Review On Related Literature
Review On Related Literature
A. Theoritical Description
1. Definition of Reading
Reading is one of the skills that must be mastered by every
people in this world. Through reading people can get knowledge and a
lot of information. Many definition of reading can be found from a
variety of references. According to (Spratt et al., (2005: 21) in
Kurnianto 2016) Reading is an activity in which readers to respond to
make and sense of a text being read which is connected to their prior
knowledge The activity is done by the readers as they want to get
information and knowledge from the text. In this process, the readers
try to connect what they read in the form of written language to what
they have already known about the text. Making sense of a text is
done by understanding meaning of words, sentences, and even text.
On the other hand Reading is decoding and understanding
written texts. Decoding requires translating the symbols of writing
system (including Braille) into the spoken words which they represent.
Understanding is determined by the purposes for reading, the context,
the nature of the text, and the readers’ strategies and knowledge (Cline
et.al (2006: 2).
Penny UR (1996) in Syafniar (2014: 5) stated that reading
is translating written symbols into corresponding sounds. We may
know it is reading aloud. Furthermore, according to Strang reading is
not seeing words clearly, or just pronouncing printed words correctly,
but also reading requires us to think, feel and use imagination. For
example, when we read a novel, we have to feel how the character is,
and also imagine how setting is in the story.
Grabe and Stoller (2002: 9) defined reading as the ability to
draw meaning from printed page and interpret this information
appropriately. He admitted that the definition about reading is still
simple, it needs elaboration to understand the true nature of reading.
Meanwhile Kozak (2011: 7) elaborated the reading as follow:
1) A skill which enables us to get message;
2) Recognizing the written words (written symbols);
3) Getting (understanding) the meaning;
4) Used to teach pronunciation;
5) Grasping information from texts.
From the explanation above we can conclude that reading is
given in teaching learning process. Reading also can be instrument to
assess pronunciation in teaching learning process as we can see in
point fourth. In addition, kozak stated that reading is complex activity
that involves both perception and thought. Reading consist of two
related process: word recognition and comprehension. Word
recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbols
correspond to one;s spoken language. Comprehension is the process of
making sense of words, sentences, and connected text. Reader
typically make us of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical
knowledge, experience with the text and other strategies to help them
understand written text.
The researcher conclude that the reading is an activity of
getting meaning of the text in the printed form, and to get the meaning
we must have the background of knowledge.
6. Process of Reading
According to Simanjuntak (1988: 7) there are three models
of the reading process. They are:
1) Bottom-up Model
Eskey in Simanjuntak (1988: 7) stated that the bottom-up model of
the reading process is that “Reading is a precise process involving
exact, detailed, sequential perceptions and identification of letters,
words, spelling patterns and larger language units”. This model
assumes that a reader process by moving his eyes from left to right
across the page, first taking in letters, combining these from words,
the combining the words to form the phrases, clauses, and sentence
of the text.
2) Top-down Model
The top-down model of the reading process deals with the general
notion of reading as the reconstruction of meaning based on a
skillful sampling of the text, and such specific notions as the use of
linguistic redundancy, the crucial role of prior knowledge in
prediction, and the necessity for reading at a reasonable rate in
larger, more meaningful chunks of text. This model involves an
interaction between thought and language. Efficient reading does
not result from precise perceptions and identification of all
elements, but from in selecting the fewest, most productive cues
necessary to produce guesses. According to Carell and Eisterhold
in Simanjuntak (1988: 7) stated that top-down processing occurs as
they system makes general predictions based on higher level,
general schemata and then searches the input of information. From
the above explanation, it is clear that top-down model, the process
of comprehension deals with the background knowledge to predict
the meaning of the text. It means that reader will read a text by
reading the sentences, then tries to find information by guessing
the meaning.
3) Interactive Model
According to Simanjuntak (1988: 7) says that the interactive model
of the reading process deals with a particular type of cognitive
behavior, which is based on certain kinds of knowledge which
form a part of the readers cognitive structure.
7. Type of Reading
According to Brown (2004: 189) stated that there are four
types of reading, those are:
a. Perceptive
This type of reading is elementary level of reading. The task
include the components such as letters, words, punctuation, and
graphic symbols. The task designed for this level are such as
reading aloud, multiple choice and picture-cued word.
b. Selective
The function of this type of reading is to ascertain recognition of
lexical, grammatical, or discourse features of language. The task
used are for instance picture-cued tasks, matching, and multiple
choices.
c. Interactive
It stretches of language of several paragraphs to one page or more
in which the reader must interact with the text. Typical genres for
interactive reading are anecdotes, short narratives and descriptions,
excerpts from longer texts, questioner, memos, announcements,
directions, recipes, etc.
d. Extensive
This category applies to text more than a page, including
professional articles, essays, technical reports, short stories and
reports. The purpose of extensive task commonly is to tap into
learner’s global understanding of a text, as opposed to asking test-
takers to pay more attention on small details.
B. Language Testing
a. Definiton of Test
In conducting an effective Teaching Learning Process
(TLP), there are some matters that should be concerned. They are the
teacher, curriculum, syllabus, method, facility, material, class
atmosphere, test, in etc. test is one of the matters that will be focused
in this study.
There are several definitions of the test in the academic
book or research. According to Tinambunan (1988: 3), a test is a set of
questions, each of which has a correct answer, that examines usually
answer orally or in writing. Thoha (1996) stated that test is a
measurement tool that organized by questions, command, and
directions for the test to get response or answer appropriate by that
directions. According to Arifin (2002: 118) test is a technique or way
consisting of some questions, statements, or tasks that are delivered to
students in term of measuring their performance or behavior.
Moreover, Brown (2003: 3) defined test as a method of measuring a
person’s ability knowledge or performance in a given information.
Based on definitions mentioned above, the researcher
concluded that test is a method or equipment contained of questions,
commands and directions in which each of those has a correct answer
in order to gain data of test taker’s ability, knowledge and performance
in a particular given domain.
b. Purposes of Test
According to Lado (1960), the purpose of language testing
is to test control of the problem of learning a new language.
Furthermore, Mardhapi (in Fathony, 2017: 11) classified the purposes
of test as follows:
1) Understanding the level of student’s knowledge
2) Measure the development and growth of the students
3) Diagnostic learning’s difficulties of students
4) Understanding the output of teaching process
5) Understanding the output of learning process
6) Understanding the curriculum’s reach
7) Encourage the students on study
8) Encourage the teachers to teach better
c. Types of Test
1) Types of test based on the use of measuring the students’ ability
According to Arikunto (2005:33), test is viewed from its
use in measuring the students’ ability. They are:
a) Diagnostic test
Diagnostic test is a kind of test used to identify students’
weakness in learning. Thus by knowing weakness of students,
teachers are able to give a proper treatment to develop their
learning. In addition, using diagnostic test can also help students
to be conscious about their weakness so that they can improve
their learning better.
b) Formative test
Formative test is a test that is conducted after one unit or one
lesson finished given by the teacher. So, the teacher gives a test
after one chapter or unit of lesson have been taught. By
conducting formative test, teachers can acknowledge how far
students’ understanding toward the material given. Then,
teachers can decide what they should do in the next material.
c) Summative test
Summative test is a test that is conducted after all units are
finished given by the teacher. Summative test is very related to
formative test because it is included unit of formative test
material. This test is conducted at the end of semester.
Summative test is used to determine whether students’ succes in
education, because the material of the test is all of the units that
have been discussed throughout one semester.
2) Subjective test
Subjective test is the test that the scoring is subjective only, it is
impossible that the scoring can be objective. In subjective test, the
students have to answer based on their knowledge which they got
using their words to their writing. The teacher will score the test
based on students’ answer and of course the scoring will depend on
the teacher’s perspective.
The characteristic of the questions usually begin with: why,
how, conclude, mention, explain, describe, etc. The students’ answer
will not only focus on whether it is true or false, but it depends of
complete or incomplete the answer is. By conducting subjective test,
teacher can measure and determine how far and deep students’
mastery over material given by teacher.
There are four kinds of subjective test, they are:
a) Essay test
Essay test is a form of question that demand of students’
answer in front of description of their own language (Suwandi,
2009: 47). In the type of this test, rather than choice the correct
answer, the students supply their answer themselves. The
students are given freedom to express and answer the question,
which can be in the form of descriptive or argumentative.
Example:
What is your opinion about home schooling? Please explain
your opinion briefly!
b) Test using question word
This test consists of questions which stated with question
word.
Example:
Which one should Andy choose?
c) Short answer test
The test is consisting of items which design used question
word, generally used Wh Question words.
Examples:
When is Ana birthday?
Where will the students go on June eighth?
C. Text Type/Genre
According to Anderson & Anderson (1997: 1) in Atika: 2017, based on
generic structure and language feature dominantly used, texts are divided
into several types. They are narrative, recount, descriptive, report,
explanation, analytical, exposition, hortatory exposition, procedure
discussion, review, anecdote, spoof, and news item. These variation are
known as genre.
1. Narrative
The purpose is to amuse or entertain the readers and to tell a story.
Generic structures are orientation, complication, resolution and
reorientation. Dominant language features are past tense, action verb
and chronological arranged.
2. Recount
The purpose is to retell something that happened in the past and to tell
a series of past event. Generic structure are orientation, events and re-
orientation. Language features usually are past tense, action verb and
adjective.
3. Descriptive
The purpose is to describe a particular person, place or thing in detail.
Dominant generic structure are identification and description.
Language features are simple present tense, action verb, adverb and
special technical terms.
4. Report
The purpose is to present information about something. Generic
structures are general identification and description. Language features
are introducing group or general aspect, using conditional logical
connection and using simple present tense.
5. Explanation
The purpose is to explain the process involved in the information or
working of natural or socio-cultural phenomenon. Generic structure are
general statement, explanation and closing. Dominant language
features are using simple present tense, action verb, passive voice,
noun phrase, adverbial phrase, technical terms, general and abstract
noun and conjunction of time and cause-effect.
6. Analytical Exposition
The purpose is to reveal the readers that something is the important
case. Generic structure are thesis, argument and reorientation or
conclusion. Language features are using modals, action verb, thinking
verbs, adverbs, adjective, technical terms, general and abstract noun
and connectives transition.
7. Hortatory Exposition
The purpose is to persuade the readers that something should or should
not be the case or be done. Generic structure are thesis, arguments and
recommendation. Dominant language features are using simple present
tense, modals, action verbs, thinking verbs, adverbs, adjective,
technical terms, general and abstract noun and connectives/transition.
8. Procedure
The procedure is to help readers how to do or make something
completely. Generic structure are goal/aim, materials and steps.
Dominant language features are using simple present tense,
imperatives sentence, adverb and technical terms.
9. Discussion
The purpose is to present information and opinions about issues in
more one side of an issue. Generic structure are issue, argument for
and against, and conclusion. dominant language features are using
simple present tense, use of relating verb/ to be, thinking verb, general
and abstract noun, conjunction transition, modality and adverb of
manner.
10. Review
The purpose is to critique or evaluate an art work or event for a public
audience. Dominant generic structures orientation, evaluation,
interpretative recount, evaluation and evaluate summation. Dominant
language features are focus on specific participants, using objective,
long and complex clauses and methapor.
11. Anecdote
The purpose is to share with others an account of an unusual or
amusing incident. Generic structures are abstract, orientation, crisis,
reaction and coda. Language features are using exclamations,
rhetorical question or intensifiers, material process and temporal
conjunctions.
12. Spoof
The purpose is to tell an event a humorous twist and entertain the
readers. Generic structure are orientation, events and twist. Dominant
language features are using past tense, action verb, adverb and
chronologically arranged.
13. New Item
The purpose is to inform readers about event of the day which are
considered newsworthy or important. Dominant generic structures are
short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline, using
action verb, saying verbs and adverbs of time, place and manner.
In this study, the researcher will be analyze the genre that should be
taught to the eight year of Junior High School based on syllabus
curriculum, namely; narrative, descriptive and recount.
D.Textbook
1. Definition of Textbook
Textbook is the most frequently used of all printed educational
materials. In such case, textbooks are only used as the supplementary
material. However, the teachers select textbooks and use them in their
classes (Ur, 1991). In other words, in some situation, textbook is used
selectively and it is used to as supplementary materials in the English
course program. Therefore, it is important to clarify the definition on
what it is called as a textbook.
Textbook is a book giving instruction in a subject, used especially
in schools, etc. according to Thomson, “the textbook is a stimulus or
instrument for teaching and learning. Mudzakir (2014) stated that a
textbook is complemented with student work. As he mentioned in his
journal, textbook along with many other names is commonly used by
educational institution or school and is usually provided with exercise
and teaching materials.
The standard of students works in a textbook or course book usually
suitable with students knowledge competence, as Cunningsworth
describe, that a published textbook has commonly passed several
qualification test from publisher in a controlled pilot studies before it is
released to public. In line with Cunningworth’s statement above,
Gebhard implied that a minimum an exercise in EFL/ESL textbook
created by publishing companies, government agencies, curriculum
development teams at the school labels, and classroom teacher.
Based on the definitions above, it is important for teachers to use a
textbook when they teach a particular subject in order to help them
when they conduct teaching and learning activities as well as to reach
educational purposes.
3. Supporting materials.
In this criteria of feasibility of content which is supporting
materials, the criteria was divided into three sub criteria which are
Up-to-Datedness, Development of life skills and Development of
Diversity Insight.
a. Up-to-Datedness
In this criteria, every item in supporting the materials and
exercise provided within the textbook (Tables, Pictures, Texts,
References) should be taken from a relevance and newest sources
available.
b. Development of Life Skills
In this criterion, every text and communicative exercise and task
available within textbook should motivate students toward a
good personalities that concern about social, academic and
vocational life.
a. Diversity Insight
In this criterion, every text and communicative exercise and task
available within textbook should motivate students toward a good
citizen that concern, understand and appreciate the multicultural
diversity.
b. Feasibility of Language.
2. Communicative.
In this criterion of feasibility of language which is
Communicative, the criterion was divided into two sub criteria
which are Readability of message and The Accuracy of language
uses.
a. Readability of message
In this criterion, any kinds of language used both in exercise and
describing concept of teaching used as effectively as
possible and minimizing ambiguities of message so students
will be motivated in learning.
b. Accuracy of Language uses
In this criterion, any kinds of language used both in exercise and
describing concept of teaching used as effectively as
possible and consistent in language uses so students will be
motivated in learning.
3. The Coherency and the Integrity of idea
In this criteria of feasibility of language which is the
coherency and the integrity of idea, the criteria was divided into two
sub criteria which are Coherency of the Chapter and Coherency of
the paragraph.
a. Coherency of Paragraph.
In this criterion, the language delivering of text, picture and
illustration of paragraph in the textbook displayed in a well
arranged and systematical manner in order to create a coherent
and cohesive paragraph.
b. Coherency of Chapter.
In this criterion, the language delivering of text, picture and
illustration between each chapter are close in understanding from
one to another. Therefore, it would create a logic and
systematical arrangement.
c. Feasibility of Presentation.
1. Technique of presentation.
a. Systematic
In this criterion, textbook are expected to be systematic in
delivering a chapter, starting with introduction, body and after
that closing in order for students to be encouraged in learning
from the book.
b. Chapter Equilibrium
In this criterion, textbook are expected to deliver the content of a
chapter as equal as possible started from the number of pages,
exercise generated within every chapter and also illustration that
equal within every content of chapter.
2. Learning presentation.
a. Learner Center
In this criterion, textbook are expected to make students as the
subject of learning so that autonomous learning will occurs. The
materials and exercises are supposed to be attractive and
interactive at the same time.
b. Developing of Initiative, Creativity, and learners' critical thinking
In this criterion, textbook are expected make students to be
motivated and creative so when they use the textbook they will
be skeptical about “how, why, where, when etc”. It will make
students to be comprehensively motivated to learn more.
c. The Development of self-Reliance students
In this criterion, textbook are expected to make students curious
and autonomous on what they learn, expecting them to analyze
what they learn so than they will encouraged toward
discovering new things and knowledge.
d. The Development of Learners' ability to evaluate themselves
In this criterion, textbook are expected to encourage students to
evaluate themselves, to see how far they have learned from a
chapter, and to review the lesson learned from a chapter. It will
encourage them to develop their understanding toward the
relevance with every exercises or text within textbook.
3. Completeness of presentation.
a. Introduction part.
In this criterion, textbook are expected to develop sufficient
introduction part of a textbook which consists of the Preface and
table of content of the textbook.
b. Content part.
In this criterion, textbook are expected to develop sufficient
content part which consists of introduction, illustrations (tables,
picture etc), summary along with self reflection, and the last is
exercises.
c. Closing part.
In this criterion, textbook are expected to develop sufficient
closing part which consists of Glossary, References and Indexes.