Li ya became’: republic: The Arab League, comprising the Arab States, was formed at the end of the Second World War: For many-years, the Arab League played a.very, important role in bringing the Arab: States together in promoting Arab nationalism and strengthening the inde- pendence of Arab ‘States One of the main concerns of all Arabs has been the question of Palestine where with: Wester support the State of Israel was created and sustained and the formation of a Patestinian State prevented. The Arab nationalists looked upon Israel as an outpost of .itnperialism in their tefritories. In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) which, under the leadership of Yasser Arafat, has been carrying on the stegle for the creation of an independent staté of Palestine, was set up. Subsequently, the PLO proctaimad the setting up of a government of Palestine which was recognised by :many countries. Recently, under an agreement signed by PLO and Israel, Palestinians living in Gaza Suip and some parts of West Bank have been given autonomy. Over a million Palestinians live in these areas which have been under Israeli occupation since 1967 and are Beneraily known as Occupied Territories. Palestinian autonomy in parts of the Occupied Territories Tray be astep towards the establishment of an independent State of Palestine, Algeria’s Strugele for Freedom, -One Of the longest” struggles’ for freedom was launched in Algeria. The French occu- pation of Algeria had begun in 1830. After the Second World War, France was engaged in a protracted colonial war to retain her, CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY nile over Algeria. Unlike other French colonies, a large number of French colons (settlers) had settled in Algeria, In 1960, they numbered about a million. They controlled most of the economy and the administration of Algeria and were, determined to hold on to their domination ‘even when the people and government of France favoured . a settlement, The situation was comparable to some other colonies, such as South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, where white settlers were for long totally opposed to any settlement which would end their domination. In 1954, the nationalist movement in Algeria gave a call for a popular uprising. Soon after, a full-scale war. of national liberation began, The National Liberation Front (FLN) of Algeria set up its own liberation army which had its regular armed troops as well as guertilia units, The French army in Algeria now numbered over 800,000 soldiers who: resorted to large-scale atrocities and tortures, A demonstration by the FLN in Algiers‘THE WORLD SINCE 1945 ‘The FLN set up its Provisional Government which was recognised by many countries In 1958, a revolt by the French settlers and the French army in Algeria led to the overthrow of the Fourth Republic, as the French government since 1946 was called. General de Gaulle came to power in France and a new constitution creating the Fifth Republic came in force. The French settlers and the army in Algeria had hoped that the new government would support the war to maintain French rule in Algeria. However, when they discovered that de Gaulle favoured asettlement with the Algerians, they organiséd unsuccessful revolts against him. In March 1962, de Gaulle’s government opened nego- 193 tiations qyith the FLN which led to a ceasefire in Algeria, Agreement was also reached on. Algeria's independence and the complete withdrawal of French forces from Algeria. A referendum was held in France on the question of Algerian independence in April 1962 and the French people voted overwhelmingly in favour of Algeria’s independence. In a similar referendum held on 1 July 1962, 99 per cent of the people in Algeria voted in -favour of complete independence. On 3 July 1962, Algeria's independence was recognised by France About 15,00,000 Algerians had been Killed by the French troops in the war of national liberation, : Women of Ghana wearing dresses with pictures of Kwame Nkrumah, who hud Become President of Ghana in 1961, printed on themnore Freedom Movements in Southern Africa Ghana and Guinea In most countries of southern Africa (sub- Saharan Africa), ‘nationalist organisations to fight for: independence weie formed in the years following; the Second World War. The imperialist countries had realised that they w0iild not.be able to: hold on to Africa for Tong, The first country to. gain independence in Souther Africa’ was Ghana (Gold Coast during the British rule). The struggle for freedom in, Ghana was led by Kwame Nkrumah,, He wag an. outstanding leader of African-hationalism and played an important role in uniting the African people for freedom as: well as. for asserting their’ national Sovereignty ‘andindépendent role in world affairs. In 1949, he had founded the Convention People’s Panty. In 1956, this party won more than 70 per cent séats-in the elections and on 6 March 1957. Ghiana became independent. Int 1958, Guinéa became the first- French colbny-.itr, southem “Africa to become inde- pentiett The Africa Yeer In. 1960, “17° countties of Africa became -independent:: This has'-given that year. the title-of the ‘Africa ‘Year’ Out of them, 13 had-been French colanies. These 17 countries ‘were’ Mahitania, ‘Mali, Niger, Chad, Senegal, ivory Coast, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), ‘Nigetia,” Togo, Benin, Camerbon, Gabon, Congo. formerly French), Zaire (formerly Belgian Congo), Central African Republic, Somalia and Madagascar. The wave. of anti-imperialism that engulfed.Africa in 1960 influgnced. even. the British. Prime Minister During a tour of British “about the-syind! of change which was: blowing altoxigh the continent of Africa and said, “... whither we like it Lor not this growth of rational consciousness is a political fact and our national policies must take account of it scl 5.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY The Struggle in Kenya British imperialism had long been trying to prevent this ‘wind of change’ from blowing, In Kenya the nationalist movement had.been launched in the 1920s. and one of its leaders who emerged. into. prominence was Jomo Kenyatta, In 1943, was formed the Kenya Africa Union which later became the Kenya African National Union which was led, besides Jomo. Kenyatta, by Odinga Oginga In 1952, the Mai Mau rebellion broke out in Kenya, This rebellion was mainly a peasant rebellion by the péople of the Kikuyu tribe whose lands had been taken away by the British colonial authorities. Some Westem writers have described Mau Mau rebels as terrorists who committed inhuman atrocities. ‘The British suppressed the febellion with’ the use of brute foice, killing about 15,000 éolihies. in Afriéa it} March 1960, he spoke * Left to Rigi - Jubius Nyrerc, President of Tanzania, Kenneth Kawnda, President of Zambia, and Jomo Kenyatta, President of KenyesTHE WORLD SINCE 1945 porese Kenyans. in 1953, Kenyatta yyas arrested and sentenced to seven years” imprisonment on the charge of leading, the Mau Mau rebellion The British were compelled to end their repression which bad won them world-wide condemnation. In. 1961, Kenyatta was freed. On 12 December 1964, Kenya became a republic with’ Jomo Kenyatta as its first President End of Colonial Rule in Africa Most of the remaining, British colonies in Africa became. independent in the. 1960s, * These included Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar) and Sierra. Leone in 1961, Uganda in 1962, Zambia (formerly Norther Rhodesia) and Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) in 1964, Gambia in 1965, and Botswana, Swaziland and Lesotho in 1968. Ruanda (present, Rwanda) and Burundi which had nores Siritish cartoonist Fircky’s vantunmn on € LL The jas been under Belgian rule, since. the. end of, the First*Woild War. became. indepeident-in 1962. By the end of the 1960s: most countries of, Africa had become ‘free: The: countries where the struggle for independerice was still going, on’ included: the Portiguesé: colonies ‘of Angola. and Mozambique” which have already been mentioned: and ‘Guinea Bissau and Cape ‘Verde Islands. All these: countries became free in the 1970s,..N; West Africa). which had “been niléd aba colony by South Africa since the end of the First World War became independent on.21 March 1990, Zimbabwe Another. courtey. which had to. undesgo a long, panied of struggle: before ‘she became indeperident was Zimibabwe (formerly South- em Rhodesia), She had been a British colony but the White settlers there, under the Hime man on the cartoun is clues comOAU delegates at the Conference Hall of African Unity in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. At the back are a map leadership of lan Smiith, captured power in 1965. They. were. alarmed at the prospect of the country being granted independence which would have meant Black majority rule, A White minority governmént was established there on the pattern-of South Afica and with South African support and it dectared what it called the Unilateral Declaration Of Indepeitdence (UDI), Most countries of the world at ‘the instance’ of the United Nations and the Commonwealth imposed sanétions against." Southern Rhodesia. A powerful guerrilla movement grew in South- em, Rhodesia. It was-aided by the neigh- bouring Aftican States, the Non-Aligned Movement and the socialist countries. of Africa and portraits ofthe lenders of dependent African States Realising that they could never sueceed in suppressing the war of national independence in spite of South Africa’s support, the White Minority government submitted. In 198 elections were held in Southem Rhodesia in which everyone — Black and White — had one vote. The nationalist parties swept the polls and the country became independent withanewname, Zimbabwe. The government there was headed by Robert Mugabe who became the Chairman of the Non-Aligned Movement at its conference held in Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, in 1986, One of the major forces which accelerated the process of the eradication of imperialist rule in’ Africa was the197 = [AFRICAN COUNTRIES ACHIEVE INDEPENDENCE Tadependent before 1945 Independent from 1945 10 1860 (Giong with yeor of independence) Independent after 1960 | [iaiong wth year of independence | [Foret became Foayinepmdete mn 1973 an nT aoe ‘Sete windrawn cal 1954. MangoWy was.vertoe eo |] 1992 Sour ataco treme an bdependert Site 310 ‘ut mas nied: oy Wrice monary: Tig aysiu of socted became independant in 1378. One part ott pnd Moraceae ihe other out Maeriana.tivtng so wo tomes Upp Yoke. Baipan Cungo became 2a Organisation ‘of Afric Unity- which has been mehtioned earlier TY was Set up in 1963 at a’ Pan-African’ Conference held in Addis Ababa. Its rol in the 1960s was particularly crucial in promoting, African nationalism, || ons ite mini tle came io an end n 1284 Souk Morocco British and Dutch Colonies.ifi South Aiweriea Bait continued to retain a few colonial ‘possessions in South America and the West Indies. Beginning in the 1960s, these countries became independent — Jamaica, and Trinidadpores” roe and Tobago in’ 1962, Guyana and Barbados an 1966 and Grenada in 1976, Anether colony, Surinam, situated to the east of Guyana, which“ had been under the rule’ of the Netherlands since the early years of the nineteenth century, became independent in 1975 Colonial Powers’ Attempts to Retaiti Their lifluence ‘Fhe.tcansition to independence in the countries mentioned here has in no case been smooth In most cases, the colonial powers have.tried to retain their influence even while conceding, independence to their colonies. In some countries, particularly when the colonial countries .of their. supporters thought that the. colonial nile was being replaced by govern ments dominated by radical leaders, they tried to intervene tote: directly. Guyana Tn 1953, under a tiew constitution elections were’ héld"in, British Guiana. (now Guyana) in which the Progressive People's Party (PPP) won. 18 of thé 25 ‘seats, The party, led by Dr Cheddi: Jagan ‘and Fortes Burnham, had been the main anti-imperialist party.in Guyana and drew its support from all sections of the population, mainly people of Indian origin and Black: people. Cheddi Jagan became the Prime Minister and fhe started’ implementing, a radical: social “and economic programme. However, * after about four months the sgovermment was dismissed and the constitution suspended. British troops landed there and the leaders of the PPP — Jagan and Burnham — were arrested. A this was done in the name of “repelling” communism, After that, the British foinented ethale conflicts in Guyana 2iid lie" PPP was split: In the 1957 elections, Dr-J8gan’s party again won and intensified the demand for intlependence. In the 1961 elections again, this party won a majority but the goverment was denied financial heip and. ethnic disturbances and. violence were \ues cor CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY, fomented [In the 1964 elections, Burnham’s Paily — he had broken away from the PPP — polled less votes than the PPP but by allying With another party, he became the Prime Minister of Guyana: In 1966, Guyana became independent with Bumham as Prime Minister (and later as President), In the 1992 elections, Dr Chhedi Jagan was elected President. Zaire In Zaire (formerly Belgian Congo), the freedom movement -was led by Patrice Lumumba’ who had set up the "National Congotese Movement (MNC). On 30 June - 1960, Congo became. independent. with Lu- mumba as the Prime Minister. However, soon after, the governor of the’province of Katariga, supported by Westem companies whichCl res THE WORED SINCE E945, no’ contalied the vast minora copper) resoucees of the province, axmounced the secession of the province from Congo. A number of ‘mercenaries were emplayed to support the secession On the request of the sovenmeit of Conye.. United Nations troops were sent ‘© Coneo to end the secession and the foreign intervention in Congo. However, they failed to protect Lasnurisa who. was murdered, Later, however, they succeeded in ending the Secession of Kotanga. In 1965, Colonel Mobutts who headed the army. of Congo captured power and became the President of the country which was now named Zaive Lumumba was regarded as one of the gheatest leaders of the fotionalist resurgence im Africa and his murder. it is believed, iad boon Planned by the US intelligeace ageney, C LA Similar effons were made in Angola ‘iiere 3 government ted by Agostino Neto was fooved after i ‘ PAsUstre ol Sherpevlle-— secenty-ne persons \ues cor {his government was souglit to be overthrown by the US and South “Aftica siding and anni, sival groups of Argolans. The South, Airican Woops also entered: Angolin temitory and fought against the Angolan troops Angola ‘quested Cuba's telp in resisting. foreign tnvaders and altempts at destroying Angola's independence were thwated, fer. many ‘Yeois. areements were reached on ihe ending of foreign imervention in Angola and she Withdrawl of Cuban ueopis fiom there South Africa = Bmergenice as.a Democratic Nation the occupation authorities (the US), came into force. It introdiced 2 democratic parliamentary form of government and niversal adult franchise in Japan. Though thedinstitution of thondichiy: was’ retained, the einperir was: divested of powers’ and was vielgat!' 2s “the symbol of the state”. The nores CONTEMPORARY WORLD FESTORY new Japanese constitution renounced war as a national policy. It also prohibited Japan from having a standing army or navy. In 1952, the US occupation of Japan was ended though by a security pact she retained the right to station her troops in Japan. The country has been almost throughout tuléd by the conservative Liberal Democratic Party which, in spite of many cases of corvuption involving the Prime Ministers ‘of the country, bas been generally returned to power. The second most popular party is the socialist party which advocates nationalisation of industry and wants the security pact with the US scrapped which fas aligned Japan with the US. The Japanese Communist Party. also has d substantial fotlowirig. These two Parties along with others are. opposed to any sevival of militarism in Japan. The security An anti-government student demonstration in Toyo clues compores THE WORLD SINCE 1945, pact with the US provoked countrywide Protests in Japan when it was renewed in 1960. A number of small rightwing groups have emerged in recent years iii Japan which advocate the revival of the greatness of Japan as a military power, and incutcation of the traditional values some of which ate closely related to. militarism: Japan has, during the post-war decades, emerged as a great world economic power, challenging US supremacy in many areas of economy.” Her “économie * growth is often Teferred to as a ‘miracle’. Lacking most of the natural resources herself, she -hag made tremendous advances: in technology which hhas become her main asset. In many fields of manvfacture requiring high technology, she has surpassed. every other couhiry. in the world. As one.of the economic “giants” in the world today; she is closely allied with the most advanced capitalist economies: of the West in her - international economic relations. inher -foreign’ policy, she has genterally followed the’-US.- She started normalising hier relations with China, formerly het main victim since her rise-as a modem nation, in the early 1970s, and subsequently With the Soviet Union (and after her break-up, with Russia). Some Important Developments in Asia A. reference has. been. made to some developments within:cand “between “Asian countries in the context of the Cold War. It is-necessary: to. mention a few other devel- opments- and ‘events :which are: ‘important ‘in, the history..of the region. ! ‘Main Trends: in Potigidal’ Development The political-development of Asian countries since their emergence as independent nations has. followed. many different. trends, While it. may be said that the general direction of - > reverse: » religion has 25.co™ 303 Political development has been towards the establishinent of democratic systems, this has been neither even nor has it been without Yeversals. Not many countries in the region throughout the period since their independence have had a stable democratic political system The Indian political system. is among the few which throughout has remained demo- cratic. In some countries, such ‘is Pakistan, there, has been military ‘tule for long periods. Burma (renamed Myanmar in 1989) started asa political deniocracy in 1948 but’ came under one-party mule in the early 1960s,with the armed forces playing ‘a dominant role. Tn May 1990, elections were held in Myanmar and the party led by. Daw Aung Saun Suu Kyi, abo had been put behind bars, swept the polls. However, no change was effected in the government even after "the elections. Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She continued to be under house arrest for six years and was. released recently Gin July 1998) ; In some countries in the region, there have been frequent’ political turmoils often accompanied ‘by’ violence. The’ overthrow of monarchies’ in some’ countries. has been referred to earlier.” This has, however, no always led-to the establishment of democratic regimes, The growing secularisation of political and. social liféhas been mentioned earlier as one of the features of contemporary history, While this is “tre for a large number of Asian countries — India’ is- an’ “outstanding example of a country with sectilanism as a fundamental basis of hér political ‘System — there’ ‘have~lso: been" trends: which “are ‘the ‘ecillarism: In’ spitié conintyies, been ‘used’as'a basis of politic activities and ‘even of ‘nationtidod. An ‘early examile-of such cobhtries is’ Pakistan which was created’ on the basis of the Muslim League’s claim that - Muslims’ in India constituted ‘a: separate ‘nation and, therefore, should have a separate state. In some partsnore of the region, religious-political movements, with the active participation of religious Jeaders, hayé arisen. These movetnents ex+ orcise, or seek to exercise,, influence and even dominance on the State, They lay stress on the inviolability of their religious principles and. advocate’ the. view that. these Principles should form.the. fundamental’ basis of State poligy..in all spheres. Their conception of religion is. often highly dogmatic and ob- scurantist. Some of them'do not hesitate to use terrorist, methads against those who do not agree with thém and for gaining their ends. These movements are often referred to “ as movements of religious fundamentalism. There are powerful socialist and com munist movements in sonie countries of Asia In four countries —China, North Korea, Vietnam.and Mongolia — Communist parties have been the ruling parties. Developments in The victory of the Comntunist Party of China in the civil war and the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China on ! October 1949 have already been mentioned. The conifnunist. victory in the ‘most poputous Country in the’ world was considered a world-shaking event. During the: first few years of its tule, the Communist Party carried ont radical land reforms. and launched a programme of industrialisation. She received conomic, ‘technical and military aid from the Soviet Union with whom she had entered into an Alliance Treaty. China also developed close relations with India. The two countries entered into an, agreement in'1954 according to which Chinese. suzerainty. over Tibet was recognised by India and China reaffirmed the. Stams of Tibet as. an autonomous region The five principles of peaceful coexistence, known as Panchsheek, were also a part of this agreement. : From thé tate 1950s; Chinese policies began to-change. A refereiice has been tiade nores scl 25.co™% CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY to the emphasis laid on peacefull coexistence by the Soviet leadership afier the death of Stalin. The Chinese Communist Party, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, opposed this and the relations between the two countries began to be strained, By: the early 19608, the split between them. was complete: The Sino-Soviet split led to splits in many. Communist parties the world. over, The Chinese started incursions into Indian territory in the late 1950s. The Chinese policy in Tibet also changed and in 1959 the Dalai Lama and thousands of his followers had to flee to Indiawherethey have lived ever since as refugees. In 1962, there was a border war between India and China when the latter invaded Ladakh in the north-west and present Arunachal Pradesh in the north-east. In her internal policies, this period is known for what was called the Great Leap Forward. It aimed at accelerating the growth of economy but, in fact, shattered it, This was also the period when the growth of the personality cult of Mao Zedong began. His thought was extolled for, its invincibility. From 1966 tb 1969 was the period of What was called the Cultural Revolution, There was a political turmoil in China during this period. In the name of continuing the revolution, thousands of people were disgraced and removed. from their jobs by’ mobs of students and Red Guards, Centres for higher ‘Education were closed down and severe restrictions! imposed on literary and cultural activities: China’s economic life was seriously disrupted. In the early. 1970s, as already Pointed out, China was admitted to the United Nations: Her relations with’ the Usiited States’ also improved. By then, China had become: nuclear power. Mao Zedong’s deatti in 1976 was followed by a fierce power struggie in China. By 1980, Deng Xiaoping had become the most important leader in China. Since. the late 1970s, many significant changes have taken place in China's political clues com‘THE WORLD SINCE 1945 clue? pores and economic life. Her relations with the Soviet Union were normalised, There have been significant improvements in her relations with India’ China has made significant advances in her economic development. For modernising her economy -she has started following policies which were earlier con- sidered to be contrary to socialism. While there have been changes of abasic nature in economic policies, China's political system continues to be under the-exclusive .control of the Communist Party. Though there has ‘been little progress towards political demoe- racy, the kind of regimentation which had. characterised China's political and cultural life for many years, has come to an end. Conflicts and Wars Some of the major sources of conflict and some.of the wars which were fought in Asia after 1945 have been mentioned before. There have been many other’ conflicts and. wars between Asian countries in which the two military blocs were not directly involved. There have been tires wars between. India and Pakistan. The first war took place in 1947 soon after the two countries became independent. After Jammu and Kashmir had acceded to India, the invasion of Kashmir launched from and with the support of Pakistan was halted by Indian troops. ‘In 1965, there was another war when. Pakistan sent her infiltrators, into Kashmir. The third war took place: in 1971 over the questién: of Bangladesh which will be refered. to separately. Sitce the 1980s, relations between the two countries have been strained because of the aid which Pakistan gave to terrorists in Punjab. In recent years, there has been a further worsening, of relations. because. of Pakiatan’s’ training’ and arming, of. terrorist groups operating ini Kashmix, Pakistan hopes to achieve her. “ambition of taking over Kashmir with the help of terrorist groups. In 1980, war broke out between iran and Iraq. There had been some disputes over 205, boundary between the two countries as well as politidal “differences. The war continued for eight years taking a toll of hundreds of thousands of lives in both thé countries and causing sérious damage to their economies, In 1991, there was a war between Iraq anda number of other countries. including USA.. In August 1990, Iraq. had: occupied Kuwait. On her refusal:to end her occupation, the United Nations authorised: the’ use of force against her. On 17 January 1991, war broke out in which large-scale use of missiles was made: by both sides. This was the first major war in’ which’ the US troops were directly involved afler the end of the Cold War. It came to an end on 28 February 199 after the forces of the US and ber allies in the war had entered the territory of Iraq and Kuwait and Iraq had ordered the withdrawal of het troops from Kuwait. It had a sbattering effect on the economy of Iraq besides taking a huge toll of human lives. Bangladesh as an Independent Nation Pakistan, which was created-with the partition of India in 1947, comprised. two parts — East Pakistan and West Pakistan. The two parts were separated by about. 1600 km of Indian territory. The only ‘bond which united the two parts was religion— majority of the Population in both parts was. Muslim. Soon it was clear that religion could not bbe the basis of nationhood. Almost immediately afier the creation of Pakistan, there had been a movement for. autonoray by the people of East. Pakistan, The Awami League led by Sheikh Mujibur. Rahmay spearheaded - the movement. While the_péople of East Pakistan comprised .more, than’ half: the: population of Pakistan, the governiment and the arméd forces were.dominated by West Pakistant: East Pakistan was also, economically “exploited by West Pakistan’and her language. Bengali; and culture were sought 10 be suppressed. In the: elections held in December “1970, the “Awami*Leagueores? swept the polls in East Pakistan, winning 168 out of 169 seats, It was expected. that Pokistan. would now frame a new federal constitution which would guarantee greater autonomy to East Pakistan, it was also expected that with the Awami League as the majority party.-in Pakistan, Mujibur Rahman would form the goverment at the centr, However, thé meeting of. the :newly elected assembly. was: not allowed to be held leading to widespread demonstrations in Bast Pakistan. To. suppress the protest demonstrations, the amy was sent to East Pakistan and Mujibur Rahman was arrested in: West Pakistan, Soon after, the independent State of Bangladesh was proclaimed with its own guerrilla army to fight against the Pakistan army. Thousands of people were killed and millions of Bangladeshis entered India as refugees. The influx. of millions of refugees into India created a difficult siuation for India and she intervened in support of the people of Bangladesh on 3 December 1971, Pakistani troops _unconditonally surrendered on 16 December. In January 1972, Mujibur Rahman was released and on his return he became the first Prime Minister of the independent State of Bangladesh, The emergence of Bangladesh as an independent nation was an event of great historival significance, particularly for the Indian sub-continent, It was a. serious blow to the theory of nationhood on the basis of religion, Regional Groupings in spite of tensions and conflicts, a number of regional groupings have emerged in Asia to promote, common . political, economic, Social and cultural interests. and cooperation among, its members. The Arab League, which has. 21 Arab, States, including, Palestine, as its members, ‘was set up in. 1943, ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations), comprising six countries of South-East Asia— Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, the Philippines, on ues oO contemporary wort HisTORY Brunei and indonesia — was set up in 1967 Most of these countries are among the fastest growing economies in the world and ASEAN has played an important role in the’economic development of each of its members. Vietnam became the seventh member of ASEAN in July 1995. Another major regional. grouping, which was set up in 1985-is SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). It comprises seven countries — India, Paki- stan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives. Because of strains in the relations between some of these countries, SAARC's actual achievements have so far been limited Commonwealth of Natiaas A number of internationat and regional. bodies and organisations which emerged after the Second World War have been mentioned in this: chapter. Another organisation which had been formed earlier but acquired a different character after the Second World War is the Conumonwealth. It had started as an association of self-governing British Colonies and was referred to as the British Commonwealth and Empire. After India became independent, followed by the independence of other British colonies, its character changed. It was no longer ‘British’ and “Empire” but an association of independent nations which fad once been British colonies, Its members, now numbering fifty independent countries, follow their own’ independent policies in their domestic and foreign affairs. Its multiracial character as well as the variety of political, social ‘and economic systems that its members represent have made the Commonwealth an extremely useful body for discussing important issues and for. promoting cooperation in -various fields. Developments in Latin America Most Latin American countries continued to suffer from most-of the same ills as beforee5.co™ ses Newnes ggcll unten staresthe war The emergence of regimes which Promised to introduce radical economic and social changes were always considered a thveat to the’ United States and ted her to intervene in the political affairs of the Latin American countries. Thesé countries faced much the same-problems as the developing countrits:of Asia and Africa and often sulferéd from_political instability which had become-a common féature of many developing countries" political life. The US had ‘vast economic interests in almost every country in Latin America, in the case of some countries, the US éompanies almost totally dominated their: economy. To maintain their domination, these companies, with the support of the US government, encouraged undemo- cyatic regimes with a powerful influence esercised by the army. The US policy, besides the threat it always perceived from the radical regimes in Latin America. now also began ci “ not esclues on CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY to see thesd regimes as being communist. inspired or under communist control and, therefore, a danger to hier security. In many cases, the US interference in Latin America directly or through the CIA's covert Operations, was sought to be justified by an alleged communist threat. Very few, countries in the region have had a continuous history of elected governments since the end of the Second World War. : US Interventions against Radical Regimes Since the iate 1940s, in the: political life of ‘most Latin American. countries radical and left-wing trends have become powerful. They have been able to form governments and introduce reforms, and Stay in power for varying lengths of time, only to be, in most cases, overthrowa tinough coups. almost invariably with the support of the US. The ‘two major exceptions have been Mexico and Fidel Castro addressing a meetingTie WORLD smicu 1948 nore Cuba. The case of the latter has already been mentioned in the context of the Cold War. Guatemala Guatemala, for over.a hundred years, had been ruled by military dictators. The first free elections were held in 1944 and a reformist govemment came to power From 1950, this government was led by Jacobo Aibenz Guzman, It introduced many social and. economic reforms in. the country and expropriated the United Fruit Company,:a US company which dominiated the economy of Guatemala This alarmed the US govern ‘mept. Dulles believed that the government of Arbenz was potemially communist. A US-supported military coup overtiew this government in’ 1954: The resentment against the US: was so deep ‘that when Richard Nixon, the then US Vice-President, visited’? Latin American countries in 1958," he was “greeted in city ‘after city: by angry, hostile: occasionally dangerous mobs’ Cuba inthe /1950s which inspired radical and left-wing moveinents throughout the region was the revolution in Cuba. On I January 1959. after Batista, -a. military: dictator who. had beén a close ally of the US, fled: the’ country, “Fidel Castro who had’. led” the revolutionary movement formied the govern: ment, The revolution in Cuba had not been Jed by Cuban communists and. Castro: himself. Was-not a. comnitihist. "However, when’ the. ‘soveniment started implementing radical land reforms .and taking, i the “US. governme: i was only in 1965 that the organisations with, which Casto and other Cuban revolutionaries were associated and the Cuban communists came together to form the Communist’ Patty nores ‘The, most important ‘event in ‘Latin “America” Tiostile. to it Tr 4 209 of Cuba, The US had been the main importer of Cuba's “sugar, which ‘was Cuba's main product. This was stopped. Gradually, the Cuban goverament established close links |’ with the Soviet Union, Many aitempts were made by the CUA —a member of the US Congress had some years ago listed -15 attempts —to assassinate Castro. The Bay of Pigs fiasco and the’ missile crisis during the - Presidency of Kerinedy have been mentioned earlier in this chapter, The Cuban evolution has survived for over: thirty-five years now against heavy odds, ‘One of the most inspiring teaders which the. Cuban revolution produced was Che Guevara. He was bom in Argentina but had Joined Castio in 1956. He played: a leading role in the Tevolutionary movement in Cuba which fed to the fall of Batista’s dictatorship. He became a minister in the-néw Cuban government but left Cuba in 1965 to help Lana dmertcan student demonstrators with posters of Ho Chi Mink and a poster of Che Cuevaraat the buck clues comomanise a sevolution in Bolivia He was captived and killed. by Bolivian troops in 1967. He became a major source of inspiration to the radical youth in Latin America: and elsewhere in the world. Chile Anil event which shocked’ the. world in the 1970s was the overthrow of the government headed by Salvador Allende. in-Chile. One ofthe founders of the Chilean Socialist Party, he. was’ elected President of Chile in 1970, Like other radicat regimes in Latin America which htad cone to-power in the past, Allende also started introducing radical land reforms and nationalising industry. On 11. September 1973. a military junta headed by Geiteral CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Pinochet, again with the support of the C.1.A:, voverthrew the government of Allende. Allende himself was killed in his Presidential Palace while fighting. A brutal military regime was established in Chile which remained in power ill recently. Civilian rule was restored in Chile in 1990 when a democratically elected government came to. power, ‘The events mentioned above indicate a major trend of developments in Latin Ameri¢a The US has intervened in many more countries than have bech mentioned above — in Hon duras, Panama, Nicaragua, E1 Salvador, Grenada, etc: Thete have been too many military coups, mainly direeted against elected governments which tried to introduce social and economic reforms, tobe recounted here. Pinochet's troops surround the Presideniait Palace in Santiago, Chile, ‘at the time af the cox against Presidem AllendeTHE WORLD SINCE 1945 clu notes Recently, the US intervened in Haiti to restore the democratically elected government there One of the significant developments has been the change in the attitude of the Catholic clergy in Latin America, Traditionally hostile to all radical ideologies and: movements, the church and the clergy have become more responsive to the need for social and economic tefomi. Many priests have actively involved themselves im radical: social. and political movements . The Non-Aligned Movement Many references’ have already been made to the tise and growth of the Non-Aligned Movemem and the iole (played by it in international. affairs, It arose at a time when many. countries, particularly of Asia and Affica, liad first’ emerged as independent States. They were deeply: interested _ in reserving their own independence and playing, an. independent tole’ in shaping the world and in speeding up the process of destruction of ‘ifnperialism. The ‘world had alréady been engulfed in thie Cold Wat: with military’ “alliances and race for weapons of destniction, which posed a threat 10 their independence as well as the survival of Aumanity. The world economic order in which they found themselves was based on gross inequalities and exploitation and the requirements of their development. made fundamental changes in the world economic order a necessity. It was in these “conditions: that the Non-Aligned Movement emerged and shaped itself. The Asien ‘Relations: Conference While the: Ne ied Movement _ was. formally “set up "[email protected] ‘the first conference of noi‘aligiied: countries was lield in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, its antecedents can be traced back: to the early post-war years ‘The leaders of the Indian freedom movement convened the Asian Relations Conference in 25.co™ imperialist. and a1 March 1947 in Delhi, At this Conference, Jawaharlgi* Nehru, who was to bécome the first Prine Minister of independent India in a few months” time, declared: “Far too long, have we of Asia been petitioriers in Western courts. and chancelleries, That story must now belong to the past. We propose to stand ‘on our own legs and to cooperate with all others who ‘are prepared 10 cooperate with us, We do not intend tobe the playthings of others... The countiies of Asia can'no longer be used as pawns by others: they are bound to have their own policies. in world affairs”. He wamed of the new. daiigers that threatened the. world and said, “The West has... driven us into wars and conflicts without number and even now, the day after a terrible war, there is talk of fuither wars in’ the atomic’ tie “that is upon us. In this. atomic age Asia will have to function effectively in die maintenance of peace” Banding Conference By the end of the 1940s, the Wester countries’ military alliance, NATO? had been setup, and. in the early 1950s.: military alliances ‘had begun to be formed in “Asia. ‘The Cold War was being extended throughout the world_leading (6 ténsions. and conflicts. In this- context “India, along with “China, enunciated the Panchsheel or the five principles of peaceful coexistence.’ These’ principles were: incorporated: in” the. preamble. to :an agreement which India and“China signed in 1954. They became iritegral tothe Non-Aligned Movement. . Many. outstanding. ieadeis, had in. Asia in the’ early 1950s "who; build the unity of and: Afri to bring aboiut _the.end of. coloni: keep” themselves: aloof from Cold Wat confrontations. In, 1955-Aimed Sil PIndonesia histed a conference of Asian and African countries 1 Bandung from 17 to 24 April, The conference was attended *nore by 29 Asian and African countries. Among the outstanding leaders who participated in this conference were Jawaharlal Nehru, China’s Prime Minister, Chou En Lai, and Gamal Abdel Nasser, then’ Prime Minister and later President, of Egypt. Although the conference was. attended: by. many countries including, Pakistan,,Jran, Iraq, the Philippines, Turkey, Thailand, who were members of US-sponsored military alliances, thé communique unani mously adoptéd at this conference’ clearly stated ideas:-which expressed some of the fundamental principles of non-alignment. The Bandung, Conference was a major milestone in the history of the Non-Aligned Movement, not esl yes.co™® 18 General Assembly in session CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY It was also the biggest conference of the countries of Asia and Africa representing half of the population of the world, Belgrade Conference From the mid-1950s, leaders of some nonaligned cotittries had started holding ‘meetings. Gradually the. idea grew that a conference of all non-aligned countries should be held, The 1960 session of the UN General Assembly. was a historic oné. Seventeen tiewly independent countries of Africa were admitted to. the United .Nations that year ‘The growing members of new nations, recently become free, brought about significant changes yes.co™my gues THE WoRLD SINCE 94s (WOT a3 DECLARATION ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER The new international economic order should be founded on full respect for the following principles: w (a) Sovereign equality of States, of territories by foros, territo States, (0) The broadest cooperation of all the States members-of the + eguity, whereby the prevailing disparities in the world may be for all. (c} Full and offective pant ‘nomic problems in the commen interest of all {0} Full permanent soversignty af every Stato over its naturalrescurce and all economic activities, h Stato i them and their exploitation with means suitable to its own situation, includ! alization or transfer of ownership to its nationals, this right being an expres 'y be subjected to economic, political orany other type orcise of this inalionable right. nd foreign oceupation, alien and colonial domi- {esttution and full sampensation for the exploitation and depletion of, and Gemages to, the natural resources and all othor resources of those Stata, trttohes and peoples, + In order to safeguard those resources, pant sovereignty of the State. Ni of cusrcion to prevent the {0 The right of all States, tert nation or apartheid f-determination of all peoples, ipation on the basis of equality of al countzies in the solving of world eco- countries, bearing in mind the necessity to ensure the accoterated development of all the developing countries, whila.devoting particular attention "te the adaption ef special measures in favour of the least developed, land-locked and island de, veloping counties most seriously affected by economic crises and natural calamities losing sight of the intsresta of other devaloping counties. (4) The tight of every country to adopt the’ seonamic and social syste that it deems the most ap-_ + propriate for its own development and not to be subjected te disciimination of any kind ao 9 re- ind peoples ui rational commufiity, based on ished and prosperity secured ithout entitled 10 exercise affective control over \Adopted-by the Gonoral Aesombly of the Unitod Netions ont May 1974) in the United. Nations which became a truly international organisatign.at: whieh, in. course . of time. almost every country in the world Was -represented At this time, when. the Process of ending colonialism: had been accelerated, the United Nations started playing Countries and. “Peoples. This historic: session of the United Nations was attended by. leaders of five leading non-aligned nations — Jawaharlal Ne~ hu of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Nasser of Egypt, Tito of ‘Yugoslavia and Nkrumah. of Ghana, They took the’ historic decision: nores of convening a conference of all non-aligned countries cin: the’ following. year: ‘The first conference: of Heads of State or Governments of non-aligned countries was held at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, from 1 to 6 September 1961. It was .atiended by 25 countries as’ full members. ‘These miezhber countries: ‘were ‘Afghanistal, Algeria, Burina (now Myaninan), ia’ Sri. (Zaite), Cuba, Cyprus, Ethiopia’. Guinea, India, Indonesia, Inag, the’ Yebanon, Mali, Moracco, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, ‘Sudan, Tunisia, United Arab Republic (then comprising Egypt and Syria), Yemen and- ‘Yugoslavia. (Algeria had not. yet’ becomia independent ‘but the ‘provisional 'gavernsiient clues com2a set up by the FLN was admitted as a full member, as later SWAPO and PLO were admitted as full members.) The conference adopted a declaration which stated that “the Principles “of peacefiul coexistence are the only alternative to the ‘Cold War’ and to a Possible general catastrophe” and that lasting Peace would be achieved only in “a world where the. domination of. colonialism, impe-. tiatism and neocolonialism in all their manifestations is radically eliminated”. The conference also addressed letters to Nikita Khrushchev, the Prime Minister of the Soviet Union,:and John F. Kennedy, the President of the United States, and urged them to fesume negotiations. aimed at reducing, the risk of war and at ensuring peace. Basic Objectives ‘The basic objectives of the Non-Aligned ‘Movement were laid down at the first conference itself. Some of these. objectives were later elaborated and: made’ more ‘specific, The ‘most important objectives included ending, of impe- rialism and colénialism, promotion of interna tional peace’. aii security and disarmament, creation of a‘ New Intemational Economic Order, ending a€racism and racial discrimination, and ending of information imperialism. During the past thirty-four years, the membership. of the Non-Aligned’ Movement has increased to.109, (South Africa became the 109th member in 1994.) Almost. all of them are. members of the United. Nations and thus constitute about two-thirds of the otal membership of the United Nations. All countries: of Africa are. members of the- Non-Aligned: Movement. ‘The. Charter of ‘the Organisation of African Unity has as one of if principles. “Affinnation of a Policy of aonealignment with regard to all blocs’. Ten Sulnmit . conferences of the Nom-Aligned Movement have beer held: Belgrade (1961), Cairo (1964), Lusaka (1970), Algiers (1973), Colombo (1976), Havana (1979), Delhi(1983), Harare (1986), Belgiade (1989) and Jakarta nores pores 25.co™ CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY (1992). At the Fourth Summit conference held at Algiers, it was decided to establish a Coordinating Bureau which’ was later Charged with the task of coordinating their Joint activities aimed at the implementation of the programmes adopted at the summit conferences,’ at ministerial conferences, at meetings .of groups of non-aligned countries in the United Nations and at other meetings of the ‘non-aligned countries’ There were doubts about the relevance and future -of the Non-Aligned ‘Movement after the Cold War ended. These doubts were set at rest at the Tenth Summit held at Jakarta in 1992, This was the first summit which was held in the new world situation. The Tenth Summit, as the Jakarta Message adopted by theHeads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Movement stated, was held at “2 time of profound change and Tapid transition, a time of great promise as well aS grave challenge, a time of opportunity amidst pervasive uncertainty”. It stressed that the improvements in the international political climate had vindicated the validity and elevance of. non-alignment, Pointing out that the world was “still far from ‘being a peaceful, just and secure. place", it stated, “Simmering disputes, violent conflicts, aggression and foreign occupation, inter- ference in the internal. affairs-“of States, policies of hegemony and domination, ethinic strife, religious ‘intolerance, new forms of racism and narrowly conceived nationalism are major and dangerous obstacles to harmonious coexistence among, States’ and peoples and have even’led to the disitite- ration of States and sociéties.”” The Message Teiterated the commitment of the Non: Aligned Movement™to the. shaping::of a ‘Rew international order, free from war, poverty, intolerance arid: injustice, a world based on the principles of peaceful coex- istence. and genuine interdependence, a. World which takes into. accouint the diversity ‘of social systems and. cultures”. clues com\ues cor Cl THE WORLD SINCE 1943 pores as 10, i 12. 13, 14. 1s. i. 17. 18. EXERCISES “* * Describe the main features of the World after 1945 which make it very different from the world before the Second World War, . ‘What is meant by ‘Cold War’ 2 Describe the developments between 1945. and 1950 which led to the ‘Cold War", jes int WY the Truman’ Doctine and the policy of “rinkmanship' 7 Explain with What was the position of Korea at the time of Japsn’s Surrender? Describe the developments in Korea from 1948 to 1954, . Ratibe the main developinents if the-hiitery of Vietamn from 1945 to 1975 Byhen did'the State of Israel come into being? Discuss tre rele it has played from the time FrEinise @ discussion on the following themes: Has the Cold ‘War finally come to an end? Has, the world entered an era of peace ? TORR were the main objectives of the forcign polity of the United States of America’ after 19452 Describe with examples, their ‘significance, “ , Describe the role played bythe Non“Aliemed Movimest in World affairs, Do you think the world is on the threshold of ssn era? Discuss in the light of recent developments in differént parts of the world as Rapstibe the niin features of the system of apantheid and the developments that led to its collapse in South Africa,corm xesclues 26 no CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY 25. What. in your view, are the most important developments that have taken place in the world during the past five years? Give reasons why you consider them important. 26 Prepare or procure outline, maps of Asis, Africa, Europe, the Americas and the world. and show on the relevant maps the following: (@~ Member countries of SAARC, ASEAN, the European Community and the Commonwealth; (countries. of Europe where the rule of Communist paities hat ended: Gii) States of former USSR, with: the present name of cach of them; and iv) main centres of tension. and conflict in the world today.,(Also write brief nétes on why. you:consider them centres of tension and cénflict) corn not esclue*az ONVTURZLIMS ? VINYOHLN “om on not esclues © GE64-9E6) | Notssaupoy NvwuaDnot esc not esc e5.com e5.comnares yisv NISN OISSASSOd IVI NOT 9 not esclues cornnot esc not esc e5.com e5.com