Book 2 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
HAND TOOLS

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7.3 ISSUE 04 0111

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Machine tools 1
Hand tools 5
Hammers 5
Punches 6
Pliers 7
Screwdrivers 8
Spanners 9
Hacksaws 12
Hand files 13
Vices 16
Chisels 19
Scrapers 20
Drill bits 21
Taps 23
Dies 26
Reamers 28
Rules – measuring 30
Dividers 30
Trammels 30
Scribers 31
The fitter’s square 31
The combination set 32
Callipers 33
Surface plates 33
Marking-off table 33
Vee blocks 34
Scribing block 34
Key seat rule 35
Marking out 36
Precision measuring equipment 38
The micrometer 38
The vernier 45
The dial test indicator (DTI) 54
Bore gauge 55
Feeler gauges 56
Radius gauges 56
Screw pitch gauges 56
Wire gauge 57
Slip gauges 57
Sine bars 58
Limit gauges 60
The spirit level 61
Adjustable level 61
Clinometer 62
Powered hand tools 63
Torque loading 66
Torque wrenches 69
Tensiometers 74
The dead weight tester 76
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book is reasonably straight forward and with some students will be revision from
their days on basic training. However, the contents should be studied and learnt –
particularly the subject of precision instruments. Ideally check out each
tool/instrument – using your own tool kit or tools from the tool store. This is
important when dealing with precision instruments.

Practice as often as you can on micrometers (English and metric – non-digital) and
verniers (English and metric – 24/25 and 49/50 systems – non-digital). Make sure
you can read the various instruments and name the parts. When checking the
readings get some one to verify your readings and if necessary take practice readings
on components several times using both micrometers and verniers for the same
reading. You can always check your readings using a digital instrument.

There should be no need to commit to memory much detail concerning Machine Tools
but a good understanding is required for all other tools including Power Tools.

Refer to book 3 in this series on the care, use and calibration of tools and equipment.
 MACHINE TOOLS

The Lathe

Used for turning, facing, drilling and thread cutting. On modern production lines they
are automatic and controlled by computers.

The part to be worked on is placed in the chuck and when turned is shaped using a
variety of lathe cutting tools. Operated by qualified machine tool setters and operators
the lathe can be used on a variety of materials including wood, composites and
metals.

Guards should be fitted when in operation.

Fig. 1 THE LATHE

Fig. 2 DRILLING MACHINE OR PILLAR DRILL

-1-
The Pillar Drill

Can be used by less experienced personnel to drill holes in a variety of materials. May
have a selection of drilling speeds either by the use of a selector lever or by changing
the belt on the pulley drive system from the electric motor to the drilling pillar. Feed
rates usually depend on the operator but may be automatic on some machines.

The part to be drilled should be firmly gripped in a clamp (never held by the fingers),
and the guard must be in place.

Milling Machine

Requires a skilled person to operate and may be a horizontal or vertical milling

machine. A horizontal mill is shown and is used for milling down metal to a close
tolerance and good surface finish.

The part to be milled in clamped to the moving table which moves back and forth
under the cutting head with a height adjustment after each pass.

Fig. 3 MILLING MACHINE

Grinding Machine (Not shown)

Similar to a milling machine but will grind to closer tolerances and a better finish.
Centre-less grinding produces the most accurate dimensions and is used for the
production of close tolerance matched cylinders and pistons (injectors).

Grinding Machine – Bench Type – or Off-Set Grinder

Most workshops and hangars have a grinding machine; the most common type is the
double-ended bench machine with coarse and fine abrasive wheels or stones.

Tool rests are fitted in front of each wheel to support the item being ground. Guards
are also fitted and the user must wear goggles.

-2-
Tools being sharpened can be ruined if allowed to ‘lose their temper’ by overheating.
The item being sharpened must be dipped in water or oil to keep the tip cool
(depending on the type of wheel).

When grinding, move the item being ground from side to side to avoid forming ridges
on the wheel, never use the side of the wheel.

From time to time the wheel will have to be ‘dressed’. That is, cleaned up and made
flat. This is carried out using a special dressing wheel and must be performed by a
qualified person.

Safety Precautions

* ALWAYS wear protective goggles when using a grinding machine.

* Make sure the tool rests are as close to the wheel as possible, but not
touching.
* Do not grind soft metals or materials such as aluminium, brass,
magnesium etc.
* The wheel should be dressed from time to time by a qualified person.

Fig. 4 OFF HAND GRINDING MACHINE

The Guillotine

Used for cutting sheet steel, aluminium, rigid composites, etc. Some machines may be
small enough to be fitted to a bench, others are self standing.

The guard allows only thin gauge metal to be cut and helps to prevent fingers from
being caught by the blade. Some machines have a double safety device fitted in the
form of two levers. These are placed so that both hands must be used to operate them
whilst one foot is used to operate the blade. If the levers are not operated the foot
pedal is locked.

Folding Machine

Folds metals ductile/malleable enough to be bent. Great care is needed to ensure that
the metal being folded is not cracked in the process. The counterbalance weights on
the machine allow for the considerable weight of the folding blade.

-3-
 Fig. 5 GUILLOTINE

Fig. 6 FOLDING MACHINE

Fig. 7 FLY PRESS

-4-
Fly Press

Used to stamp out small sheet metal parts by a downward force of the stamping head.
When the handle is pulled round the masses give the system momentum and the
male die can be wound down quickly into the female die so pressing out a shape in
sheet metal.

HAND TOOLS

There is a vast range of hand tools and following is a description of the most of those
in common use.

HAMMERS

Classified by weight and type of head. Conventional hammerheads are forged from
high carbon steels with faces hardened and tempered. Shafts are made from straight-
grained ash or plastic.

Some hammerheads are made from copper, plastic, rubber or leather. These heads
are designed to allow a part to be hit without causing any damage to the part.

When using a hammer always ensure that the correct hammer is used and that the
head is secure. Hold the handle at the position farthest away from the head.

The main types are:

Ball Pein - The flat surface is used for most general work - the ball pain being used
for peening.

Cross Pein - The pein is at right angles to the shaft. Used for general work, the
cross pein being suitable for use where access to the working area is limited
(knocking in a small nails held by the fingers, for example).

Straight Pein – The pein is inline with shaft and usage similar to the cross pein.

Nylon Faced - Used to deliver blows to the work without damaging the
surface.

Copper or Lead - Similar to the nylon faced hammer in terms of application.

Fig. 8 TYPES OF HAMMERS

-5-
PUNCHES

Centre Punch. Made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. Used for making
pop marks for indentation to locate the point of a drill at the start of the drilling
operation. A sharp point should be maintained by grinding, the angel should be 90°
for general work and for light work such as marking out etc should be reduced to 60°.

Remember that titanium should not be centre punched as it sets up high internal
stresses.

Pin Punches – Parallel and Tapered. Are both made of high carbon steel- hardened
and tempered. Punches are used with a hammer to localise hammer blows.

The parallel pin punch is used to drive out rivets, (after head removal), bolts, split
pins, shackle pins etc. Always use the correct size punch and never use a tapered
punch, as this will tend to enlarge the hole.

The tapered punch is used to deliver a blow to a part where access to a hammerhead
would be difficult.

Hollow Punch. Sometimes called a Hole Punch and is used to make small holes in soft
materials such as leather etc. The slot in the side of the punch allows for removal of
the hole centres.

Rivet Punches. Usually called Set-ups, Snaps etc.

Set-ups, Dollies and Snaps are used in the forming of snap-head rivets. These are
covered in more detail in the books on riveting.

Fig. 9 THE CENTRE PUNCH

Drifts. These are flat ended punches either solid or tubular, which are used for
localising the effect of hammer blows and preventing damage to finished surfaces.
Also used for dismantling and assembling tight fitting parts. Drifts are made from
copper, brass, steel or aluminium alloy. Steel drifts only should be used to drive ball
or roller bearings as softer drifts may break and fragments from the drift could lodge
in the bearing. Ends must be clean and any damage/burrs removed.

-6-
 Fig. 10 PUNCHES

PLIERS

There are various types of pliers, each designed for a specific use, eg

Combination. Can be used to hold round or flat material and have cutting edges
for cutting split pins, locking wire etc.

Flat Nose. Used to hold items where access is limited.

Snip or Round Nose. For twisting locking wire.

Fig. 11 TYPES OF PLIERS

Diagonal or Side Cutting. Used for cutting soft wire and split pins.

Cable Stripping. For removing the insulation from electrical cables.

-7-
Circlip Pliers. Used for removing/refitting circlips, internal and external.

Pliers are classified by type and overall length, usually made of high carbon steel with
the jaws hardened and tempered.

SCREW DRIVERS

Common or flat bladed. Blade made of high carbon or alloy steel the end being ground
flat to fit the slot cut in the head of the screw. The handle is made of wood or plastic.
Classified by length of blade.

Ratchet. Usually flat bladed. Has a selector to allow for the ratchet to be locked or set
for screw removal or screw fitment.

Watchmaker’s. Has a long thin blade with a flat plastic handle. Used for smaller
screws such as in electrical work.

Fig. 12 SCREWDRIVERS

Pump Screwdriver. Pump operated on the Archimedes principle. Pushing or pumping

the handle turns the screwdriver via the screw mechanism. May be selected to lock or
screw in or screw out.

Phillips. Blade head has a cruciform shape tapered to the correct angle. The end is
machined with four tapered flutes that provide correct engagement with the slots and
faces of the cruciform recessed head of the screw.

Electric. These are usually battery powered and are re-chargeable. Bits are supplied of
different sizes and shapes that fit into a chuck or adapter. The electric motor can be
controlled in such a way that provides for a varying speed and torque output.

-8-
All screw slots or recess should be cleared of paint or dirt before applying the
screwdriver head and the shaft of the screwdriver should be aligned with the screw
during use. Blade fit in the screw is most important otherwise the screw head will be
damaged making removal or tightening difficult. Use correct size screwdriver and
never grind the flat blade to a chisel head.

Fig. 13 TYPES OF BLADE

SPANNERS

These are supplied in a variety of forms and have the size marking stamped on them.
This size relates to the size of nut or bolt to which it fits, eg

¼ BSF
⅜ BSW
0 BA etc.

or, which is common, the spanner is marked with the across flats size, eg

32mm
⅞” etc

This size relates to the distance across the flats of the nut or bolt.

Open-Ended Spanners . Made of high carbon steel with a different size at each end.
The length of the spanner is indicative of the torque to be applied to the nut/bolt
(based on the strength of the average person). The greater the size, the longer the
spanner. This rule also applies to ring spanners.

Ring Spanners. These give full enclosure to the bolt head or nut. Each corner fits
snugly with an angle in the aperture of the spanner and is usually bi-hexagonal to
facilitate its use when angular movement is restricted. Supplied in double-ended form
to fit nuts of consecutive sizes, the ends are generally off set but straight shank types
are available.

-9-
 Fig. 14 OPEN-ENDED SPANNER

Fig. 15 RING SPANNER

Box Spanners. These also fully enclose the nut or bolt head and are particularly
useful where access to the nut or bolt head is restricted to the centre line of the screw
axis – automobile spark plugs for example.

Fig. 16 BOX SPANNER WITH TOMMY BAR

Socket Spanners. These are used with various types of attachments and again this
type of spanner fully encloses the nut or bolt head. The socket aperture is bi-
hexagonal at one end and at the other end the aperture is square to take the various
attachments. Attachments can include: extension bar; drive bar; T bar; universal
joint; flexible extension bar and reversible ratchet. Socket spanners are usually
supplied in sets complete with the requisite attachments.

‘C’ Spanners. Used on ring nuts with recesses cut round the circumference to
accommodate the lug on the spanner.

Peg Spanners. Two round pegs protruding from the flat surface engage in
corresponding holes in special nut or screw plates.

Splined Spanners. For use on circular splined nuts.

Adjustable Spanners. These are supplied in various forms and should not be used if
the correct size ‘ordinary’ spanner is available.

- 10 -
Fig. 17 SOCKETS & ATTACHMENTS

Fig. 18 ‘C’ SPANNER

Fig. 19 PEG SPANNER

Fig. 20 SPLINED SPANNER

- 11 -
 Fig. 21 ADJUSTABLE SPANNER

Torque Spanners. These will be dealt with in more detail under the heading Torque
Loading. In most instances a socket is used to fit the square drive of the torque
spanner.

HACKSAWS

These are designed to cut most types of metals and other hard materials. They
usually consist of a frame, handle and removable blade.

The frame is made of mild steel and may be of fixed length or adjustable length to suit
various lengths of blades. The blade is usually located on two pins – one at each end
of the frame.

There are two main types of blade:

(i) High carbon flexible steel, hardened and tempered.

(ii) High Speed Steel, contains 14% tungsten. Remains sharp over a longer
period but is more brittle and expensive.

Blades are classified by their length, material and number of teeth per inch (pitch).
The number of teeth per inch varies from 14 (coarse) to 32 (fine). Normal blade
lengths are 8 inches (203mm), 10 inches (254mm) and 12 inches (305mm) but other
lengths are available.

Fig. 22 CUTTING THICK & THIN MATERIAL

The choice of blade depends on the type of material to be cut. Soft metals (eg
brass, aluminium etc) require coarse pitch blades. Hard metals (eg iron and steel)
require fine pitch blades.

The shape and thickness of the material must also be considered. At least three
teeth must be in contact with the material at any time, therefore, fine blades must
always be used for tubing and thin metals.

- 12 -
QUESTION List the checks and precautions to take when using a hacksaw? (10
mins)

ANSWER There are lots of checks and precautions to take. Some are:

(a) Choose the correct type of blade.

(b) Choose the correct length of blade with the correct pitch (teeth
per inch - tpi).
(c) Fit the blade to the frame with the teeth pointing away from the
handle.
(d) Tension the blade correctly by taking up the slack then
applying two or three turns of the wing nut.
(e) Make sure that the work is secured in the vice.
(f) Use long steady strokes using the whole length of the blade
releasing the pressure on the back stroke.

Other Types of Metal Cutting Saws

Junior Hacksaw. Uses a small flexible blade usually with 32tpi. It is used for general
light work where a standard hacksaw would be too large. The blades have pins at
each end, which fit into slots in the frame. Tension is applied by the elasticity of the
frame.

Piercing Saw. Uses a very fine (32 – 80tpi) blade. The frame is deeper than the Junior
Hacksaw and it is used for cutting intricate shapes in sheet metal.

Coping Saw. Uses a coarse (14tpi) blade. The blade fits in a frame similar to the
Junior Hacksaw but it can be swivelled to any angle and is used for cutting shapes in
soft materials such as wood.

Tension Files (eg Abrafiles). The blades are made from a specially heat-treated flexible
steel wire with small burrs cut into them and using links they can be fitted to a
standard hacksaw frame. They are useful for cutting intricate shapes as they can cut
in any direction and do not clog. Blades are obtainable in three grades:

* Fine
* Medium
* Coarse

HAND FILES

Used for the removal of metal to an accuracy of plus or minus about 0.001”
(0.025mm) – with skill.

Files are made from High Carbon Steel and consist of the body, which is hardened
and tempered, and a tang which is left relatively soft. A handle is fitted, usually made
from wood (Beech or Ash) and a ferrule made from steel or brass. The ferrule prevents
the wooden handle from splitting. Some files are supplied already fitted with a plastic
handle.

- 13 -
 Fig. 23 A HAND FILE

Classification

Files are classified by length, cut, section and grade.

Length This is the length of the file excluding the tang.

Section This is the cross-section of the file:

(a) Flat – Usually a double cut file and is used for general work.
Sometimes one edge is left without teeth to permit working
against a finished surface.

(b) Half Round – This file tapers towards the tip. One surface is flat
and the other is curved. It is a general purpose file which can also
be used for filing concave surfaces. It is double cut on both sides.

Fig. 24 FLAT FILE

Fig. 25 HALF ROUND FILE

(c) Triangular or Three Square – This file has three sides each at 60°
to the others. It tapers towards the tip and is used for filing in
awkward corners and angles less than 90°. It is double cut on all
surfaces.

(d) Square – Used for slotting, grooving and finishing square edges. It
tapers for part of its length and is double cut on all surfaces.

Fig. 26 THREE SQUARE FILE

- 14 -
 Fig. 27 SQUARE FILE

(e) Round – Used for filing out concave surfaces and holes. Usually
double cut and tapering towards the end. Small round files are
sometimes called ‘rat tails’.

Fig. 28 ROUND FILE

Cut

This denotes the type of teeth.

(a) Single Cut – Used mainly on hard metals. The teeth are formed by a
series of cuts parallel to each other but at a small angle.

(b) Double Cut – Are the most widely used. They have two series of cuts
which cross each other, one series being coarser than the other. The
teeth of these files tend to clog more easily than single cut files.

Fig. 29 CUT OF A FILE

(c) Dreadnought – Suitable for heavy cutting of soft metals. They are single
cut files but with teeth curved in an arc.

(d) Rasp – These files are used for coarse work on soft materials (eg lead,
wood etc). Each tooth is cut separately by a single pointed tool.

Grade

This defines the depth and spacing of the teeth. The grades are (in decreasing order of
coarseness:

(a) Bastard – A coarse grade which removes metal fairly quickly. Intended
for roughing out, or completion of a job where finish is unimportant.

- 15 -
 (b) Second Cut – A finer grade which gives a better finish but is slower
cutting. The most common grade.

(c) Smooth – The teeth are shallow and closely set enabling a good finish to
be obtained. Cuts comparatively slowly and should be used for finishing
work only.

(d) Dead Smooth – The smoothest grade of file. Not often used.

Filing Method

Cross filing (holding the file at both ends and using the file at right angles to the work)
is used for general-purpose work and for squaring and roughing down. Draw filing
(holding the file in line with the work) is used for finishing and for most filing work.
Once the cross filing has been completed, the surfaces can be draw finished until all
the cross filing marks have disappeared.

QUESTION Can you list 4 or 5 precautions to be observed when filing? (10 mins)

ANSWER The precautions include:

1. Never use a file without a handle. Most files are supplied with a
handle attached.
2. Always use the length, type and grade of file appropriate for the
job.
3. Secure the work in the vice (if possible) so that it is rigid and
positioned to enable filing to be done horizontally.
4. Whenever possible use the full length of the file for each stroke.
Do no rush, and as the file only cuts on the forward stroke relieve
the pressure on the return.
5. Keep the file teeth clean using a scratch card. Where clogging
material cannot be removed by this method, pick it out with a
sharp point (ice pick). Chalk rubbed on the teeth during the final
finish helps prevent clogging – and produces a finer finish.
6. New files should, if possible, be used first on brass, cast iron or
similar metals before using on steel. This helps to harden them
off.
7. Files are brittle. To prevent breakage or dulling of teeth, store
them separately after use and do not strike them with, or on, any
other hard material.

VICES

The Bench Vice - provides rigid support for work at the bench. It allows both hands to
be used when sawing, filing, drilling, bending etc.

The body of the vice is normally manufactured from cast iron and has detachable
hardened steel jaws. It is made in two parts:

(a) The main body, which contains a fixed nut or half nut and is bolted to
the workbench.

- 16 -
 (b) The sliding part which fits into the main body and is moved backwards
and forwards by means of a screw thread. This screw thread engages
with the nut in the main body. Turning the screw thread, by means of a
tommy bar, in a clockwise direction closes the jaws and in an anti-
clockwise direction opens the jaws.

Some vices have a quick release mechanism, which allows the sliding part to be
positioned quickly. With a quick release mechanism, a half nut is used and operation
of a lever disengages the half nut from the screw thread. The screw thread is usually a
single start square or buttress type.

Objects with machined or smooth surfaces can be protected, when held in a vice, by
using clams. These can be made from copper, lead or aluminium. Tubing can be
protected by the use of hardwood ‘V’ blocks.

Fig. 30 THE BENCH VICE

Precautions and Maintenance

The vice should be mounted such that the top of the vice is level with the workers
elbow when he/she is standing (or sitting for some disabled) next to the vice.
Precautions include:

* Ensure the vice securing bolts are tight.

* Ensure the vice is clean.
* Clean the vice after use.
* Keep the screw thread lightly lubricated.
* Never use the vice as an anvil for hammering on.

Vices are classified by the width of their jaws, common size being 100mm (4 inches).

- 17 -
The Machine Vice – used on drilling and shaping machines to hold the work piece.

The body of the vice is manufactured from cast iron or steel and the base is slotted so
that it can be bolted down to hold the work steady. For light drilling using a pillar
drill, the vice can be held by hand.

The design of machine vices varies, but they all give a parallel grip. As with the Bench
Vice, one jaw is fixed and the other is sliding. The sliding jaw is moved by a screw
thread, which is turned either by a knurled handle, a tommy bar or a cranked handle.
No quick release mechanism is fitted to this type of vice.

Take care, when drilling, not to drill into the base of the vice. If possible, position a
piece of wood under the work to be drilled.

Fig. 31 THE MACHINE VICE

Toolmakers Clamp - used for holding small pieces of work together for assembling,
riveting or screwing.

They are made of case-hardened mild steel. A clip screwed to the top jaw locates
screw A and thus prevents the jaws falling together when being adjusted. This type of
clamp gives a parallel grip in all positions. The jaws are adjusted to approximately the
correct position and the final tightening is done by first adjusting screw A and then
screw B.

The clamp is classified by the length of the jaws (normally 50 to 150mm).

Hand Vice - used for holding work for drilling, riveting etc. The body is made from
steel and the jaws hardened and tempered. The spring is to keep the jaws apart with
the wing nut providing the clamping action.

- 18 -
 Fig. 32 TOOLMAKERS CLAMP

Fig. 33 HAND VICE

CHISELS

Chisels are made from high carbon steel, hardened and tempered or nickel alloy steel
specially heat-treated to give a lasting cutting edge. The chamfered head is left soft
otherwise it would crack under repeated hammer blows.

Types of Chisels and Their Uses

1. Flat – Used for general chipping work such as parting metal sheet or
cutting flat surfaces prior to filing.
2. Crosscut – Used for cutting grooves in a flat surface.
3. Diamond Point – Used for cleaning out corners and rectifying incorrect
drill starts.
4. Half Round – Used for cutting half round bottomed grooves and may
also be used for rectifying incorrect drill starts.

- 19 -
Selecting the Correct Chisel for the Job

Consideration must be given to both the nature of the work and the material to be
cut. The nature of the work governs the size and shape of the chisel. The type of
material governs the cutting angle. For example, the cutting angle of aluminium alloy
is 30°, mild steel 60° and hard steel 70-75°.

Care of Chisels

A damaged chisel edge is sharpened on a grindstone and finished on an oilstone.

During grinding, the cutting edge must be kept cool by frequent dipping in water. The
end of the chisel struck by the hammer should be kept free from ragged ends and
burrs by grinding.

Fig. 34 CHISELS

SCRAPERS

These are made of high carbon steel hardened or tempered. They are used to produce
a very accurate finish on the surface that has already been as accurately finished as
possible by filing or machining.

Used mostly on steel. It is essential for scrapers to have a sharp cutting edge and this
is obtained by grinding on a grind stone followed by sharpening on an oil stone. When
not in use, scrapers should be stored with their cutting edges suitably protected.

The types of scraper in general use are:

1. Flat – Used to produce accurate flat surfaces.

2. Three Square – Useful for working in awkward corners.
3. Half Round – Used for scraping curved surfaces such as bearings.

To produce a flat surface, it is necessary to use a surface plate and Engineers Blue (a
blue marking ink). Make sure that the surface plate and the work are clean.

Smear a thin layer if Engineers Blue on to the surface plate, then place the work on
the surface plate and move it backwards and forwards. Remove the work, and the
high spots will be coloured blue. Remove the high spots using a scraper and then rub
the work on the surface plate again. Keep repeating the above procedure until the
work is as flat as possible. For some work a dead smooth file can be used in place of a
scraper.

- 20 -
The same procedure can be used with journal bearings by applying engineers blue to
the journal.

Fig. 35 SCRAPERS

DRILL BITS

Used for drilling holes and are available in various forms to meet different
requirements. Are manufactured from high carbon steel or alloy steel. Alloy steel drills
are sometimes referred to as high-speed drills as they can be used at much higher
cutting rates than high carbon steel drills. High-speed drills contain 14% tungsten,
which allows them to run hotter without affecting the temper (heat treatment).

The following types of drills are in general use:

Flat Drills – Simple to manufacturer but tend to drill inaccurate holes. They are slow
cutting, power wasting and do not clear the swarf produced. This leads to clogging
and overheating. The cutting angle varies for 5° for hard material, to 20° for soft
material such as brass. The point angle is 45°.

Bottoming Drills – Used to finish the bottom of a blind hole. A standard twist drill
could be modified for the same purpose.

Arboring or Peg Drills – Used for counter-boring holes to provide a good seating for a
Bolt head or nut. It is also used to drill holes to receive a cheese head screw. The
projecting pin on this type of drill must be the same diameter as the hole to be
counter-bored.

Fig. 36 FLAT, BOTTOMING & ARBORING DRILLS

Twist Drills – The most common type of drill bit in general use. The shank is the plain
portion of the drill that provides the drive. The flutes allow for swarf clearance and
provide a means to allow coolant and lubricant access. The land provides for
clearance to reduce friction.

- 21 -
The web of the drill increases in thickness from the tip to the shank to provide extra
strength. At the tip of the drill, the web forms a chisel edge.

The cutting angel is normally 59°, (from the centre line), the cutting edges being of
equal angle and length. The angle between the web and the cutting edge is 130° and
the clearance angle is 12°. On large drills the web may be thinned by local grinding to
reduce the size of this non-cutting edge.

Fig. 37 TWIST DRILL

NOTE. The cutting angel may be altered to suit specific drilling operations, eg
aluminium 90°, brass 118°, cast iron 118°, copper 90°, hard steel 130°, mild steel
118°, plastics 90°.

Fig. 38 DETAILS OF TWIST DRILL ANGLES

Cutting Speeds

This depends on size, type of drill and the material being drilled, eg

¼” twist drill cutting mild steel at 400 rpm

¼” twist drill cutting brass at 800 rpm
⅛” twist drill on a certain metal 800 rpm
½” twist drill on same metal at 200 rpm

- 22 -
In general, speeds depend on the peripheral speed of the drill so the larger the drill
the slower the rpm and the harder the material the slower the rpm.

Most smaller drill bits are placed in a self centring chuck on the drilling machine and
the grip exerted by the chuck is adequate, but a stronger grip is required with larger
drills so they usually have a ‘Morse Taper’ terminating in a flat tang. The Morse Taper
(1 in 20) engages directly with the tapered adapter of the drilling machine. A slot is
provided in the adapter to remove the drill by inserting a wedge on top of the drill
tang and tapping the wedge with a hammer to free the drill.

Fig. 39 MORSE TAPER DRILL & ADAPTER

QUESTION Do you know of any other ‘standard’ tapers? (5 mins)

ANSWER Taper pins 1 in 48

Taper keys 1 in 100

Lubrication

Prevents excessive heat by reducing friction, and helps preserves the temper of the
drill. It also helps reduce the heat at the cutting edge by transferring it away.

Suitable Lubricants:

Mild Steel – Cutting oil or soapy water.

High Carbon Steel – Turpentine or paraffin.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys – Paraffin.
Brass & Cast Iron – No lubricant needed.

TAPS

Taps are used for cutting internal (female) screw threads. They are manufactured
from high carbon or alloy steel hardened and tempered. They are fluted to provide
cutting edges, the shank is tough with the end squared to allow it to be turned with a
hand wrench. Taps are supplied in sets of three except for BA sizes where the second
tap is omitted. Markings on the shank include, type of thread, the size and the
number of tpi.

- 23 -
 Fig. 40 A SECOND TAP

Types of Tap

1. Taper Tap – Used for starting the thread and is tapered from the tip to
the sixth thread. The tip diameter is equal to the root diameter of the
threads. It will cut a full thread in a through hole.

2. Second Tap – Used to deepen the thread cut by the taper tap in a blind
hole or a hole through thick material. It is less tapered than the taper
tap.

3. Plug Tap – Used to finish the thread cutting at the bottom of a blind hole
or a hole through thick material. It is not tapered at all.

QUESTION What is a blind hole? (2 mins)

ANSWER A hole that does not go completely through the metal.

Cutting Internal Threads

(a) The first step in producing a well-cut internal screw thread is to drill a hole of
the correct size. This should be the core diameter of the thread, but practically,
the hole needs to be slightly larger to prevent the tap from binding and possibly
breaking.

- 24 -
 To find the correct drill to use, consult an Engineers Pocket Book, which will
give tapping drill sizes. If the book is not available, the correct drill size may be
obtained by:

(i) Measuring the core diameter and taking the nearest size drill which is
slightly larger than the core diameter.
(ii) Select a drill which will just pass through a nut of the correct size.
(iii) The drill size may be specified on the shank of the tap.

(b) Having drilled a hole to the correct dimensions fit the tap with a hand wrench
and enter the tap into the hole perpendicular to the face. Turn in the cutting
direction until the tap just starts to cut.
(c) Check the tap is sat in the hole square by using a square.
(d) Continue turning in the cutting direction for half a turn, then reverse the
direction for a quarter turn. Continue the process – ½ turn forward ¼ back -
until the tap bottoms in the hole or protrudes from the other side of the hole.
This continuous action will break the cuttings into chips and prevent straining
the tap.
(e) Continue cutting the thread as described until either the bottom of a blind hole
has been reached or the full cutting length of the tap has been used.
(f) Change to the second or plug tap as required and continue until the thread has
been properly cut.
(g) Lubricate the work using the same lubricant as for drilling.

QUESTION Sometimes the tap may break in the hole – usually through poor
engineering practices. Can you think of any reasons why it might break?
(3 or 4 reasons – 5 mins)

ANSWER My list is as follows:

(a) Using an incorrect tap size.
(b) Hole too small.
(c) Trying to force a tap too far down a blind hole.
(d) Turning tap clockwise all the time.
(e) Lack of lubrication.

Removing a Broken Tap

(a) If a sufficient amount of the tap is projecting above the surface it is sometimes
possible to remove the tap with a pair of pliers.
(b) Providing the melting point of the work piece is well above the annealing
temperature of the tap, anneal both the work and the tap. The tap can then be
drilled out and the hole re-tapped. (This is a difficult process to do and may
affect the heat treatment of the work so should only be carried out by qualified
and experienced engineers).
(c) Large taps may be unscrewed or broken into pieces with a punch or chisel.
(d) Broken taps can be removed using an extractor. There are two types:

(i) A screw extractor which has a left-hand thread. It requires the tap to be
annealed and drilled.
(ii) For larger taps only, an extractor can be used that has a set of prongs
which fit inside the flutes of the tap. No drilling or annealing is required.

- 25 -
(e) Using an Ezi-Out. A tapered coarse threaded tap with a left-handed thread,
more or less the same thing as an extractor. The broken tap is drilled and the
Ezi-Out is screwed in anti-clockwise. The Ezi-Out is tapered and as it is
screwed in so it tightens in the hole and will (hopefully) cause the tap to screw
out.

Broken taps are notoriously difficult to remove. It is best not to break them in the first
place.

DIES

These are for cutting male threads. There are two types of die:

Circular – This type is generally used for cutting smaller threads. Slight adjustment
can be effected by the screws in the side of the stock. The die thread is tapered to
allow an easier start to be made. When fitting the die to the stock, the tapered side
must always be away from the shoulder of the stock.

Fig. 41 DIE AND STOCK

Rectangular – This is a two-piece die which is adjustable and is used for cutting larger
diameter threads. Two or three cuts may be required to cut the full thread, the die
being closed up after each cut. The die has tapered threads to allow easier starting.
The engraved numbers on the two halves must be fitted on the same side.

Fig. 42 ADJUSTABLE DIES & STOCK

- 26 -
Cutting External Threads (Using Circular Die)

(a) Secure the work in the vice.

(b) Slightly taper the rod end to assist the start. The round rod must have an
external diameter equal to the major or crest diameter of the thread to be cut.
(c) Place the correct die in the stock and slacken the two outer screws. Tighten the
centre screw and re-tighten the outer screws.
(d) Place the stock and die squarely on the rod and commence cutting the thread
using the same technique as for taps (½ turn forward ¼ turn back).
(e) With the thread cut, try a new nut on the new thread.
(f) If further cutting is required, slightly loosen the centre screw of the stock,
tighten the two outer screws and re-tighten the centre screw.
(g) Repeat the process in (d), (e) and (f) until the nut is a good fit on the thread.

Die Nuts

These are similar in shape to a hexagon or square nut and are used to clean or
restore a thread that has become damaged. They are turned using a spanner.

Fig. 43 DIE NUTS

Precautions Result if not observed

1. Use taps in the correct order. Difficulty in starting the thread,

possible tap Breakage.

2. Ensure the die is the right way Difficulty in starting the thread.
round in the stock.

3. Chamfer the rod before starting Difficulty in starting the thread.

the die.

4. Use the correct size tapping drill. Oversize holes result in a partial
thread. Undersize holes may
result in a broken tap.

5. Check for squareness once Broken taps. Badly damaged

cutting has started. thread.

6. Ensure blind hole is deep Hole too shallow in depth may

enough to allow for clearance cause a broken tap.
of chippings.

- 27 -
 7. Use a cutting solution where Overheating, binding, seizure
necessary. and consequent tap breakage.
Ragged or stripped thread.

8. When tapping a deep blind hole Tap breakage.

withdraw the tap occasionally
to clear chippings.

9. Take a ‘roughing’ cut with an Poorly furnished thread,

undersize die first then follow stripped thread.
with a ‘finishing’ cut.

Note. All thread cutting is done by hand – unless you are a Machine Tool Setter and
Operator.

QUESTION If you had to cut a male and female mating thread, which one would you
cut first and why? (5 mins)

ANSWER: The female thread should be cut first (taps). When the male thread is cut
the die is set to its largest setting on the first cut and is adjusted on
subsequent cuts so as to obtain a good fit between the male and female
thread, (occasionally trying the male thread in the female).

REAMERS

Reamers are used to finish drilled holes to accurate dimensions and give a smooth
internal finish. They are manufactured from high carbon or alloy steel and the flutes
provide a series of cutting edges. The amount of metal than can be removed by a
parallel reamer depends on its size and the type of material being used. As a rough
guide, the amount of metal that can be removed from a ½ inch (13mm) diameter hole
by a parallel reamer is about 0.005 inch (0.127mm). With larger holes, a
correspondingly larger amount of metal can be removed.

Type of reamers include:

Parallel – These only cut to one size and may have straight or spiral flutes. The size is
marked on the reamer.

Expanding – These have separate blades that slide in slots which taper in depth. The
blades are held in position by two nuts. Alteration to the cutting size is made by
loosening one nut and tightening the other. They are parallel reamers.

The reamer has 5 blades and therefore cannot be checked for size by a micrometer or
vernier calliper. It has to be checked using a Ring Gauge. (For information on
micrometers, verniers and ring gauges see the section Precision Measuring
Instruments in this book).

Shell – These are hollow fixed size reamers used on close fitting mandrels or boring
bars, which pass through the hollow centre. Used to ream long or deep holes such as
gun barrels.

- 28 -
 Fig. 44 REAMER TYPES

Taper – These are used to prepare holes for taper pins. They are supplied in sets
numbered from 0 to 10, the taper being the same as the standard for taper pins (ie 1
in 48).

Piloted – These ensure that the reamer cuts centrally in the hole and is easier to use.
The tapered end makes the reamer cut progressively and also ensures a neater hole at
the entry end.

Machine Reamers – Have a tapered drive (Morse Taper) to fit directly into a drilling
machine or lathe.

Precautions During Use

Great care must be taken to ensure that the reamer enters square in the hole.
Reamers must be hand turned and only in a clockwise direction whilst cutting and
removing. The same lubricants should be used as for drilling.

When drilling a hole that is to be reamed:

* Select a drill 0.005 inch (0.127mm) smaller than the reamer for a
parallel reamer or 0.005 inch smaller than the small end of the reamer
for taper reaming.

* Always ream by hand using the correct wrench – except for machine
reaming – and that should be carried out by a qualified person.

* When taper reaming for a taper pin, ream the hole so that the pin is a
hand push fit with the small end flush with the bottom of the work. The
taper pin is then hammered in (gently) so that ¼ inch (6.35mm)
protrudes from the bottom with ⅛ inch (3.17mm) showing at the top.
The taper pin is then locked into position by either:

(a) Peening.
(b) Bending the legs out (split taper pin).
(c) A nut (threaded taper pin).

- 29 -
RULES - MEASURING

The Steel Rule. Made from high carbon steel hardened and tempered, usually
graduated in Imperial and metric units. Classified by length. Rules must be kept free
from rust and must not be subjected to rough usage. After use clean and lightly oil.

Measuring Tapes. Can be obtained in various lengths usually marked off with both
metric and Imperial scales. Tapes are made of linen, plastic or flexible steel. When
storing steel tapes clean and lightly oil. Remember that linen and plastic tapes can be
made to stretch if pulled – and this can affect the indicated measurement.

DIVIDERS

Used to set out distances, scribe arcs and circles. The legs are made of high carbon
steel hardened and tempered; the spring of spring steel and the adjusting screw mild
steel. Classified by length of legs. The points should be kept sharp and the legs of
equal length by stoning on the outside. When not in use the points should be
protected by sticking them into a cork.

Fig. 45 DIVIDERS AND RULE

TRAMMELS

These consist of a bar with up to 3 adjustable trammel points attached. Using two of
the points the trammel can be used to scribe large circles. Using 3 points the trammel
can be used to check bow in a member. The points may be adjusted for both height
and position on the bar.

- 30 -
 Fig. 46 THREE POINT TRAMMEL

SCRIBERS

Used for marking lines on the surfaces of work. They are made of high carbon steel
hardened and tempered. Classified by length, like the points of dividers must be kept
sharp and protected when not in use.

Note. Materials such as aluminium alloy are notch sensitive – ie will soon start to
develop
a crack at a notch or scriber mark when under stress. Therefore never scribe a line on
aluminium and its alloys unless it is a cutting line.

THE FITTER’S SQUARE

Used for marking off lines at right angles to an edge or surface and checking for
squareness. Squares are made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. The
square should be kept clean, lightly oiled and it its box when not in use.

To check for accuracy, check it against a master square or place on a known true
edge, scribe a line down using the blade as the guide. Reverse the square on the
known true edge and any error will show up as twice the actual error.

Fig. 47 THE FITTER’S SQUARE

- 31 -
THE COMBINATION SET

A combination set is three tools in one, consisting of a blade which is graduated in

inch and metric scales and fitted as necessary to one of the heads. There is a central
groove along its entire length, which accommodates the clamping screw fitted to each
head. There are three heads made of close grained cast iron:

(a) Square Head – This is provided with two working faces one at 90°, the other at
45° to the blade thus enabling it to be used as a square and as a mitre. A
spirit level is incorporated in the head and a scriber is also fitted.

(b) Centre Head – This is used in conjunction with the blade to locate the centre of
round bars, etc.

(c) Protractor Head – This is used in conjunction with the blade for checking or
setting any angle up to 180°. A spirit level is often incorporated. The accuracy
is 1°.

Fig. 48 THE COMBINATION SET

Fig. 49 USE OF HEADS

- 32 -
CALLIPERS

Inside and outside - are used in conjunction with a rule or other measuring
instrument for measuring distances between or over surfaces or for comparing
measurements. To set the callipers set them close to size, by hand, then adjust to the
correct size by tapping one leg (not at the point) against a rigid object. Odd leg
callipers are used for finding the centre of a round bar and for scribing lines parallel
to an edge or surface. Sometimes referred to as ‘Jenny Callipers’.

Fig. 50 TYPES OF CALLIPERS

SURFACE PLATES

Made of cast iron and accurately machined and hand finished to provide a dead flat
surface. Provided with three feet to prevent rock; the undersides are ribbed to prevent
warping and twisting of the top face. Always keep clean and lightly oiled. When not in
use keep covered with a wooden cover preferably felt lined soaked with oil. Avoid
damaging surface. Do not drop tools or work onto the surface.

Fig. 51 SURFACE PLATE

MARKING-OFF TABLE

Used to support work for marking-out and form a base from which measurements can
be taken. Made of close-grained cast iron and are strongly ribbed on the underside for
rigidity. They are free standing – usually with 3 legs to prevent wobble.

- 33 -
The working surface is accurately machined to give a true flat surface and the edges
are square. To preserve the surface no work other than marking out or measurement
should be done on the table. After use the surface should be lightly oiled and then
covered with a wooden cover.

VEE BLOCKS

Used on the marking-off table or a surface plate to support round work, they are
made of cast iron or mild steel case hardened and are supplied in matching pairs,
each one of the pair being stamped with the same identification number. All surfaces
are accurately machined and the Vee angle is 90°. Vee blocks are classified by the
maximum diameter of the work which can be held. Can also support square work at
45°.

Fig. 52 VEE BLOCK BOLTED TO ANGLE PLATE

SCRIBING BLOCK

Used to mark out lines parallel to a true surface, such as the marking off table or
surface plate. The accurately machined base is made of cast iron or case hardened
mild steel. The scriber is made of high carbon steel hardened and tempered. The pillar
angel and scriber height and angle are adjustable. A fine adjustment is provided for
the pillar angle. Dowels in the base can be pushed down to serve as guides against
the edge of the marking off table so that lines can be scribed parallel to the edge. Are
classified by the height of the pillar.

- 34 -
 Fig. 53 USING VEE BLOCKS SCRIBING BLOCK AND A DTI

Fig. 54 SCRIBING BLOCK BEING USED TO MARK THE

LARGEST SQUARE ON THE END OF A ROUND BAR

KEY SEAT RULE

Sometimes called a box square and is used for marking off lines parallel to the axis on
the surface of tubes or round bars. Are usually graduated and are classified by their
length.

- 35 -
 MARKING OUT

To Find Centre of Round Bar

Fit bar in Vee blocks on the surface table; with the scribing block set approximately
one third diameter scribe a line across the end of the bar; rotate bat 90°; check with
fitters square for verticality; with scriber set at the same height scribe a second line;
rotate bar 90°; check line is vertical and scribe third line; rotate bar 90°; check line
again with square; scribe fourth line with the square. Join corners diagonally and
where diagonals intersect this is the centre of the bar.

Fig. 55 FINDING THE CENTRE OF A ROUND BAR

To Find The Largest Square on The End of a Round Bar

First find the centre – as described above. Scribe a line horizontally across the bar
through the centre. Rotate this line to the vertical and draw another horizontal line
through the centre. Where these lines touch the outside of the bar draw a horizontal
line using the scribing block. Rotate this to the vertical and repeat drawing the
horizontal line. Repeat this process twice more to produce the square.

Marking the Largest Hexagon

Find the centre. Set dividers to a radius slightly smaller than the bar radius and
scribe a circle. With the dividers set at this setting, mark off the radius around the
circumference of the circle. Scribe lines from the centre through each of these points
then rotate bar ’till one of these lines is horizontal. Reset scriber, scribe a line across
the top of the ends of the two lines. Rotate bar and repeat process till hexagon is
complete.

- 36 -
 Fig. 56 MARKING THE LARGEST HEXAGON

To Find The Centre of a Tube

There are two methods. One method is to plug the tube with a piece of wood and find
the centre as if it were solid. The other method is described below.

Fig. 57 FINDING THE CENTRE OF A ROUND TUBE

- 37 -
Set the tube in Vee blocks. Set the scriber by eye to the centre height and make a
small mark at each side. Rotate the tube approximately 180° till the mark on the far
side comes to the scriber point where the second mark was made, move the scriber to
the other side and make another small mark which will be near but unlikely to be on
the original mark.

Reset scriber towards original mark ¼ of the distance between, repeat the marking
process disregarding the original marks. This time the marks should nearly coincide
with the other mark.

Repeat the operation until the marks agree. The scriber is now set at the centre
height.

PRECISION MEASURING EQUIPMENT

This section deals mainly with micrometers and verniers, the accuracy of which
depends on:

* The user.
* The temperature of the instrument/work place.
* The type and quality of the instrument.

The best quality instruments are made from a steel with a low co-efficient of linier
expansion – sometimes called INVAR steel, which contains 36% nickel.

Some instruments have a temperature marked on them and this is the temperature at
which they are most accurate. It is usually 68°F or 20°C.

Modern micrometers and verniers can be electronic. In other words there is an

electronic display on the frame of the micrometer or sliding jaw of the vernier to
display the reading that the instrument is set to. The value is simply read straight
from the display. We will concentrate on the non-electronic type sometimes called a
non-digital instrument.

In general the accuracy of each instrument is:

English micrometer 0.001in (0.001”).

English vernier micrometer 0.0001in (0.0001”).
Metric micrometer 0.01mm
Metric vernier micrometer 0.001mm
English vernier calliper 0.001in (0.001”).
Metric vernier calliper 0.02mm
Vernier Bevel protractor 5min (60 mins in one degree)

THE MICROMETER

The micrometer principle can be applied to:

* Outside micrometers
* Inside micrometers
* Depth gauges, etc

- 38 -
The principle of the micrometer is the same in all cases. If we know the numbers of
threads per inch (tpi) and we know that it is a single start thread, then we know that
the lead equals the pitch.

QUESTION Some revision on screw threads. What do the following terms mean?
(10 mins)

* Single start thread.

* Lead.
* Pitch.

ANSWER A single start thread is a thread which only has one helix, ie one single
thread only cut as a helix on the surface of a round bar or on the inside
of a hole.

The pitch of a thread is the distance between two adjacent threads.

The lead of a screw thread is the amount of axial movement the nut or
bolt makes in one revolution.

So if we know the lead then we can divide the rotating part into a number of equal
divisions (say N), so each division will represent an Nth of the lead when rotated. This
is the principle of all micrometers.

The Outside Micrometer (English)

All outside micrometers are similar in construction, it is the thread and type of scales
on them which will dictate whether they are English or metric.

The main components of the instrument are the frame, anvil, barrel, spindle and the
sleeve (or thimble).

The frame is suitably machined to receive the anvil, which is usually a press fit. The
mating faces of the anvil and the spindle are made of tungsten or tipped with carbide
to reduce wear.

The barrel is pressed into the frame to permit rotational adjustment. The barrel is
engraved with a graduated scale equal in length to the range of the instrument,
usually 1 inch or 25mm and is bored and internally screwed with an accurate fine
thread.

An integral sleeve on the spindle surrounds the barrel, this is usually knurled at the
outer end to facilitate easy finger action. Incorporated is a ratchet or friction device to
eliminate variation of pressure between the contacting faces. The inner end of the
sleeve is bevelled to prevent barrel scale shadows and the bevelled portion is
graduated into equal divisions around its periphery.

The micrometer has a range of 1 inch and are supplied as a naught to 1 inch
micrometer, 1 to 2 inch micrometer, 2 to 3 inch micrometer etc. This size is stamped
on the frame.

- 39 -
 Fig. 58 THE EXTERNAL MICROMETER (ENGLISH)

The Principle of the English Micrometer

The spindle has 40tpi. This means that one complete turn of the barrel (and spindle)
will move the spindle forward or back by 1/40th of an inch. The thimble is divided into
25 equal divisions. This means that one division will have an axial movement of 1/25th
of a 1/40th. which equals 1/1000th.

= 1 x 1
25 40

= 1
1000

= 0.001in.

Fig. 59 READING THE ENGLISH MICROMETER

- 40 -
Reading the Micrometer

With any micrometer the principle is the same – note the size of the micrometer (0 to
1 inch for example on an English mic) - read all the whole divisions showing on the
barrel (eg all the tenths and the remaining fortieths on an English mic) then note
which line on the thimble aligns with the datum line on the barrel.

Record each on a piece of paper and add to provide the total – this is the micrometer
reading. In more detail using figure 59 as an example:

1. First read off the number of inches on the frame (assume a 0 to 1 inch mic).

= 0.000

2. Read the number of complete tenths showing (4).

= 0.400

3. Now the number of complete fortieths showing – in this case (3).

= 0.025 x 3 = 0.075

4. Now find the coinciding line on the thimble with the datum line (8).

= 0.008

Adding these figures up we get: 0.000

0.400
0.075
0.008
-------
0.483

With no graduation on the thimble coincides with the barrel scale line, the graduation
to be read is that nearest to the datum.

THE VERNIER MICROMETER

An additional scale on the barrel based on the vernier principle, gives a greater degree
of accuracy.

The vernier scale on the barrel consists of ten divisions (or 5 where the thimble
divisions are thous and half thous) whose total length is equal to nine divisions on the
thimble – 9 thous (or 9 half thous). The length of the vernier scale = 0.009 (or 0.0045)
and is divided into 10 equal divisions (or 5 equal divisions).

This means that each vernier scale division = 0.0009 in and therefore the difference
between one vernier scale division (0.0009) and one thimble scale division (0.001) is
0.0001.

- 41 -
 Fig. 60 READING THE VERNIER SCALE

The micrometer is read the same as a normal micrometer for the inches, tenths,
fortieths and thousandths of an inch. For the ten thousandths of an inch reading the
coinciding line is found on the vernier scale. In figure 60, assuming that the third
vernier division coincides with a sleeve graduation then the reading is:

Barrel Scale = 0.4500

Thimble Scale = 0.0195 (Note the thimble scale – thous and half thous)
Vernier Scale = 0.0003
---------
0.4698

THE METRIC MICROMETER

The spindle and barrel threads of the metric micrometer have a pitch of 0.5mm. The
barrel is graduated in millimetres and half millimetres and the thimble is graduated
into fifty equal division, so that each represents 1/50th of 0.5 = 0.01mm.

The range of the micrometer is 25mm and are supplied as 0 to 25mm, 25 to 50mm,
50 to 75mm micrometer etc.

Fig. 61 READING THE METRIC MICROMETER

- 42 -
Reading the Micrometer

To read the micrometer, the highest figure on the barrel scale is read together with
any additional visible half-millimetre division, in the example (figure 61) it is 5mm +
0.50 = 5.5mm. To this is added the number of hundredths of a millimetre which are
indicated by the co-incident thimble and barrel datum lines, in this case 14, so that
the reading is 5.5 + 0.14 = 5.64mm.

There may also be a vernier scale, the length of the scale is equal to nine thimble
divisions (0.09mm) and is sub-divided into five equal divisions so that each division is
equal to 0.018mm. The difference between two thimble divisions (0.02) and one
vernier division (0.018) is 0.02 – 0.018 = 0.002mm.

Care and Use of the Micrometer

Keep the anvil and spindle end clean. Hold the micrometer truly square with the job.
Turn the thimble by the ratchet stud only – this ensures that the same grip is taken
at each measurement. Look at the micrometer after it is set, before handing to
another.

(a) Checking – Always check for correct zero setting. To do this, screw the spindle
down on to the anvil till the ratchet slips (0 to 1in and 0 to 25mm size only).
The reading should be 0.000 in. If incorrect the micrometer must be re-set.

For larger micrometers, test pieces are provided, exactly 1in, 2in, 3in, (or
25mm, 50mm, 75mm) etc, which are ‘measured’ between anvil and spindle.
The micrometer scale should again read zero.

(b) Adjustment – The method of adjustment of the zero setting can be by rotating
the barrel on the frame by using a ‘C’ spanner, or by adjusting the thimble on
the spindle, or by adjusting the anvil in the frame. Play in the spindle threads
is taken up by adjusting a nut at the thimble end of the barrel; this nut is
normally covered by the thimble.

THE INTERNAL MICROMETER

This is used to measure internal dimensions. It is similar in principle to the external

type, but usually has ½ in micrometer adjustment only. The micrometer consists of a
micrometer head and different lengths of detachable extension rods, which enable the
instrument to be used for a range of sizes, eg 2in to 8in. (With the 8in set, 6 rods are
supplied, ie 2-3in, 3-4in, 4-5in, 5-6in, 6-7in, and 7-8in. The set comes complete with
a collar which allows each rod to measure 2½ to 3, 3½ to 4 etc. When fitting a rod,
the collar must butt against the rod flanges and the micrometer head.

The collar is used to allow an extension to read to its upper limit, eg to measure from
7½in to 8in the 7in rod is used together with the ½in collar.

The length marked on the rod includes the 2in length of the micrometer head.

- 43 -
 Fig. 62 INTERNAL MICROMETER

Checking

To check an internal micrometer, set it to read any figure, eg 3 in and measure it with
an accurate external micrometer; the readings should coincide.

THE THREE POINT MICROMETER

This type of internal micrometer has three measuring anvils mounted 120° to each
other. The inner ends of the anvils are angled and screw cut to suit the conical
measuring thread, springs fitted inside the cap ensure contact between them.
Generally these instruments have accuracies similar to that of other micrometers but
with the three anvils it is not possible to measure ovality.

MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE

Used for measuring the depth of holes or recesses and the height of spigots and
shoulders from some reference plane on the component.

The instrument reads opposite to the other types of micrometer, ie from right to left.

These instruments are usually supplied with detachable spindles, to increase the
range of measurements.

- 44 -
 Fig. 63 MICROMETER DEPTH GAUGE

OTHER TYPES OF MICROMETER

Other types of micrometers are available including:

* Calliper Micrometer – Similar to a vernier calliper but uses a micrometer

head with a range limited to 1in.

* Variable Range Micrometer – Has a set of different length detachable

anvils.

* Recess Micrometer – Supplied with a long anvil to get into deep recesses.

* Deep Frame Micrometer – Has a deep frame for access around sheet
metal plates, etc. May need two people to handle it.

* Tube Micrometer – The anvil has a convex face and the micrometer is
used for checking the thicknesses of curved surfaces.

* Screw Thread Micrometer – The anvil has a Vee slot cut in it and the
spindle is ground to a point. It is used for the accurate measurement of
Vee threads.

THE VERNIER

The vernier system consists of a fixed Main Scale and a moving Vernier Scale.
Assuming the two scales are of equal length and that the total number of divisions in
one scale is greater by one division than the number of divisions in the other scale.
The difference between the length of one division on one of the scales and one division
on the other scale will give the accuracy of the instrument.

- 45 -
ENGLISH VERNIER CALLIPER

These have a vernier scale to read to 0.001in. They give inside as well as outside
measurements and have a much greater range than a micrometer – but are usually
more difficult to read. They frequently have small ‘target points’ for setting dividers
accurately. Both English and metric scales may be incorporated in the same
instrument.

The 24/25 System

The main scale is graduated in inches, tenths and fortieths (each fortieth equals
0.025). The vernier scale on the sliding jaw is formed by taking a length of twenty-four
main scale subdivisions (24 x 0.025 = 0.6in) and dividing this into 25 equal parts (0.6
÷ 25 = 0.024in). The difference in size between one main scale subdivision (0.025in)
and one vernier scale division (0.024in) is 0.001in.

Fig. 64 THE VERNIER CALLIPER

The 49/50 System

The main scale is graduated in inches, tenths and twentieths (one twentieth equals
0.050in). 49 main scale divisions are divided into 50 equal divisions to form the
vernier scale. 49 main scale divisions = 49 x 0.050in = 2.450 in (0.050 is the length
of each main scale division).

One vernier scale division = 2.450 = 0.049in

50

But one main scale division = 0.050in

Therefore the difference in size between one main scale division and one vernier scale
division = 0.050 – 0.049 = 0.001in.

- 46 -
 Fig. 65 THE 49/50 VERNIER SCALE

Note the accuracy of the two systems is the same – though some say the
49/50 system is easier to read. I’m not so sure.

Reading the Vernier

Always read the main scale up to the zero on the vernier. Then read the vernier reading
from the zero on the vernier scale to the coinciding line.

1. Read the total number of whole inches.

2. Then read the remaining number of whole tenths.
3. Then read the remaining number of whole twentieths or fortieths.
4. Then check the coinciding line on the vernier with any line on the main
scale to give the thousandths reading.

Example 1 English Vernier (24/25)

EXAMPLE 1 24/25 ENGLISH VERNIER

* Reading the inches (1) = 1.000

* Reading the tenths (2) = 0.200 (0.100 x 2)
* Reading the fortieths (3) = 0.075 (0.025 x 3)
* Reading the coinciding line
(9th) on the vernier scale = 0.009
TOTAL 1.284in

The reading is 1.284 in.

- 47 -
Example 2 English Vernier (49/50)

EXAMPLE 2 ENGLISH 49/50 VERNIER

* Reading the inches (5) = 5.000

* Reading the tenths (2) = 0.200 (reading up to the zero on
the vernier scale)
* Reading the twentieths (1) = 0.050
* Reading the coinciding line
(26th) on the vernier scale = 0.026
-------
TOTAL 5.276

The reading is 5.276 in.

Note. Try the readings of the verniers shown in figures 64 and 65. The author gets
them to be 1.230in (assuming the 30th vernier division lines up) and 5.148in
(assuming the 48th division lines up) respectively.

METRIC VERNIER CALLIPER

Again these may be based on the 24/24 or the 49/50 principle.

The 49/50 System

The main scale is graduated in millimetres, each tenth division being numbered 0, 1,
2, 3 etc, and centimetres (10 millimetres = 1 centimetre). The vernier scale is formed
by taking 49 main scale divisions (49 x 1 = 49mm) and dividing by fifty (49 ÷ 50 =
0.98mm). The difference between one main scale division (1.00) and one vernier scale
division (.98) is 0.02mm. Note. It is not as accurate as the metric micrometer.

The 24/25 System

With this system the main scale is graduated in millimetres and half millimetres and
the vernier scale is formed by taking 24 main scale divisions (0.5mm) and dividing by
25 equal divisions which make up the vernier scale. 24 main scale divisions (½
millimetres) = 12mm. 12mm divided by 25 = 0.48mm. So each main scale division
= 0.5mm and each vernier scale division = 0.48mm and the difference between the
two = 0.02mm.

- 48 -
Reading the Metric Vernier

1. Read the main scale (total complete divisions) either mm or ½ mm

depending on the system up to the zero on the vernier scale.
2. Read to the coinciding line on the vernier scale to give the reading to an
accuracy of 0.02mm.

Example 1 Metric 49/50 Vernier

EXAMPLE 1 METRIC 49/50 VERNIER

* Read the complete number of millimetres

showing up to the zero of the vernier scale (32) = 32.00mm
* Find the coinciding line on the vernier scale and
either:
(a) Count this line (31) and double it (62).
This represents 0.62mm = 0.62mm
or
(b) Take the nearest numbered division to
the left of the coinciding line, ie 6 and
call this tenths of a mm = 0.6mm
and each division thereafter is equal to
0.02mm. In this case ……………… = 0.02mm
TOTAL 32.62mm

The reading is 32.62 mm.

Example 2 24/25 Metric Vernier

EXAMPLE 2 24/24 METRIC VERNIER

- 49 -
 * Read the complete number of mm (11). = 11.00mm
* Read the complete number of ½mm (1). = 00.50mm
* Read the coinciding line on the vernier
scale (12) and double it. = 00.24mm
-------
TOTAL 11.74mm

The reading is 11.74 mm.

Checks Before Use

(a) The zero reading must be checked by cleaning the gauging faces and
closing the jaws using firm finger pressure, securing the frame with the
locking screw. The zero lines of the main scale and vernier scale should
line up.
(b) Hold the instrument to a good source of light; dirt, wear or strain
causing poor contact will be indicated by light between the faces.
(c) Check the vernier scale locating screws for security and check the zero
reading. If the zero marks are not aligned – note the error. Adjustment
can be made by loosening the vernier scale securing screws and re-
positioning the vernier scale to read zero, then tightening the securing
screws and re-checking. A magnifying glass will help.
(d) Check a known dimension toward the limit of the instruments
measuring capacity, this checks any distortion or ‘bowing’ of the beam.
(e) Ideally use the instrument at its calibrated temperature (marked on one
of the jaws). Keep the instrument at this temperature for an hour or so
to allow it to acclimatise.

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

This instrument is similar in construction to the vernier calliper except that the fixed
jaw is shaped as a base, the lower face of which is accurately ground to form a
contact face at right angles to the beam.

The upper face of the moving jaw is the surface from which measurements are taken.
This surface is parallel with the under face of the base. The measuring jaw is provided
with a detachable scriber to permit accurate marking out, but can also be used for
internal measurement. The scale of the instrument does not start at zero, the surface
table is in fact the zero.

Precautions

It is essential that the base of the instrument is at all times in contact with the
surface table. It is advisable not to pre-set the instrument, otherwise the scriber may
override the work piece. The scriber should be lowered/raised slowly using the fine
adjustment until the required feel is obtained.

The instrument is not particularly stable when standing on its base, so when not in
use it is advisable to lay it on its side

- 50 -
 Fig. 66 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

When checking the instrument, since the main scale does not start at zero, it is
necessary to use an accurately ground distance piece, which is usually supplied with
the instrument. Adjustment of the vernier scale is similar to that used for the vernier
calliper.

DEPTH GAUGES

The depth gauge is used for measuring the depth of holes and recesses or the height
of spigots and shoulders from some reference plane. In its simplest form the gauge
consists of a graduated blade or rod, fitted with a moveable head or stock, which can
be locked in any position. Some gauges use a vernier scale or a micrometer head to
measure with the same accuracies as the ordinary verniers or micrometers. Examples
of the three main types are shown in figure 67.

blank

- 51 -
 Fig. 67 DEPTH GAUGES

THE VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR

The bevel protractor consists of a blade, a graduated protractor head and a stock. The
angles between the stock and the blade are indicated by the position of the zero on
the vernier scale. The main scale is marked off in degrees (0 to 360 or 0 to 90 and 90
to 0). The vernier scale/s are formed by taking 23 main scale divisions (23°) and
dividing by 12.

23° = 1° 55’
12

The accuracy is obtained by comparing one vernier scale division (1° 55’) to two main
scale divisions (2°). The difference is 5’ (5 mins).

Fig. 68 VERNIER PROTRACTOR

- 52 -
Reading the Protractor

1. Read from the zero on the main scale to the zero on the vernier scale to
find the degrees.
2. Continue to read in the same direction to find the coinciding line on the
vernier scale. This will give the number of minutes.

Example 1 Vernier Bevel Protractor

EXAMPLE 1 VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR

Reading Angle B

* The number of complete degrees to the zero

of the vernier scale. = 63°
* Continuing to read in the same direction the
coinciding line is found to be 15. = 00 15’
-------
TOTAL 63°15’

Reading angle A gives a reading of 116°45’.

A quick check should show that the sum of the readings should equal 180°. If they do
not you have mis-read the instrument.

blank

- 53 -
Example 2 Bevel Protractor

EXAMPLE 2 BEVEL PROTRACTOR

* Reading from the left to the zero on the

vernier scale gives 42° = 42°
* Continuing in the same direction to find
30’ as the coinciding line = 30’
--------
TOTAL 42°30’

* Reading from the right to the zero on the venier

gives 137° (note that the zero on the vernier has
gone passed the 90° mark on the main scale = 137°
* Continue reading in the same direction to find
the coinciding line which is 30’ = 30’
---------
TOTAL 137°30’
----------

THE DIAL TEST INDICATOR

This instrument, which is also known as a DTI or Clock Gauge, is used not for
measuring the actual size of a component, but to indicate small differences in size, or
for indicating the amount of eccentricity of revolving parts. It can also be used to
measure the ‘run out’ or movement of mechanisms which have a small amount of
movement. It is graduated in thousandths of an inch – every tenth thousandth being
marked – and reads up to 0.050in clockwise and 0.050in counter-clockwise. Metric
DTIs have a similar range.

In use it is rigidly supported (by being fixed to a scribing block on a marking-off table
or bolted to the component), and is set to the first height (or length) with which
comparison is desired. This is done by moving the plunger to the first height (or
length). The pointer will settle to any position on and dial. Adjust the zero on the DTI
by turning the bezel until the zero on the dial is under the needle.

If any other height (or length) is measured (by sliding it under the plunger, or by
moving the part to another position) the needle will indicate on the + side it if is larger
and on the – side if it is smaller. The difference in size will in each case be read off
directly on the dial.

- 54 -
 Fig. 69 DIAL TEST INDICTOR

BORE GAUGE

Similar to the DTI but used to measure the ovality of a bore. The contact face of the
gauge is operated by a lightly spring loaded plunger fitted to a ‘T’ shaped head, the
plunger movement being transmitted by a small curved rod retained in a slide and a
long rod housed in the hollow handle. The curved rod limits the plunger movement,
so sets of distance pieces and extension rods are supplied to increase the range –
generally 2in to 6in. The spring-loaded anvil centralises the tool in the bore to ensure
that the spindle and plunger make contact with the wall of the bore across its
diameter.

Fig. 70 BORE GAUGE

- 55 -
FEELER GAUGES

‘Feelers’ are used to measure small clearances or gaps. The flexible steel blades are
graduated in thickness in most cases from 1½ to 15 thousandths of an inch. The
blades are secured in a stock when not in use. Classified by length of blades, After
use should be lightly oiled and kept in the stock to prevent distortion. Metric sets are
also available.

Fig. 71 USING FEELER GAUGES

THE RADIUS GAUGE

This is similar to a feeler gauge except that the blades are thicker (and all of the same
thickness) and an internal and external radius is cut on each blade. Each blade is
also marked with the radius size. Metric and English sets are available.

Fig. 72 RADIUS GAUGES

SCREW PITCH GAUGE

Similar to a radius gauge but each blade has teeth cut on its edge and marked with
the number of tpi. The stock into which the blades fit when not in use is marked with
the thread angle.

- 56 -
 Fig. 73 SCREW PITCH GAUGES

WIRE GAUGE

This is used to determine the thickness of wire and sheet metal. It is made of sheet
steel with accurately ground slots round the edges, each slot being numbered
according to the specification. This could be British Standard Institute (British
Standard Wire Gauge), or American Wire Gauge for example. To use the gauge try the
metal sheet or wire into the slots until the nearest fit is obtained, then read off the
number at the side of that slot.

The gauge may be rectangular or circular in shape.

Fig. 74 WIRE GAUGE

SLIP GAUGES

Slip Gauges or Johannson blocks are mainly used as standards for checking the
accuracy of working gauges. They are simply rectangular blocks of hardened and
polished steel, but they are ground to extremely high standards of accuracy in length,
flatness and parallelism. The full set of slips comprises 81 pieces, graduated in size,
to enable any length from 0.05in to over 10 inches to be built up in steps of 0.0001in.
The slips are used in conjunction with a set of accessories to produce fixed
gauges/angles for a wide variety of purposes. Figure 75 shows three examples of
check gauges built-up from slips to give accurate linier measurements and figure 77
shows how they can be used, in conjunction with a Sine Bar, to produce accurate
angles.

- 57 -
 Fig. 75 TYPICAL BUILD-UPS OF SLIP GAUGES

As the blocks are manufactured to limits of accuracy of a few millionths of an inch,

slips must always be handled with the utmost care; unnecessary wear of the slip
surfaces must be avoided as far as possible. Because of the very high surface finish
(smoothness), atmospheric pressure is sufficient to cause the slips to adhere together
with a very tenancies grip, and in this condition they are said to ‘wrung’ together;
when wrung together, a parcel of slips can be handled like a solid block. Wringing is
not possible if the adjacent surfaces of two slips are separated by even the finest film
of dust or oil, or by a layer of air; when building up a gauge length, the slips should
first be wiped with a dry fine chamois leather (not a cloth) and then placed in contact
by sliding one surface onto the other. Conversely, separation of wrung slips should
always be done by sliding one slip off the other – never try to pull them apart – it is
not possible.

Always dismantle slips immediately after use as they will bond together if left
assembled too long. Once bonding has taken place then the slips involved are useless
– and they are very expensive. Once wrung apart the separate slips are placed in their
separate compartments in the boxed set.

SINE BARS

The sine bar is an accurately machined bar which is used on a surface table or
surface plate. It is used in conjunction with slip gauges and rollers to produce
accurate angles (to an accuracy of 1 minute) (60 minutes = 1 degree).

Machined angles can be checked against it as can other instruments such as the
vernier bevel protractor, the clinometer etc.

- 58 -
 Fig. 76 THE SINE BAR

To use the sine bar a knowledge of trigonometry is required – in particular the Sine
Ratio. (Refer to the books in this series entitled Mathematics).

QUESTION As a quick bit of revision, can you state what the sine of an angle is? (5
mins)

ANSWER The sine of an angle (of a right angel triangle) is the ratio of the Opposite
side over the Hypotenuse.

SINE = O (SOH)
H

If we know the length of the sides O and H then we can divide O by H

and then find the angle by using Sine tables or a scientific calculator.

For accuracy it is essential that:

(a) The rollers are of the same diameter.

(b) The centre distance (L) is absolutely correct.
(c) The centre line (XX) of the rollers is absolutely parallel with the edge (YY)
of the bar.

Example

In figure 77, a sine bar (H = 100mm) is set up and the height O of the slip gauges is
26.15mm. From the angle theta the opposite side (O) is 26.15mm and H = 100mm.
The angle is:

Sine θ = O = 26.15 = 0.2615

H 100

From the Sine table: θ = 15°10’

- 59 -
 Fig. 77 THE SINE BAR IN USE

Another way the sine bar may be used is to calculate the height of the slip gauges to
produce a given angle.

Given an angle of 18°11’, if a 200mm sine bar is used, the height of the slip gauges
would be:

O = Sine θ or O = H x Sine θ
H

O = 200 x Sine 18°11’

From the tables sine 18°11’ = 0.3120 so

O = 200 x 0.3120

= 62.40mm

LIMIT GAUGES

Sometimes called GO/NO GO gauges and are used to check that components are
within wear limits. Used mostly in component bays with the plug gauge used for
checking holes and the gap gauge used for checking shafts.

The ends of the gauges are indicated which is the GO and which is the NOT GO end
with sometimes actual dimensions given as well.

When using a plug gauge the GO end (small end) should go into the hole – if it does
not the hole is too small, and the NOT GO end should not – if it does go in it indicates
the hole is too big (warn beyond limits). The difference between the sizes indicates the
maximum permissible wear. The flats on the side of the plugs allow for the checking
of ovality.

For the gap gauge the GO side is the larger (if it doesn’t fit, the shaft is too big) and
the smaller end is the NOT GO end indicating the shaft has worn to it's lowest limit.

- 60 -
 Fig. 78 LIMIT GAUGES

THE SPIRIT LEVEL

Consists of a body made of wood or metal which houses a curved glass tube partially
filled with a liquid. The tube is sealed at both ends. Will indicate when a surface is
horizontal by the bubble being central on the zero datum line. Treat the instrument
with care and check for accuracy before use (reversal on a straight edge held in a vice
- the straight edge is protected by a cloth and set level using the spirit level, the level
is turned around on the straight edge and if the bubble still reads zero it is accurate).

Fig. 79 SPIRIT LEVEL

ADJUSTABLE LEVEL

These vary in design but may be used to measure angles up to 10° from the
horizontal. The vertical scale reads in degrees and one complete turn of the adjusting
micrometer knob will alter this scale by one degree. The adjusting knob has a scale of
it's own which is divided into 60 equal divisions. Each division represents one sixtieth
of a degree which is equal to one minute.

The instrument is placed on the surface to be measured and the knob turned until
the bubble reads zero - the degrees are read from the vertical scale and the minutes
from the rotating scale.

To check for accuracy set both scales to zero and then proceed as for the spirit level.

- 61 -
 Fig. 80 ADJUSTABLE LEVEL

CLINOMETER

Used for checking angles from 0 to 90°. The mechanical clino shown has a
mechanism which consists of a worm gear and quadrant. Rotation of the quick
release knob rotates the worm which moves the quadrant. The spirit level and degree
scale are attached to the quadrant. One revolution of the quick release knob moves
the spirit level and degree scale through one degree.

Fig. 81 THE MECHANICAL CLINOMETER

The quick release knob has it's diameter divided into 60 equal divisions so that
movement of one of these is equal to one minute of ark. The quick release knob may
be moved down against a spring to release the quadrant, thus allowing quick
approximate adjustments of the degree scale. To check the instrument, set both
scales to zero and proceed as for the spirit level.

- 62 -
Electronic Clinometer

Sometimes called a Digital Clinometer and can be used to measure angles for 0 to
90°. When switched on and placed on a surface the angle in degrees and minutes is
shown in the window. This can be locked, to be read later if visual access to the
instrument is limited.

POWERED HAND TOOLS

Included in this section are the following portable power tools:

* Torches
* Lead lamps
* Electric mains operated drills
* Battery operated drills
* Riveting guns
* Pneumatic hammers
* Pneumatic millers
* Pneumatic nibblers

Torches

These are supplied in a variety of forms and may be battery operated or re-chargeable.

The important point to note is that they should be of the spark proof type, ie approved
for use on aircraft.

Lead Lamps

These also should be of the safety type with the glass cover protected with a wire
frame. Leads should be so arranged that they are not is a position so that people can
trip on them and they do not pass over liquids of any kind, or over sharp edges.

Lead lamps and the lead should be inspected before used checking for security of the
plug and drill. Check for damage and contamination of the lamp and plug, and check
the cable for contamination and fraying. If in doubt about its serviceability change it
for another.

Mains Operated Drills

These may have a variable speed control and may have a gearing system to further
enhance the selectable speed range. Not normally used on aircraft because of the
sparks produced at the commutator, but may be used in workshop and other
maintenance areas. Should be inspected before use the same as the lamp.

- 63 -
 Fig. 82 MAINS OPERATED DRILL

When provided with a variable speed control the drill may be used (with the
appropriate bit) as a screwdriver. To place a screwdriver bit or a drill bit, the bit is
locked in the chuck using a chuck key.

Cordless Drill

Similar in operation to the drill described above except that it is powered by re-
chargeable batteries. Generally not so powerful but can be used in remote locations
away from a power source. Should be kept fully charged and the same precautions
and inspections apply – except for the lead of course.

Fig. 83 CORDLESS DRILL

Pneumatic Drills (Windy Drills)

These are pneumatically powered using air pressure in the range 60 to 100psi. They
are controlled by an open/close air valve and may have a straight or angled drive.
They are vane operated, rotate at about 2500rpm and are significantly safer to use
than electrical drills as there is no possibility of electric shock, or a spark – to cause a
fire.

The ‘straight windy’ uses a chuck to hold the drill bit whilst the ‘angled windies’ use a
collet. The correct size collet must be used with each drill bit.

Before use check for general serviceability and put a few drops of thin machine oil
into the air inlet before connecting the air supply line.

- 64 -
 Fig. 84 STRAIGHT ‘WINDY’

Fig. 85 RIGHT ANGLED ‘WINDY’

Pneumatic Riveting Hammers

These come in a variety of shapes and sizes. In general air pressure (between 60 to
100psi) causes a steel plunger to move up and down inside a barrel. As it does so it
strikes a rivet snap secured in the end by a retaining spring.

Fig. 86 PNEUMATIC HAMMER

- 65 -
Before use check the hammer for damage and check that the correct rivet snap is
securely fitted by its retaining spring onto the body. Before actually riveting it is
advisable to try the hammer out first to ascertain how strong the hammer action is.
This should be done by placing the snap against a firm wooden block (held in a vice
for example) and operating the push button.

Never operate the hammer without the snap being supported – if the spring was to
loosen and come off the snap would fly and could injure someone.

TORQUE LOADING

QUESTION Can you define torque and state the units it is measured in?
(5 mins)

ANSWER Torque is a twisting action and it is defined as force times perpendicular

distance from the point of application of the force to the fulcrum. In SI
units it is Newtons (N) times metres (m) = Nm, and in imperial units it is
feet (or inches) times lbs = lbs ft or lbs in.

There are several ways of torque loading a nut and bolt assembly without the use of a
torque spanner, eg

* Using a spring balance – to get the required force pulling at right angles
at the end of an open-ended or ring spanner.

* Using Preload Indicator Washers. Special washers that compress when

torqued down by a nut. Consist of an inner and outer washer. The inner
washer is compressed when the nut is tightened down while the outer
washer is moved by the operator using a piece of wire.

At the correct torque loading the inner washer will have compressed
sufficiently to allow the nut to ‘nip’ or hold the outer washer so that it
cannot now be moved. This ‘nipping’ occurs at a pre-determined torque
value.

* Using a micrometer. This is the most accurate method but is limited by

access problems. The bolt is accurately measured for length before any
torque is applied. Torque is then applied using an ordinary spanner or
socket to slowly stretch the bolt a specific length as laid down in the
manual. Thus it is the actual stretch of the bolt that is being measured –
and that is what torque loading is really all about.

The bold will be stretched a little at a time until the required stretch is
achieved (say 0.005in). The assembly will be given a time to settle down
and a measurement taken to see if the stretch has changed – if it has it
will be re-torqued.

It is the most accurate system but can only be used where access is
available to both ends of the bolt with an instrument such as a
micrometer or vernier.

- 66 -
Torque loading, therefore, is a measure of how far the bolt has been stretched and
how tight the joint is being held together.

If a nut/bolt assembly is over-torqued then the bolt material might be stretched

beyond its elastic limit and therefore it will be weakened. If the assembly is under-
torqued then the joint is not held tight enough and movement and failure could occur.

The majority of bolts, nuts or screws on aircraft are subject to a standard torque-
loading dependant on material, thread size, type and lubrication. Different
applications may require a particular torque loading, this will be specified in the
appropriate manual. The normal method of applying a specified torque loading is by
means of a Torque Wrench.

The Technique

This may vary depending on application, but in general the following points apply:

1. Check the manual for torque values.

2. Always inspect the joint, nut and bolt for damage, corrosion and
cleanliness.
3. Assemble, lubricate the threads or keep then dry – as laid down in the
manual. This is important – bolted assemblies have failed in the past
because they have been assembled dry when they should have been
assembled wet – and vice-versa.
4. Apply sealant or anti-seize compound as specified.
5. Run down nut by hand to check for excessive binding. Remember a self-
locking nut should not be able to be run down by hand. (If it can be it is
unserviceable).
6. Using a serviceable torque wrench within test date set to the correct
torque loading and using the correct size socket, torque the nut down
slowly to half the specified value.
7. Undo the nut slightly and slowly torque to the full value.
8. If it has to re-checked after a settling down period – recheck after that
period.
9. Lock the nut by the appropriate means.
10. If the (castellated) nut does not align with the split pin hole in the bolt
then check on torque tolerances laid down in the manual and torque to
within those tolerances to align holes.

NOTE. If several nut bolts/studs are used for joining the same part (such as a
cylinder head), they are usually tightened in sequence.

If they are located in a circle, for example, the first one to be tightened is usually the
one at the 12 o’c position followed by the one at 6 o’c position then:

1 o’c then,
7 o’c then,
2 o’c then,
8 o’c then …………………….

Several clock circles may have to be completed before the correct reading is
obtained on each nut/stud.

- 67 -
When using sealants in a joint the torque loading of fasteners should be carried out
within the sealant setting time. After ten minutes but within twice the application life
of the sealant, the loading should be checked and re-applied as necessary.

Pipeline Union Nuts

To ensure freedom from leaks, the parts of flared pipe couplings need bedding in. By
adopting the following procedure leaks will be avoided on this type of coupling.

1. Assemble the parts of the joint, run up the nut by hand.

2. Tighten to specified torque loading.
3. Slacken nut half a turn then re-apply specified torque loading.

NOTE. Torque loading is not usually specified for flareless couplings.

The method recommended is to tighten the nut with the fingers until positive
resistance is felt, then tighten a further half to one turn.

Lubrication of components is usually by the type of fluid used in the system.

Connections in oxygen systems must be dry unless a special preparation is
recommended. PTFE tape may be recommended for oxygen systems.

QUESTION Why must oxygen connections not be lubricated? (2 mins)

ANSWER The combination of high-pressure oxygen and most lubricants will cause
an explosion.

Stiffnuts

In order to check the effectiveness of the friction element of a stiffnut it is general

practice to turn the nut onto its mating thread by hand. If it is possible to pass the
thread through the friction element by hand, then the nut should be discarded.

However, certain manufacturers specify limits of frictional torque for various thread
types and sizes and in these instances each stiffnut should be checked with a torque
wrench before re-use. Usually the stiffnut torque value is then added to the specified
torque value for the nut/bolt assembly, and this value is set on the torque wrench.

Torque Tables

Tables of standard torque values for difference thread types and sizes and for special
applications should be found in the AMM. Manuals for older types of aircraft may be
found to contain only special torque loading requirements and a single table
applicable to non self-locking nuts. In these cases the frictional torque of a stiffnut
must be added to the torque quoted for the type and size of thread. Tables usually
specify the upper and lower limits of torque, but if a single figure is quoted, it is
generally accepted that this may be exceeded for the purpose of lining up a split pin
hole, tab washer or locking plate. However, an upper torque limit should not be
exceeded and nuts should not be slackened to line up locking devices.

- 68 -
 Torque (lb in)

Thread (UNF) Tension Shear

10-32 20 to 25 12 to 15
1/4-28 60 to 70 30 to 40
5/16-24 115 to 125 60 to 85
3/8-24 200 to 215 95 to 110
7/16-20 335 to 355 270 to 300
1/2-20 500 to 530 290 to 410
9/16-18 720 to 760 480 to 600
5/8-18 980 to 1020 660 to 780
3/4-16 1650 to 1790 1300 to 1500
7/8-14 2500 to 2700 1500 to 1800
1-12 3500 to 3700 2200 to 3300

TABLE OF LUBRICATED TORQUE VALUES

The table shows typical torque loading figures for steel non self-locking lubricated
Unified threads. It is applicable to British Standards A102 to A217 or American AN3
to AN20 bolts and nuts, and should not be used when different values are specified by
the equipment manufacturers. If applied to self-locking fasteners, the frictional torque
of the nut should be added to the figures shown.

There should be no need to commit the table to memory.

TORQUE WRENCHES

In general can be classified as Dial Type or Break Type. Dial type wrenches have some
form of indicator on them to indicate how much torque is being applied. They may
have an actual dial on the handle or may have an indicator bar attached to the socket
drive.

The break type wrench is set to a particular value either by checking it against a
master rig (eg an Acratork test rig) or by setting the torque value on a micrometer type
scale on the handle of the wrench.

Dial Wrench

Figure 87 shows a typical dial wrench. When under torque loading the drive shaft
tends to twist (a very small amount) against a spring beam within the unit. This twist
is transmitted to a lever, which moves a pointer on the dial indicated in
lb in or Nm.

The dial should be checked for zero prior to use.

- 69 -
 Fig. 87 DIAL TYPE WRENCH

Beam Type Dial Wrench

This works on the principle that the handle of the wrench flexes when torque is
applied. The indicator bar does not, so it will read the torque value on the scale. It
should be checked for zero before use.

Fig. 88 BEAM TYPE DIAL WRENCH

Break Type Wrench (Acratork)

The drawing below shows a typical break type wrench. The particular type has no
setting scale on it and each time it is set (by adjusting the screw adjuster with a
special spanner) it must be checked on a special checking rig.

It works on the principle that a roller is pushed by a spring into a slot in the cam
mechanism. As torque is applied to the wrench so the roller is pushed out of the cam
slot at a pre-determined value. Increasing the spring pressure, by screwing in the
adjuster, increases the torque setting by pushing the roller more firmly into the slot.

When the torque on the wrench reaches its setting value the roller is forced out of the
slot and the wrench looses all drive to the drive spigot. Care is required when pulling
the wrench back to re-engage the roller with the slot as it can cause the wrench to
move rapidly to its ‘set’ position.

- 70 -
 Fig. 89 ACRATORK WRENCH

Break Type Wrench (Britool)

This works on a similar principle to the Acratork except that it has a micrometer type
indicator scale on the barrel of the handle. To adjust the setting the adjuster is
screwed in or out (in to increase the setting – out to decrease) and the sliding handle
will move up or down the barrel to indicate the torque set.

Scales on the handle can include lb in, lb ft and Nm.

The torque loading is applied via a helical spring within the barrel body.

Fig. 90 BREAK TYPE WRENCH (BRITOOL)

When the preset torque loading is reached, an audible click is produced and an
indicator bar moves out to give a visual indication. ‘Feel’ is also momentarily relieved.
The wrench does not loose drive so it must never be operated past the position when
the click is heard. The wrench is reset automatically on release of the hand pressure.

For very accurate torque loadings the wrench should be checked on a test rig prior to
use to confirm the barrel readings.

- 71 -
Extension Spanners

In some cases an extension spanner can be fitted onto the end of a torque wrench.
When this happens the reading on the torque wrench will be less than the actual
torque felt by the nut/bolt.

Fig. 91 EXTENSION SPANNER – 1

When an extension spanner is used the reading on the torque wrench can be found
from the equation:

Reading = Specified Torque x L

D

Fig. 92 EXTENSION SPANNER – 2

If the extension spanner has to be placed at an angle (for access) then all lengths
must be measured perpendicular to the force as shown in figure 88.

Example

Set specified torque = 200 lb in

L = 12in
D = 14in

What will the scale reading be?

Reading = Specified Torque x L

D

= 200 x 12
14

= 171 lb in

- 72 -
Precautions

Verify that the specified torque and the wrench scale are in the same units, if not the
specified torque should be converted by calculation to the scale units. When torque
loading the wrench, the handle should be lightly gripped and force applied smoothly
at 90° to the axis of the wrench.

Values of torque within the first quarter of the wrench scale may be difficult to read
accurately and some manufacturers specify that the torque wrench selected for a
particular use should have a range where the specified torque falls in the upper range
of the scale.

When using a torque wrench with a floating driving tang so that the direction of
rotation can be reversed, ensure that the driving tang is correctly positioned otherwise
damage to the fasteners may occur before it is noticed. Indicator type torque
wrenches should be checked before use to ensure that the scale reading is zero.

All torque wrenches should be frequently checked for accuracy and a record kept of
the checks – the wrench should have an indication attached as to when the last check
was carried out.

One method of checking is by attaching a spring balance to the centre of the wrench
handle and force applied in the arc of movement. The scale reading on the torque
wrench should be the same as the spring balance reading multiplied by the length of
the wrench. Checks should be carried out at several values on the torque wrench
scale range.

The Acratork Test Rig

Another method of checking and setting torque wrenches is to use the Acratork test
rig (or similar). It has a range of 0 – 400lb ft.

Adapters and different sizes of adjusting keys are provided and the rig can be used to
check any wrench. The following is a description of how to set an Acratork wrench on
the rig.

To check an Acratork wrench remove the end cap from the handle and fit the wrench
in the rig ensuring that the wrench is placed in as nearly horizontal a position as
possible, press downwards on the wrench handle until a sudden drop in resistance of
the handle is felt, return the wrench to the starting position and remove. Set the
pointer on the dial to zero and replace the wrench on the rig, press the handle
downward and note the reading on the dial at the point where the drop in resistance
occurs. This reading is the torque loading to which the wrench is set. To increase the
torque loading, tighten the screw adjuster inside the handle (RH thread) by means of
the adjusting key.

Note this can be done without removing the wrench from the rig. Retest the wrench
and set the adjuster screw until the desired torque loading is obtained. Ensure that
the dot and the arrow on the head of the wrench are in-line (this indicates the roller is
re-engaged with the cam) before removing the wrench from the rig. Refit the handle
end cap and the wrench is then ready for use.

- 73 -
 Fig. 93 ACRATORK TEST RIG

Checking Torque Wrenches – General

Beam and dial type torque wrenches should be checked for zero reading each time
before use.

All torque wrenches ideally, should be checked for accuracy before use or at intervals
not exceeding 6 months. Those wrenches in greater use should be checked more
frequently. Records should be kept and a label attached indicating when the last test
was carried out and when the next one is due. Those without a setting scale should
be checked and set on a test rig each time before use.

Wrenches can be checked using a test rig or attaching a calibrated spring balance to
the handle and applying a pull at right angles. The torque can be calculated by
multiplying the spring balance reading by the distance from the spring balance to the
fulcrum. This value should be the same as that indicated on the wrench. Several
readings should be obtained over the full range of the wrench.

TENSIOMETERS

Used to check the tension of control cables – for flying controls, engine controls etc.
There are several types available. Two are described below.

- 74 -
SME Type Tensiometer

Supplied in various marks to suit different sizes of cable. Each tensiometer will fit two
sizes of cable, the sizes being marked on the scales. It is important that the correct
mark of tensiometer is used otherwise inaccurate readings will result.

Fig. 94 SME TYPE TENSIOMETER

Instructions for use.

(a) Fit the instrument where there is a clear run of cable – or as stated in
the aircraft maintenance manual (AMM).
(b) Pull the pointer over to it’s stop.
(c) Pass the cable under the right hand fixed pulley, then over the centre
floating pulley then under the left hand pulley.
(d) Ensure that the tensiometer hangs freely.
(e) Run the tensiometer back and forth along the cable a few inches and tap
the cable until the reading settles down. The tension is indicated in lbf
on the appropriate scale.

Before use, the position of the spring anchorage pin should be checked to see that it
has not moved outside its engraved circle. If movement has occurred the pin should
be restored to its original position. The tensiometer should be checked at regular
intervals by the manufacturer or at an approved standards room.

The Pacific T5 Type Tensiometer

This tensiometer is suitable for various sizes of cable.

- 75 -
 Fig. 95 FITTING THE T5 TENSIOMETER TO A CABLE

Instructions for use

(a) From the chart supplied find the correct riser to use for the size of cable.
Fit the riser.
(b) Check that the brake is off. Move trigger away from the case - this lowers
the riser.
(c) Over the longest free length of cable possible (or as specified in the AMM)
place the cable under the two sectors and over the riser.
(d) Close the trigger - this raises the riser.
(e) Note the reading on the gauge. (If the reading is to be held operate the
brake lever).
(f) Open the trigger and remove the tensiometer from the cable.
(g) Convert the dial reading to lb tension by reference to a chart.

NOTE. Each tensiometer has its own calibration chart. Make sure the calibration
chart bears the same serial number as the tensiometer.

THE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

The Dead Weight Tester is used to calibrate Bourdon tube type instruments. The
instrument under test is fitted to the correct dead weight tester (filled with the correct
fluid – the same as is in the system the gauge is to be fitted to). The inlet and outlet
valves are opened and the gauge and unit bled of air ensuring the reservoir is kept
full. With the connections tightened the inlet valve is closed.

Standard masses are placed on the mass carrier (piston platform) and the plunger
screwed in. This raises the mass carrier clear of the body and the pressure is
indicated on the pressure gauge under test. The actual pressure can be calculated by
knowing the area of the piston (A), the total mass of the piston and the masses (M).
Pressure (P) = M/A.

- 76 -
 Fig. 96 THE DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

For the imperial type tester the piston area = 0.125in2 and the piston mass = 0.125lb.

The calculated pressure is compared with the indicated pressure – they should both
be the same for a serviceable gauge. The process would be repeated with several
different masses to cover the full operating range of the gauge.

These testers tend to be messy affairs and are usually bolted to a liquid proof metal
tray with turned up edges so as to keep spillages to a minimum. The tray is labelled
with the type of fluid used in the tester. In hydraulic test bays there is usually several
dead weight testers – each labelled with the type of fluid used – eg DTD585, Skydrol
etc.

”””””””

- 77 -
Book 3 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
ENGINEERING PRACTICES

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7A.2 7A.3 7A.6 ISSUE 02 1103

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without
prior written permission from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
ADDENDUM

Addendum action in response to student feedback after taking the CAA

examinations. EASA Part 66 module 7A LBP book 3 Maintenance Practices.

Copper sulphate is used to aid marking out on ferrous metals. It is painted on

to the shiny surface of the metal, allowed to dry and a scriber is used to scribe
lines into the copper sulphate for marking-out purposes. The lines show up
clearly against the reddish/brown of the copper sulphate. Remember,
aluminium and its alloys is notch sensitive (notches, nicks or scribed lines,
with time, will instigate the propagation of cracks), so a soft pencil is always
used for marking out – unless it’s a cut line.
***
Oxygen bottles should not be discharged below a certain minimum pressure
(CAAIPS state 200 to 300psi but check the AMM). This is to ensure that any
moisture in the O2 does not precipitate out to form water. This will
contaminate the oxygen and cause it to smell. Also applies to compressed air
storage bottles.
****
CONTENTS

Page

Lubrication methods 1
Care of tools 7
Workshop materials 9
Metals and composites 14
Dimensions and measurement 19
Calibration of tools and equipment 25
Limit systems 28
Checking for wear 36
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book brings together a collection of items, mostly unrelated to each other,
but each too small to warrant a separate book.

As a B1 or B2 engineer you should be able to describe lubrication methods

and the care of tools in detail. It would be a good idea to have studied the book
in this series entitled ‘Tools’ before studying this book.

It is difficult to say how much one should commit to memory regarding

workshop materials, but you should have a good idea of the range of materials,
fluids, compounds and gasses, and their general uses.

The subject of dimensions and measurement brings together the practical

aspect of workshop practice, precision instruments and procedures like
aircraft rigging.

You should understand what equipment requires calibration and, in general

terms, how this is done.

Limit systems can be a ‘dry’ subject to study but you should have a general
knowledge of how the systems work and how the subject can be applied
practically.
 LUBRICATION METHODS

Lubrication of components and systems is carried out at the times specified in

the maintenance schedule and the method as stated in the AMM. The
equipment used is usually of local purchase though any special equipment
that might be required will be obtained (for a fee) from the aircraft/component
manufacture.

The oils and greases used will have to meet the specification as stated in the
AMM, and these are also obtained through local purchase. The specification of
the oils and greases will be given in list format in chapter 20 of the AMM.

The list will include:

* Standard greases and oils for general use.

* Alternative lubricants in case any of the above are not available.
* Mineral based and synthetic based lubricants.
* High pressure greases.
* Special lubricants for such things as threads on oxygen
connections. WARNING. An ordinary lubricant in contact with
high pressure oxygen will cause an explosion.
* Anti-seize grease for threads – normally a graphited compound.
* Fuel resistant greases.
* Lubricants for use with rubber sealing rings, ‘O’ rings etc.

In general, a lubricate is designed to reduce the friction between moving parts

by interposing a low viscosity medium between them. This helps prevent
contact between the moving surfaces and also helps disperse the heat
generated. It also helps remove the products of friction (wear particles etc), and
in such things as internal combustion engines helps remove debris from the
combustion process.

Some moving surfaces are not lubricated (check the AMM), others have
pressure air supplied to them to keep the surfaces apart (air bearings), but
most are lubricated by the use of oil or grease.

Parts that are not lubricated are those that do not suffer from a lot of friction,
or would suffer from damage due to the lubricant getting dirty through dust
etc (fairleads, control cable pressure bulkhead seals etc). Some parts are not
lubricated where the materials used in the manufacture of the parts are self
lubricating – phosphor-bronze bearings, oil impregnated tufnol bearings, teflon
bearings etc.

It is important to remember that bearings such as teflon will deteriorate

rapidly if lubricated – so lubricate only those bearings that are specified in the
AMM. The decision whether to lubricate a bearing or leave it dry is made by
the manufacturer, so always consult the AMM.

-1-
 Fig. 1 PART OF CHAPTER 20 COMPOUNDS LIST – EXAMPLE A330

Some-times, threads (male and female) are lubricated – check the AMM. This
helps reduce friction between the threads and effectively increases the actual
torque between the parts. It is most important that the AMM is consulted to
check whether threads are torqued wet (lubricated) or dry.

Serious accidents have happened in the past when bolts have failed after being
torque loaded wet when they should have been torque loaded dry.

Remember, only the approved oil/grease must be used, and only those
bearings/lubrication points are to be lubricated. Do not over lubricate and
always clear up any additional oil/grease left after the operation.

Some oils and greases are used as preservative compounds to be used as

temporary anti-corrosive treatments.

Remember oils and greases can be a skin irritant and some may cause
dermatitis. So always use a barrier cream and, if necessary, gloves.

-2-
If any lubricants get on the hands wash off with soap and water and re-apply
the barrier cream. If eye contamination occurs irrigate with copious amounts
of water and seek medical advice.

In some manuals lubrication ‘blocks’ or symbols are used. These will indicate
the method of application and the specification of the lubricant to be used.

Fig. 2 LUBRICATION SYMBOLS – B767

Lubrication of sealed roller and ball bearings having lubrication provision

requires care to prevent too much pressure being pumped in so as to cause
the seal to blow-out. To help prevent this happening a flow restrictor can be
fitted to the charging gun (several flow restrictors are available commercially)
that restrict the pressure to below 2500psi.

Fig. 3 LUBRICATION POINTS – EXAMPLE B767 AMM TAILPLANE TRIM

-3-
If pressure lubricating a sealed bearing, take careful note of any seal
deformation and/or grease seepage – if either happens, stop immediately and
allow the pressure to subside.

Pressures between 100psi and 200psi should be sufficient to get grease into a
sealed bearing, but at any rate should never exceed 2500psi.

Fig. 4 LUBRICATION NIPPLES

If a seal does blow, or the fitting/bearing becomes loose make sure the
lubrication path is clear and change the bearing.

Non-sealed bearings are lubricated as required. Sealed bearings may be

lubricated by the manufacturer and sealed for life and are never lubricated
again – they are changed only. Other sealed bearings are lubricated regularly
(see above) as stated in the AMM and maintenance schedule.

Nipples/Application Points

These may be of the push-on type or pressure clip-on or slide-on type. They
are screwed into position and each one contains a small ball type non-return
valve, which is pushed open when lubricant pressure is applied. The lubricant
then passes through a central drilling to the point of lubrication.

The nipple may be fitted with a dust cap, but at any rate it must be thoroughly
cleaned before fitting the grease gun. The grease gun adapter end must also be
cleaned prior to use. After the part has been lubricated excess lubricant is
removed with a soft cloth and any dust caps fitted.

Fitting the push-on type gun to the nipple is simply a matter of putting the
adapter end on to the nipple, pressing firmly and pumping the grease gun
handle.

For the pressure slide-on type the adapter is slid onto the nipple so that the
nipple flange engages with the engagement slots of the adapter – it is then slid
fully forward so that the lubrication hole on the adapter aligns with the nipple
non-return valve.

-4-
Application Methods

Equipment listed below must be kept clean and end caps fitted when not in
use. Each oilcan/grease gun must be marked with the type of oil/grease
inside and it must not be used for any other specification lubricant. In other
words the existing lubricant must not be removed and a different lubricant
substituted.

When purchasing equipment locally ensure (from the equipment

manufacturer) that the equipment (seals etc) is compatible with the type of
lubricant that is to go inside.

Hand. Smeared on by hand over the area to be covered. Oils and greases.

Brush. A brush or plastic spreader is used to apply the oil over the area. May
be used with some of the ‘thinner’ (those with a low viscosity) greases.

Fig. 5 PUMP ACTION GREASE GUN

Oilcan. A pump action (thumb or finger operated) oilcan to apply drops of oil
into an oil cup or nipple attached to the equipment or to apply a few drops to
spindles, shafts, chains etc.

Pump Action Grease Gun. Used for pumping grease into an end nipple. The
end is placed over the nipple and the handle is pushed forward. This pushes
the piston inside the cylinder and pumps grease through the ball non-return
valve of the push-on type nipple.

To refill with grease unscrew the end cap, remove the piston and handle
complete, fill the cylinder with the correct specification grease, replace the
piston and end cap, tighten the end cap.

Hand Operated Grease Gun. Consists of a cylinder with a piston operated with
a handle. Will apply grease, and oil, under pressure to the lubrication point.
The lubrication point normally being a slide-on nipple (for high pressure).

-5-
The unit may come complete with a pressure gauge. The end connector is slid
over the pressure type nipple so that it engages with the nipple flange. The
action of sliding the adapter over the nipple will help unseat the ball spring
non-return valve in the nipple.

Fig. 6 HAND OPERATED GREASE GUN

When the handle is pumped lubricant is forced under pressure through the
non-return valve, then through drillings to the bearing.

To refill, unscrew the base cap, pull out the internal floating piston and fill the
cylinder with the correct specification lubricant. Replace the floating piston
and re-connect the base cap.

Pressure Operated Lubrication Equipment. Specialised equipment, air

pressurised to supply oil through a trigger operated adapter.

Oil

Usually supplied in drums with the specification, manufacturer’s name etc

printed on the front. For application purposes, oilcans, hand operated pumps
etc are used. Always use oil as specified in the AMM and specified on the can.
If in doubt use only oil from a sealed drum.

Grease

Supplied in tubes (similar to, but larger than, toothpaste tubes), and tins.
Again, these must all have the manufacturer’s name and material specification
printed clearly on the outside.

-6-
 CARE OF TOOLS

Tools can be divided into:

* Personal tools. Those tools that are purchased by the

tradesman/woman and kept in his/her tool box. They will include
such item as, screwdrivers, spanners, socket sets etc. They may
also include test instruments such as multi-meters.

* Special tools that are kept by the company in the stores and these
may be dedicated to an aircraft type. May include specialist
equipment too large to keep in tool boxes and expensive
equipment and test sets. Will usually include special to type
adapters, tools, test sets etc.

Routine Care of Tools

Each tool (spanner, socket, extension, test set, etc) should be marked with a
code that identifies it and its normal location. Each trades-person should have
his/her own code etched into each item and that code recorded with the firm
that that person is working for.

Cleaning. All tools benefit from being kept clean. It also means less chance of
contamination of the equipment being worked on (contamination of fluid
systems, air conditioning systems etc). Most metal tools are kept in good
condition by the application of a thin oil or an oil based solution such as
WD40, which is then wiped clean using a clean lint free cloth.

Files are cleaned using a scratch card.

Test-sets are kept clean and free from liquids. Should they become
contaminated then they are to be returned to the manufacturer for
dismantling, cleaning, assembly and testing.

Storage. Most tools are simply stored in a secure box. Socket sets, spanner
sets etc are usually stored in the special box they are supplied in. This not
only keeps them all in one location (and easy to find), but also aids the process
of checking all tools are present at cessation of work.

Delicate tools and instruments will be supplied and kept in boxes

(micrometers, verniers, watchmaker’s screwdrivers, slip gauges etc).

Some large/special tools will be stored in a secure room. These may be placed
on shelving or hung on ‘shadow boards’. These boards have clips or other
supports screwed to them onto which the tool is hung. Painted on the board
where the tool hangs is the silhouette of the tool. When the correct tool is
clipped into the correct place on the board then it’s shadow cannot be seen.

-7-
It is useful when doing a tool check as one look at the board (which may
contain many dozens of tools) tells the observer immediately if any tool is
missing.

Files should be kept in their sleeves to protect the teeth, or in some sort of
hold-all. Sharp objects such as dividers, scribers etc should have their sharp
ends pushed into a piece of cork (a wine bottle cork) to protect them.

Maintenance. Some tools will need attention with a file from time to time to
trim them to shape – these include pin punches, taper punches, drifts, flat
screwdrivers etc.

Hammer heads will need checking for security to the shaft. If not secure tap
the head down with another hammer and drive the wedge/steg further home.

Chisels will need re-honing and drills will need re-sharpening (use a special jig)
though small drills are best replaced when they loose their edge.

Apart from the above most tools need no further attention, however, those
tools that are used for measurement will need checking/calibration. For the
checking of standard precision instruments see the book in this series entitled
‘Tools’. For calibration of test sets etc see the chapter in this series entitled
‘Calibration’.

Tool Checks

It is most important that tools (and anything else for that matter) are not left
on aircraft after completion of work. They are a serious hazard as they can jam
controls, block system pipes etc. The term ‘loose articles’ applies to anything
left on an aircraft after maintenance – this includes rags, split pins, locking
wire, and tools.

It is most important that a loose article check is carried out after every task on
the aircraft, engine, component, and as a double check a tool-check is also
carried out.

Each person working on the aircraft should check his/her tool kit after each
task and at the end of the working day, or before the next flight to ensure that
all tools are accounted for. Any special tools used from the tool-store should be
returned and the person in-charge of the store should do a tool check to see
that there are no tools missing.

If, during these checks, a tool is found missing then the aircraft should not be
allowed to fly until it has been found. The search will include the work areas of
the aircraft, all tools boxes, the tool store, hangar/workshop area, rubbish
bins, scrap bins etc. A check will also be made of the signing in and out book
of the tool store to see if this record shows who has had what tool, and when.

-8-
It is always a good idea to carry out a loose article check of the work area on
the aircraft after completion of the task – in some organisations it is a
requirement which must be signed for.

WORKSHOP MATERIALS

These can include:

* Barrier cream – to be rubbed into the hands and any other parts
of the body (arms etc) that might come into contact with any
lubricants, fuels, compounds etc. Helps prevent skin
contamination with these substances and possible dermatitis.
Supplied in containers and wall mounted dispensers.

* Soaps and soap/cleansing solutions.

* Eye cleansing water. Sterilised water supplied in a dispenser for

the irrigation of the eye should a foreign body (piece of swarf, dust
etc) get into the eye or if the eye is splashed with a harmful liquid.

* Oils. Supplied in sealed tins to an approved specification. Avoid

contact with oils. Use as specified in AMM chapter 20 or the
appropriate component manual. Usually supplied locally to meet
specifications stated in the AMM/manual. These specifications
include: MIL specifications (American); AIR specifications (French);
DAN (German); DTD (British) etc. May include any of the following:

Hydraulic Oils. DTD 585 or similar for some aircraft

hydraulic systems and shock absorbers.

Lockheed 22 or similar on some older

aircraft hydraulic systems.

Phosphate ester based fluids such as

Skydrol on many large aircraft hydraulic
systems.

Engine oil. For use on jet engines and APUs (Auxiliary

Power Units).

Lubricating oils. Different specifications available including

low temperature oils, high temperature oils,
synthetic based, mineral based etc.

Penetrating oil. For use when trying to undo very

tight/seized threaded items.

-9-
* Special lubricants. Includes thread lubrication for oxygen systems.

* Greases. Supplied in cans or tubes. The same applies as to oils,

for safety, use, and specifications. May include:

General greases. Different specifications available for different

applications such as fuel and oil resistant
grease, O ring lubricant, general lubricant etc.

Graphite grease. Several uses including anti-seize grease for

screw-threads.

Sealing grease. Silicon based, used for metal to metal sealing.

* Fuels. Normally supplied in bulk tankers or supplied via

underground pipes to pumping vehicles on large airfields. If kept
in small containers, should be clearly marked with a danger sign
indicating its contents and that it is a flammable fluid. Cans
should be sealed and stored in a non-combustible building away
from aircraft and hangars. As with oils and greases avoid contact
on the skin and eyes.

* Fuel additives such as biocide additive.

* Refrigerants for refrigeration equipment on aircraft.

* Leak detectors. Specially formulated for the detection of leaks.

Some are specific for use with oxygen systems, others for air
systems and some are coloured or fluorescent for use with
vacuum testing.

* Other Compounds such as:

Thread locking compounds including permanent locking

compounds (Loctite 270).

Zinc powder. When mixed with compounds such as Mastinox is

used to ensure electrical continuity between PCU components.

* Sealants. eg DTD 900, MIL-S-8802 for pressure cabin sealing and

integral fuel tank sealing.

* Cleaners such as Teepol 610, Turco Air Tec and Ardrox – general
purpose detergents and cleaners, and specialised cleaners.

Rain repellent cleaner for removal of rain repellent from

windscreens (Coke should not be used).

- 10 -
 Plastic cleaners. May include plastic polishing compounds for use
on transparent panels (passenger windows) and CRT screen/flat
screen cleaning materials.

* Metal polish. For polishing out small scratches in aluminium

alloys.

* Rust inhibitor. Such as Rocket WD40. Used to prevent corrosion,

disperse moisture and lubricate.

* Adhesives. These include the following:

Structural and high temperature adhesives for metal to metal and

metal to honeycomb bonding. eg DOD-A-82720 (American) for
metal to metal bonding.

Adhesive film for structural bonding.

Synthetic adhesives for general adhesive use.

Loctite 932 adhesive used for locking the backshells of electrical

connectors.

* Degreasants such as:

Dry cleaning solvent (Varsol/white spirit). Used for cleaning metal

parts.

Methyl-ethyl-ketone.

Trichlorethane.

Methyl Alcohol.

Safety solvent. Safer than those listed above. For general use and
for cleaning oxygen pipelines.

Paraffin/petrol. Metal parts should be thoroughly cleaned and

dried after using paraffin to prevent any possibility of corrosion.

* Rust removers. Acid based removers formulated for specific tasks

such as, for use on Fe metals only, for use on Al alloys only etc.

* Lacquers. May be used as corrosion preventatives on metals.

Special (epoxy) lacquers used as an electrical bonding lacquer.

* Anti corrosive solutions such as Alodine 1200 for the surface

conversion of aluminium alloys prior to painting.

- 11 -
* Paints including: primer and top coat paints; polyurethane;
synthetic, cellulose etc.

* Paint removers/strippers such as MIL-R-25134, Turco 800 etc

* Engineers Blue (marking ink). Used to indicate low and high spots
on precision work using a surface table – as an example.

* Jointing compounds such as polysulphide polymer and pigmented

jointing compound for use between metal contact surfaces.

* De-icing fluid. Type 1 used on aircraft when temperatures do not

go below minus 10°C and holdover times are short – otherwise use
type 2.

* Acids and alkali’s. Used for battery electrolytes. Corrosive to skin

and metal.

* Tapes. Self adhesive and have special applications, eg for external

aerodynamic sealing (speed tape) of the airframe, internal décor
repairs (decorfoil), erosion protective tapes, cargo liner repair tapes
etc.

* Deodorants for toilets, disinfectants for drinking water systems

and sprays for passenger areas, antiseptic sprays for oxygen
masks, insecticides for passenger and cargo compartments.

* Desiccant. (Silica Gel crystals) Used to dehumidify the atmosphere

in a sealed container. Used for storage purposes and in
components where a dry atmosphere is imperative. Turns pink
when life expired. Rejuvenated by being heating in an oven, when
it will regain its deep blue colour.

* Penetrants and removers. Special dyes, dye removers and

developers, often supplied in kit form, to be used when checking
for surface cracks and flaws.

* Fabric. Rags for general cleaning – remember not to store wet rags
in a container as they may spontaneously combust. Specialist
cleaning clothes. Upholstery fabric – meeting current fire and
smoke regulations. Thermoweldable waterproof fabric for use when
protecting components in storage.

Used in aircraft construction for the covering of some light

aircraft. Supplied in large rolls called bolts and may be:

Unbleached Irish linen

Madapollam
Polyester

- 12 -
 Unbleached Irish linen and Madapollam are tautened by doping
whilst polyester is tautened by the application of heat.

* Paper. In rolls or sheets for general use or as protection using

grease proof paper or laminated paper.

* Cord/string/rope. May be used for general purposes, but

specialised cord/string/rope is supplied for such purposes as
stringing up bag type fuel tanks, cleating/tying-up wire and cable
looms, stitching fabric to structure etc. May need to be waxed
before use.

* Wood. Straight grained spruce used as structural members on

some very old aircraft along with high grade plywood, balsa wood
etc. Lignum Vitae and similar very hard woods used in the
construction of the earlier propellers. In the workshop/hangar
wood is likely to be used for such things as drilling support
material; crating large components, and used as a block with a
hammer when bending sheet metal.

* Wire. Locking wire – soft iron – steel – stainless steel - copper –

brass depending on application.

* Gases – nitrogen – air – oxygen. Stored pressurised up to 4500psi

(31MPa) in colour (and words) identified gas cylinders.

* Small parts. Nuts, bolts, washers, rivets etc. Kept in their original
packages to facilitate identification or kept in stores in a labelled
bin system.

WARNING

Some of the liquids listed above are toxic and/or highly inflammable and/or
corrosive and/or harmful if in contact with the skin, or if their fumes are
inhaled. Read the warning/safety notice on the container and the warnings
given in the AMM/manual. In general always use barrier creams and avoid
unnecessary contact with any liquids, gasses, compounds etc.

blank

- 13 -
 METALS & COMPOSITES

TABLE 1 - FERROUS METALS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MATERIAL USES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cast Iron Machine beds, frames, castings, journal bearings,
pistons, piston rings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wrought Iron Cores of dynamos, lifting chains, crane hooks.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mild Steel Bolts and nuts. General workshop machined
components. Girders, forgings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Medium Carbon Leaf springs, wire ropes, general tools, axles,
Steel crankshafts, hinge pins etc.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
High Carbon Cutting tools. Coil springs. High strength attachment.
Steel. Nuts and bolts.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLE 2 - ALLOY STEELS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MATERIAL USES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nickel (Ni) Steel Case hardened parts. Stainless steels. Certain %
produces a non-magnetic steel. 36% Ni gives Invar
Steel used for precision instruments.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chromium (Cr) Steel Ball and roller bearings. Nearly non-corrodible.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Manganese (Mn) Steel Small percentage added to steels used for welding.
Higher percentage used in steel exposed to friction.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tungsten (W) Steel 14% tungsten used in high-speed steel drills, hacksaw
blades etc. Works at higher speeds and
temperatures.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cobalt (Co) Steel Used with tungsten for drills and other cutting tools to
improve cutting performance at temperatures higher
than 600°C. Used by it self in permanent magnets.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vanadium (V) Steel Chrome-vanadium steels used for piston engine valves
and springs.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Molybdenum (Mo) Similar effect to tungsten.
Steel
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
continued

- 14 -
TABLE 2 - CONTINUED
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nickel Chromium Stainless Steel. Certain percentages produce a non-
Steel magnetic steel, other percentages produce parts with
good strength and toughness. Used for gears,
crankshafts and engine and airframe parts.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Invar Steel Precision Instruments and gauging systems. Has a
low co-efficient of linear expansion (0.9). (Mild steel
has a co-efficient of 15.0).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stainless Steel Almost zero rate of corrosion. Structures - where heat
and corrosion resistance is required. Also small parts,
pipe-lines, engine parts etc.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Austenitic Steels & There are several austenitic steels but most are based
Irons on 18:8 stainless steel. Besides the qualities of
stainless steel they are non magnetic. Same uses as
above.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Valve Steels For aero engine valves, usually contain 13%Ni, 13%
chromium and 3% tungsten.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
High Speed Steels Typically contain 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1%
vanadium. Drills and other cutting tools.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Permanent Magnet May contain up to 35% Cobalt. Various trade names
Steels are available eg, Columax which contains 8% Al, 14%
Ni, 23% Co and 3% Cu.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
High Permeability Soft iron was used but metals such as Permalloy (78%
Steels Ni) and Mumetal (75% Ni) are now more common.
(These can be
magnetised and
de-magnetised easily)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLE 3 - NON Fe METALS (For Al Alloys see Table 4)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MATERIAL USES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Titanium Alloys Used to replace steel with a saving in weight. Good
corrosion resistance. Used for jet engine compressor
and fan blades. Fire proof bulkheads. Heat shields.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nickel Anti corrosion treatments and withstands high
temperatures. Used in alloying.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
continued

- 15 -
TABLE 3 CONTINUED
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nickel Alloys Gas turbine blades and hot end fittings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Magnesium Soft and poor corrosion resistance. Flares. Light
alloys.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Magnesium Alloys Aircraft wheels, though most are made of aluminium
alloy these days. Airframe structures, engine
compressor casings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copper Tubing. Pipework. Electrical conductors. Used as a
base for brass and bronze.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Brass Lightly stressed castings, pipe fittings, tubing, filter
elements, bushes, electrical contacts.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bronze Bearing bushes. Small castings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Phosphor Bronze Bearing bushes.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tungum Pipe lines. Radiator matrix.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lead Counter balance and mass balance weights. Alloyed to
make solder.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tin Used for tin plating. Alloyed to lead to make solder.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solder Alloy of tin and lead. Low melting point. Soft.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Zinc Corrosion protection of steel parts.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Depleted Mass balance weights. Though being phased out due
Uranium to health hazard.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gold Used for plating of some electrical contactors. Reduces
contact resistance. Good corrosion resistance
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Monel Metal 70% Ni, and 30% Cu. Resistant to corrosion. Some
structural uses and tucker pop rivets.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cadmium Corrosion resistant. Anti corrosive plating.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

- 16 -
Aluminium Alloys

These are supplied in the wrought or cast forms and may be heat treatable or
non heat treatable. The British Standards cover:

BS 1470 to 75 - Wrought.
BS 1490 - Cast
BSL Series - Aircraft Al Alloys
DTD Specs. - Aircraft Al Alloys

(DTD = Directorate of Technical Development - UK).

TABLE 4 - ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOYS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
MATERIAL USES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aluminium Used in light alloys as a base material, and used for anti-
corrosive cladding on aluminium alloys.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Duralumin Al alloy used for airframe structural parts. Sheets, rivets,
tubes.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alclad Duralumin Sheet with coating of aluminium. Same uses as
(wrought) above.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alpax Al alloy. Intricate castings. Airframe and engine parts.
-------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------
‘Y’ Alloy Al alloy. Aero engine pistons and cylinder heads.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hiduminium Airframe structural parts. Rivets, pistons and cylinder
heads.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2000 Series Used in critical airframe structural areas.
Al Alloys
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7000 Series Similar to above.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lithium Being developed for newer aircraft to replace both the 2000
Based Al alloys and 7000 series alloys.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Plastics

Man made plastics (polymers) can be divided into two main groups -
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Plastics.

- 17 -
 * Thermoplastics includes such material as Perspex
(polymethyl methacrylate) (transparent panels) and Nylon
(ropes etc).

* Thermosetting Plastics such as Bakelite (phenol

formaldehyde) (electrical insulators), Formica, Ebonite and
Epoxy resins (adhesives).

Rubber

A naturally occurring thermosetting plastic. Natural rubber comes from trees

and is normally vulcanised with sulphur to produce a tough elastic material.

Used in anti vibration mountings; drive belts; shock absorbers (simple bungee
cord types) and of-course, tyres. It can be made electrically conductive by
adding carbon.

FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Panels and parts made up of fibre, adhesives/resins and cores to produce a

light weight high strength material/structure.

* Glass Fibre. Made of fine glass fibres lubricated to improve

handling and may have other coatings to improve bonding
etc. Supplied in different forms: A glass; C glass etc. E
glass is currently the most popular. Used for the
construction of radomes and dielectric panels

* Aramid Fibre. Supplied as Kevlar (Du Pont). Kevlar 29 used

for cordage and ropes. Kevlar 49 supplied for plastics
reinforcement.

* Carbon Fibre. Carbon fibres are strong in tension and are

often coated to improve handling and bond strength. Used
for structural parts of the airframe. Some structures are
almost all carbon fibre, eg the Boeing 787 Dreamliner
fuselage.

* Hybrid Fibres - made up in different forms and can include

a mix of carbon and glass fibres.

* Resins. Many types are available to include the following:

Unsaturated Polyester Resin for use with glass fibre to

produce glass reinforced plastics (GRP). Used in conditions
where temperatures no not exceed 150°C.

- 18 -
 Vinyl Ester Resins. Similar to above.

Phenolic Resins. Used on composites used for cabin

interiors because of its low smoke emission properties.

Epoxy Resins. Thermosetting, versatile, and used widely in

engineering. Usually supplied as a two part mix.

Polyamide Resins. Supplied powders, films, varnishes and

laminates. Used where higher temperatures are to be
encountered (up to 300°C).

* Cores. Used as low density (low weight) material between

two outer layers that take most of the stress (compressive
and tensile). May be made of honeycomb, foam, or some
other low density material while the outer fibres are made of
metal, fibre composites etc. Core material may be:

Balsa Wood. Not used much these days but is used on some
plywood structures.

Honeycomb. Used extensively as core material in aircraft

floors, structures, control surfaces, helicopter blades, etc.
Can be made of aluminium or composite material.

Foam (Polyvinyl chloride). PVC is used as the core of some

composite structures.

Microballoons. Used as a low density infill medium when

repairing honeycomb and similar structures. Some special
fillers also available such as Araldite AW106.

DIMENSIONS & MEASUREMENT

Dimensions

May be linear or angular and will be specified in words or symbols in

documents such as the AMM, SRM, drawings, manuals, etc.

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

The imperial unit of length is the yard (defined in 1878 and kept in a
laboratory in the UK as the standard yard) divided into feet (3) and inches (36).

- 19 -
The SI unit of length is the metre and the standard metre is a platinum bar
kept in a laboratory at Serves near Paris. It can also be defined by a certain
number of wavelengths in a vacuum of radiation from a specified source. This
means it can be re-produced in any laboratory around the world.

Linear dimensions can be written as:

* Kilometres (km), metres (m), centimetres (cm), millimetres (mm)

* Miles (mi), yards (yd), feet (ft), inches (in) and fractions of an inch.
Typical symbol (”). Example 2”

Some conversions: 25.4mm = 1in.

1yd = 0.9144mm
1mi = 1760yd = 1609m = 1.6km

The Engineer’s Rule

For measuring sizes down to about 1/64th in (0.016”) (0.39mm) an engineers

steel rule (sometimes called a ruler) can be used. When measuring metric sizes
the smallest division usually found is half a millimetre (0.5mm). Using a rule
down to these sizes will need a good light with good vision, the avoidance of
parallax error and a very sharp pencil or scriber. Even so, tolerances of up to
half of the graduation may have to be allowed for.

Standard lines on technical drawings, for example, are specified at 0.5mm and
0.7mm so actually marking using a pencil to this level of accuracy is very
difficult.

So measuring to an accuracy of 0.5mm with a rule may produce an error

either side of this up to 0.025mm.

Precision Instruments

For more accurate measuring methods precision measuring tools must be

used such as:

* The micrometer.

The English (imperial) micrometer has an accuracy of 0.001”, and

the vernier English micrometer has an accuracy of 0.0001”. The
metric micrometer has an accuracy of 0.01mm and the vernier
metric micrometer has an accuracy of 0.002mm.

Micrometers can be used to measure internal and external

dimensions to faces and can be used as depth gauges and cylinder
bore gauges.

- 20 -
 Fig. 7 SURFACE TO SURFACE LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

* Vernier Callipers.

These are not so easy to read as the micrometer.

The English vernier calliper has an accuracy of 0.001” and the

metric vernier calliper has an accuracy of 0.02mm. Again, they
can be made so that internal and external face to face
measurements can be taken as well as depth gauging etc.

For more information on micrometers and verniers see the book in this series
entitled Tools.

ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

The universal unit for measuring angles is the degree (°). There are 360
degrees in a circle. The degree is split into 60 equal divisions called minutes (’)
and each minute is further divided into 60 equal divisions called seconds (”).

For scientific work the radian is used of which there are 2π radians in a circle
(≈ 2 x 3.142 = 6.28 radians). This means that there are 360 ÷ 6.28 degrees in a
radian (about 57.29 degrees).

Fig. 8 THE RADIAN

- 21 -
The accuracy of measuring angles depends on the distance from the fulcrum
where the measurement is taken. Most drawing protractors have graduations
of half a degree.

For measuring angles between surfaces a bevel protractor can be used. This
has an accuracy of 5 minutes of arc (5’). For more details on the bevel
protractor see the book in this series entitled Tools.

For measuring angles from the horizontal an inclinometer can be used.

Figure 9 shows the Hilgar & Watts clinometer which measures degrees on the
degree scale and minutes on the minute scale and has an accuracy of 1’ of arc
to the horizontal.

The instrument is first checked on a wooden or metal straight-edge held in a

vice (protected by a cloth). Both the degree scale and minute scale are zeroed
by turning the minute knob and the unit placed on the straight edge. The
straight edge is moved until the spirit level reads zero. The clinometer is then
turned around and placed back on the straight edge at the same position. If
the clinometer is serviceable then the bubble will still read zero.

For checking for specific angles the instrument will have to be sent to a
standards room.

Fig. 9 CHECKING THE CLINOMETER FOR ZERO READING

The instrument is then placed on the surface to be measure with the arrow
pointing up the slope.

For quick adjustment the minute scale can be disconnected from the degree
scale by pushing the quick release minute knob down, this allows the degree
wheel housing the spirit level to rotate freely.

Releasing the pressure on the minute knob allows it to re-engage with the
degree scale gear and final adjustments can be made on the minute knob to
bring the bubble in the spirit level into the middle position.

- 22 -
The degrees can be read from the degree scale in the window and the minutes
from the minute scale. It has a range of 90° but others may have a range of
only 10°.

An electronic clinometer is available. It is placed on the surface to be

measured and the start button pressed. It will automatically give a digital
readout of the angle and the direction of the slope.

STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

To allow for variations in manufacture which will not jeopardise the

performance of the part being manufactured allowances are given on any size
quoted. This allows parts to be manufactured economically but meet their
performance specifications.

For example, when manufacturing an aircraft toilet seat it would be possible to

specify its size to say 18in diameter plus or minus 0.0001in. It would be very
expensive to manufacturer to this specification and it would work well.

It could be made considerable cheaper, however, if its size was 18in plus or
minus 0.1in diameter and it would work just as well.

On the other hand if a close tolerance bolt was manufactured to say 1in
diameter plus or minus 0.1in then it would be cheap but would not do its job,
so its tolerance would be something like plus or minus 0.0001in.

Allowance

When a dimension is quoted (say 30mm) then an allowance is also quoted, for
example plus or minus (±) 0.01mm. This means that the part could be
30.01mm (for a male part like a bolt sometimes called Maximum Metal
Condition) or 29.99mm (Minimum Metal Condition) and still be acceptable.
29.99 is called the lower limit and 30.01 is called the upper limit.

Tolerance

This is the difference between the upper limit and the lower limit. In the
example above this would be 30.01 – 29.99 = 0.2mm.

Where the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal dimension (30mm
in this case) it is said to be a Bi-lateral tolerance. Where the tolerance is all to
one side of the nominal dimension it is said to be a Unilateral tolerance eg:

Bi-lateral tolerance 30mm ± 0.01

Uni-lateral tolerance 30mm + nil – 0.2

- 23 -
The tolerance for both is the same (0.2mm). For the first example it is evenly
split either side of the nominal size, for the second example it is all on the
lower side of the nominal size. It could equally be 30mm + 0.2 – nil and still be
a uni-lateral tolerance.

Size specifications will be stated on drawings, modification documents, aircraft

manuals etc, together with allowances and tolerances. For example, many
repair drawings state cutting sizes for sheet metal repairs and give allowances
of ± 1/64th in (0.4mm).

It is most important that, when manufacturing items (metal repairs, crimped

cable joints, wire locking, pipelines etc) that the dimensions and any
tolerances are carefully followed.

This also applies when assembling/inspecting/checking components.

Checking for play, clearances, end float, wear, dimensions etc.

Drawings

Drawings, modification leaflets, manuals etc will specify the nominal size of a
part and state the allowance. This may be repeated at each item in the
drawing, eg:

34.0mm ± 0.2

Some drawings may not specify the nominal size but just give the upper and
lower limits of size, eg:

34.2mm
33.8mm

If the allowances are the same for all the components on the drawing then
there might be a box on the drawing stating the tolerances for all the
dimensions given (this might include the size nomenclature – mm, inches etc).

For example:

ALL DIMENSIONS IN mm AND ALL TOLERANCES ARE ± 0.01mm

This would mean that dimensions would be then given as (for example):

33.10

104.0 etc without nomenclature stated or tolerances given.

- 24 -
 CALIBRATION OF TOOLS/EQUIPMENT

All instruments and tools that are used for measuring must be calibrated at
periods stated by the manufacturer. These items include:

* Electrical test instruments/test sets such as multi meters,

bonding testers, meggers, Flukes etc.

* Torque wrenches and torque wrench testers such as the

Acratork test rig.

* Pressure gauges used for systems charging such as the

Turner Adapter and gauges attached to charging equipment
(pressure guns for charging shock absorbers, O2 and air
charging equipment etc).

* Charging equipment for batteries.

* Pitot static test sets.

* Theodolites (used when airframe rigging on some aircraft)

spirit levels, clinometers etc.

* Dial Test Indicators (DTIs) or Clock Gauges.

* Micrometers, verniers, bevel protractors etc

All of the above will have pre-use checks carried out on them prior to use and,
at the specified dates they will have to be sent away for calibration – or at any
time their accuracy is suspect. Calibration facilities may be available at the
user unit or the equipment may have to be sent to a manufacturer or specialist
establishment.

Each item of equipment once re-calibrated should be labelled and returned (in
suitable packing to prevent transit damage) together with supporting
documentation to the user unit.

The label should state:

The calibration company’s name.

The companies approval number.
Calibration date.
Next calibration due date.

The item should be returned from the calibration room with documentation
recording:

* Firm’s name and approval number.

- 25 -
 * Equipment name, part number and serial number.
* Inspectors stamp and signature.
* Tolerances on readings if applicable.
* Calibration printout – if available.

The calibration room should keep records of all equipments tested – dates –
nomenclature – part numbers – serial numbers – the procedure used and what
company the item came from.

STANDARDS OR CALIBRATION ROOMS

These have the specialist equipment and manuals to carry out the tests
specified by the manufacturer. For some rooms the environment is not of great
importance – testing torque wrench equipment, testing multimeters for
example. But for some other items the environment is critical.

Many ‘standards rooms’ have a controlled environment in that the temperature

is kept strictly at 21°C and airborne particles (dust etc) are kept to a
minimum.
These conditions are needed when dealing with instruments that are
temperature sensitive. These include micrometers and verniers.

Instruments that are temperature sensitive should be brought into the

standards room 24 hours before the test to allow them to temperature
stabilise.

Most instruments that are temperature sensitive will have the calibration
temperature marked on them.

Testing

The item is inspected for damage, contamination etc and any parts found
unserviceable are changed. The tests carried out, briefly, are as follows:

Electrical Test Sets. Multimeters, bonding testers etc. Tested against standard
known resisters, standard known voltages etc and against master
instruments.

Torque Wrenches. These are tested on a standard test rig such as the Acratork
test rig. (The test rigs are tested using a moment arm fitted horizontally to the
square boss and accurate masses attached to the free end of the arm. The
moment and hence the torque is calculated as mass times the distance from
the mass attachment and the centre line of the boss (m x d = torque).

Pressure Gauges. Tested on rigs such as the Dead Weight Tester using known
masses on a piston producing calculated pressures (pressure = force per unit
area = F/A).

- 26 -
Electric Charging Equipment. Used for charging batteries. Checking voltage,
current and frequency against master instruments.

Pitot Static Test Sets. For Bourdon tube type and other pressure operated
capsules, equipment such as the Dead Weight Tester are used.

Calibration rooms may also make use of vacuum chambers. (Heavy steel
construction with a toughened glass front about the size of a microwave oven.
It is sealed shut after the instrument to be tested is placed inside.

Various connections – pressure, vacuum, electrical – are connected to the

instrument prior to placement and pass-out side via leak proof connections in
the wall of the chamber. Pressure or vacuum is then applied to the chamber as
per the manufacturer’s instructions and the performance of the instrument
noted and recorded).

Angle Measuring Instruments. Accurate angles may be calculated using

Johannson Blocks or Slip Gauges and a sine bar. The slip gauges are wrung
together to create a specific height to a considerable degree of accuracy and
using rollers and a sine bar the angle can be calculated accurately.

Fig. 10 TESTING A CLINOMETER

Sine bar, rollers and slip gauges are machined and polished to a high degree of
dimensional accuracy and should be kept in their boxes in a standards room
at the specified temperature (usually 21°C). They must always be dismantled
immediately after use as they will bond to each other if left together for too
long. Assemble immediately prior to use so as to keep their assembled time
short.

Angle measuring instruments are available that are electronic. These have to
be checked in a similar way to the non-electronic variety. If they rely on a
‘horizontal’ then a ‘perfectly’ horizontal surface table is also required.

- 27 -
Dial Test Indicators. These can be checked using slip gauges and feeler
gauges. The DTI is fixed to a rigid fixture on a surface table and slip
gauges/feeler gauges are used to check the amount of pointer movement.

Precision Measuring Instruments. These may be electronic or non electronic

They are checked against standard test pieces supplied by the instrument
manufacturer or against slip gauges – all in a temperature controlled
standards room of course.

LIMIT SYSTEMS

The correct functioning of component parts of a machine depends on the

difference in size and finish of the surfaces in contact. Clearance must exist
between the parts to permit lubrication, but if the shaft is either too large or
too small the efficiency of the machine is impaired.

It is impossible to make a part to an exact dimension due to unavoidable

imperfections in manufacture, workmanship and accuracy of measurement.
In practice the interchangeability of mass produced parts can be achieved if
their dimensions are within certain limits.

To allow parts to be machined within certain limits (between the high and low
limit) Limit Systems were devised. These systems formulate the sizes of holes
and shafts and the various limits that may be applied. This means that
instead of actually specifying the upper and lower limits (tolerance) for a shaft
or hole a code can be found in a table that corresponds to the values required.
This code can be used in drawings, manuals and related documents and
would be understood by all those working to this particular standard.

History

Years ago each manufacturer would have its own standard of Limits and Fits,
but using another firms products such as nuts or bolts could be difficult, if not
impossible. To overcome this problem national systems were developed.

In the UK two parallel systems were developed; the Newall System and the
British Standard System. These were both national systems. Since then things
have moved on a little. Standards have become more international –
particularly within Europe, though there are still many different standards
world-wide.

British Standard 4500

British Standard 4500 ISO is more international than the previous limit
systems. It contains data and information on the fit of shafts and holes.

- 28 -
This information can equally be applied to dimensioning in general and does
not have to be applied to shafts/holes exclusively.

The standard contains a list of the terms used and their definitions. It also
contains, in tabulated form, the upper and lower deviations for a vast number
of sizes of shafts and holes.

The standard allows for a hole and shaft based system. (See Terms Used
below).

Fig. 11 TERMS USED IN BS 4500

Definitions (Figure 11)

Clearance Fit. The shaft is smaller than the hole irrespective of the
dimensional tolerances. Used where ease of fit and/or movement is required
eg, rivet hole and rivet, moving piston in a cylinder, etc. Usually a clearance fit
may be assembled by hand with no undo force.

Transition Fit. Nominally the shaft and hole are the same size. It is not
possible to machine a hole and shaft to the same size so in reality the shaft
may be very slightly larger or very slightly smaller than the hole depending on
variations due to tolerancing.

- 29 -
A small force such as a press may be required to assemble the parts. It is used
for parts which need to be a close fit and are not often dismantled and there is
no movement between the male and female parts.

Technically a Transition Fit will be either a (small) clearance fit or a (small)

interference fit.

The following drawing shows a transition fit.

It can be seen from the drawing that if the shaft size is machined to its
maximum metal condition (upper deviation limit) and the hole is machined to
its maximum metal condition (lower deviation limit) then the fit will be an
interference fit.

Fig. 12 TRANSITION FIT

If the shaft is machined to its lower deviation limit then there will be a
clearance fit. If the hole is also machined to its upper deviation limit then the
clearance will be even greater.

Remember that if this is the specification then the two parts will be machined
to within the given tolerances so that any male/female fit nominally classed as
a Transition Fit could be either a clearance fit or an interference fit.

Interference Fit. Under normal conditions the shaft is larger than the hole. It
will require force such as a hydraulic press to assemble or may be assembled
using temperature (eg, keeping the shaft in a refrigerator before assembly
which will cause it to shrink in size).

Used for parts which are not normally secured together in any other way (valve
guides in piston engines for example) and will not normally be dismantled. The
interference fit will be interference irrespective of the tolerances given.

- 30 -
 Fig. 13 INTERFERENCE FIT

Tolerance. This is the difference between the maximum and minimum size of a
part ie, the difference between the upper and lower deviation.

Basic Size. This is the size of the part about which the upper and lower
deviation is quoted. The upper and lower deviation may be quoted either side
of the Basic Size or both on the same side.

Hole Basis. Fits may be obtained by producing the hole to a nominal size and
changing the size of the shafts.

Shaft Basis. Opposite to the Hole Basis in that the shaft is produced to a
nominal size and different fits obtained by varying the size of the holes.
BS4500 allows for either system to be used.

Tolerance Grades

BS 4500 has 18 grades of tolerance, 01, 0, 1, 2 ....................16

The larger the number the greater the tolerance. Figure 14 shows some of the
tolerance grades for sizes 3 to 6mm diameter. BS4500 contains tables for a
range of sizes.

blank

- 31 -
 Fig. 14 SOME SELECTED TOLERANCE GRADES (3 to 6mm)

Fundamental Deviation

The position of the tolerance zone will decide on the type of fit obtained thus
BS4500 gives 27 fundamental deviations for holes and 27 for shafts. Holes are
lettered A to ZC with H used on the hole based system. Shafts are lettered a to
zc with h used on the shaft based system.

The following figures illustrate the tolerance zones for some typical fits for:

1. A hole based system.

2. A shaft based system.

blank

- 32 -
Fig. 15 SOME SELECTED HOLE BASED FITS (3 to 6 mm)

Fig. 16 SOME SELECTED SHAFT BASED FITS (3 to 6 mm)

- 33 -
EXAMPLES

Hole Based System

Interference Fit H7 - s6
Transition Fit H7 - n6
Clearance Fit H7 - h6

Shaft Based System

Interference Fit h6 - P6
Transition Fit h6 - K6
Clearance Fit h6 - F7

The letter and number designations are those used on drawings and related
documents.

If a close tolerance hole is to be manufactured at user unit level then this is

done by hand using a reamer. A drill is selected 0.005” (0.13mm) smaller than
the reamer and the reamer size is that of the finished hole. See the book in
this series entitled Tools.

Clearance and Wear

When a shaft has to rotate or slide within a hole the fit has to be a clearance
fit. This clearance allows a gap (however small) which prevents too much
contact between the parts and allows a lubricant layer. However, wear will
occur. If the two materials are the same then the wear is likely to be the same
on both the male and female. If one part is made of a softer material (less
resistant to wear and abrasion) then its wear rate will be higher.

In many applications one part is deliberately made of a softer metal – this part
being easier or cheaper to replace than the other.

In relation to a shaft and a hole, in general wear will reduce the size of the
shaft and increase the size of the hole, which may make both items
unserviceable if each is worn beyond the permissible limit (sometimes called
‘maximum worn dimension’).

On the other hand, when the parts wear they could increase the clearance so
that it exceeds the maximum permissible clearance but individually each part
could still be within its size limitations. This means that each part separately
is serviceable but put together make up an unserviceable item or component.

In component maintenance bays this problem may be overcome by Selective

Assembly.

- 34 -
Selective Assembly

By selecting a shaft on its high limit of size and mating it with a worn hole the
maximum permissible clearance may not be exceeded. The same could apply
by selecting a hole on its low limit of size and mating it with a worn shaft.

If this procedure is allowed it will be stated in the Schedule of Fits and

Clearances for the component concerned.

DRG Parts and Dimension Permissible Clearance Permissible

REF description new worn new worn Remarks
NO dimension clearance

9 Shaft collar Transfer plate 0.750 0.756 Shaft collar and

in transfer bore 0.752 end bush are
plate 0.002 0.008 selected for width
Shaft collar 0.746 0.742 0.006 iaw Repair Schedule
outside dia 0.748

10 End bush Rear cover 0.750 0.754

in rear bore 0.752
cover 0.002 0.006
End bush 0.746 0.744 0.006
outside dia 0.748

11

Fig. 17 PART OF A SCHEDULE OF FITS & CLEARANCES

Schedule of Fits and Clearances

Issued by the manufacturer for each component on the aircraft whose

performance is dimensionally dependant (example page is shown figure 18).

DRG REF NO refers to the item number in a drawing – often an exploded view.

Parts and Description gives a brief description and title of the male and female
mating parts.

Dimension New gives the upper and lower limit of size as delivered from the
manufacturer. Outside these the part must be rejected.

Permissible Worn Dimension gives the size of the part that it is allowed to wear
to. Beyond this limit the part is unserviceable and must not be used.

Clearance New gives the upper and lower limit for the new assembled parts.
Outside these limits the assembly must be rejected – though selective
assembly may meet the clearance requirements.

- 35 -
Permissible Worn Clearance states the maximum permissible clearance
allowed. If permissible wear sizes are exceeded the part must not be used and
the manufacturer’s manuals/literature must be consulted. It may be possible
to re-condition the item or it may have to be scrapped.

When taper or ovality is found in a shaft the minimum size anywhere along the
length is taken and used in calculations – unless the schedule states
otherwise. Ovality and taper limits may be specified in the schedule.

For shafts limits of bow and twist will also be stated.

CHECKING FOR WEAR

The following paragraphs deal with procedures that require the use of
precision instruments. Details of these will be found in the book entitled Tools.

On shafts wear may be uniform reducing the diameter equally around the
circumference and along the length. This may be checked using a micrometer
or vernier and taking many readings around the circumference and along the
length. If all the readings are the same then the wear has been uniform. If the
readings get smaller (or larger) as they are taken along the length then the
shaft has worn more at one end than the other and it has become tapered.

If the readings are different taken at one place along the length but rotated
around the circumference then ovality has occurred. Ovality (similar to the UK
50p coin) may be checked by placing the shaft on a set of V blocks and using a
DTI. Rotate the shaft slowly and note any fluctuations of the DTI pointer.

Bow may be checked by using a three point trammel and feeler gauges. It may
also be checked by rotating the shaft in a set of V blocks and using a DTI. With
the DTI positioned in the middle of the shaft and the shaft supported in the V
blocks at its ends the shaft is rotated. Any bow will result in a rise and fall of
the pointer once per revolution of the shaft. Be careful of this interpretation as
it could also indicate an usual wear pattern – so check with the three point
trammel.

Holes and bores may also be checked for taper, wear and ovality. Internal
vernier callipers, internal micrometers and bore gauges may be used, but
unless the hole can be removed, ie a single journal bearing, rotation and
checking with a DTI is not possible.

Bearings may be checked for play by clamping one race (say the outer race),
suitably protected and moving the inner race as far as possible by hand and
measuring the distance moved. A DTI can be used for this and two movements
should be checked – radial and axial – several times with the inner race at
different positions each time.

- 36 -
Angular movement might also be checked by twisting the inner race as far as it
will go and using a linear measurement (DTI) or an angular measurement
(bevel protractor, clinometer etc). Note some races will rotate completely out of
their outer shell so this test does not apply to those.

Wear will be indicated if the axial and radial movements are high and damage
and brinnelling to the balls/rollers/races will show up a ‘rough running’ when
the bearing is spun by hand.

The fingers of one hand are placed inside the inner race to make a tight fit. The
outer race is spun using the other hand and any rough running is felt through
the fingers. Inner and outer diameters may be checked as for shafts.

””””””””

- 37 -
Book 4 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
ELECTRICAL & AVIONIC
TEST EQUIPMENT

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7A.3 7A.4 7A.7 ISSUE 04 0411

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
Addendum action in response to student feedback after taking the CAA examination.

Avionic General Test Equipment

The ATC600 test set is used for testing the ATC transponder* which produces a
binary code that relates to altitude. The corresponding binary code for any altitude is
given in a table provided with the test set (in the lid of the box). The Pitot static
system is ‘pumped up’ to give a reading on the test set (in fact the pressure is lowered
in the static side of the system). The subsequent code shown on the test set is
converted to an altitude reading from the table and this value is checked with the
flight-deck instrument reading. If values are not identical then tolerances are checked
in the manual. If the readings show an out-of-tolerance value then the AMM/FIM is
consulted to rectify the fault.

* The aircraft transponder transmits altitude data to an ATC ground station (when
approaching an air traffic control zone) responding to an interrogation signal from the
ground. Altitude data is obtained from the encoding altimeter (older aircraft) or from
the Air Data Computer (ADC). Mode A response is identity and mode C is aircraft
height.
CONTENTS

Page

Electrical general test equipment 1

The moving coil meter 1
The moving iron meter 8
Ratiometer type instruments 9
Non digital multimeter (the AVO) 10
Digital multimeter (the Fluke) 15
Safety ohmmeter 19
Circuit testing 21
Aircraft bonding 22
Bonding testing 29
Bonding tester 1 30
Bonding tester 2 32
Earth terminals 37
Continuity testing 38
Insulation testing 40
Insulation testers 41
Insulation testing 43
Test results 45
Frequency measurement 46
Power measurement 47
The ATC 600 test set 50
The ATCRBS 50
Testing the transponder 51
Testing the DME 56
The NAV-402 test set 59
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book deals with part of 7.3 Electrical General Test Equipment (to level 3), 7.4
Avionic General Test Equipment (to level 3) and part of 7.7 Electrical Cables and
Connectors (to level 2) of the CAA EASA Part 66 syllabus.

Level requirements for the B1/B2 person are:

SYLLABUS LEVEL
REFERENCE
B1 B2
7.3 Electrical General Test Equipment 3 3
7.4 Avionic General Test Equipment 2 3
7.7 Electrical Cables and Connectors 2 2

It should be read in conjunction with the book in module 6 dealing with the
Description and Use of Aircraft Electrical Cables, and the book in module 7 (7.7)
dealing with Electrical Cables and Connectors.

Most of the book is straight forward with the more popular electrical test instruments
described. It is recommended that you check any electrical test instruments that you
have access to – and make sure you understand how they work and how they are
used.

The second part of the book deals with the ATC 600 and NAV 402 test sets.

It is important that you have an understanding of where these test sets are used and
how they are used.

Some parts of the book are probably too deep, at least for the mechanical person. The
important point to note is that the CAA occasionally ask questions on their exams (B1
and B2 papers) so it is a good idea to have, at least, a reasonable working knowledge
of them.

A brief system description is included for the systems they are designed to test, to give
the reader background information into the reasons for the tests. For the avionic
person this is a good introduction into module 13 (or a small part of it). For the
mechanical engineer it is also a good introduction to the avionic systems of module 11
Aeroplanes/module 12 Helicopters.
 ELECTRICAL GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT

This subject includes equipment such as bonding testers, insulation testers and
multi-meters. Many of these work on a similar principle – that is, a moving coil (or
moving iron) system where two forces act against each other. These types of
instruments are being replaced by electronic test meters with flat screen LED type
displays but they are still in use and you still need to know about them.

Forces Acting in a Meter

All analogue instruments have a moving system of gears/levers which move a pointer,
and when the meter is connected to a ‘live’ circuit, the pointer is caused to move over
a scale, usually against a spring. The force causing it to do this is the deflecting force.
When the meter is removed from the circuit, the controlling force (the spring) returns
the pointer to zero.

When the meter is connected into a circuit the controlling force provides a force acting
against the deflecting force and the pointer takes up a position on the scale where the
two forces balance.

Without a controlling force the pointer would move over to the end of the scale (full
scale deflection – fsd) every time it was connected in the circuit. A typical controlling
force is a hairspring. It is important that the pointer of an instrument takes up its
final position quickly and does not swing backwards and forwards about this position
ie oscillate. This possible oscillation is removed by the use of a damping force.

Fig. 1 FORCES ON A MOVING COIL METER

THE MOVING COIL METER

Figure 2 shows the basic construction of a moving coil instrument.

The coil is wound on an aluminium former that can rotate around a fixed soft iron
concentrator. This assembly is mounted between the poles of a permanent horseshoe
magnet.

The hairsprings are of phosphor bronze and are contra-wound and, as well as
providing the controlling force, they also serve to carry the current to and from the
moving coil from the circuit to which the instrument is connected.

-1-
When the instrument is connected in the circuit, current flows through the
hairsprings to the coil. We now have a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field,
and using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (motor principle), the interaction of the two fields
(coil and permanent magnet), will provide a torque causing the coil to rotate, this is
the deflecting force in the instrument.

Fig. 2 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF A SIMPLIFIED

MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

The torque is proportional to the current. As the coil turns, moving the pointer over
the scale, one hairspring tightens and the other unwinds to oppose the movement,
this is the controlling force.

When the deflecting force, due to the current in the coil, is exactly balanced by the
controlling force of the hairsprings, the pointer comes to rest and remains steady at
this reading. The controlling force provided by the hairsprings is proportional to the
angular displacement of the coil.

The coil is wound on an aluminium frame and as this moves through the magnetic
field a small emf is induced into it producing small eddy currents.

The small field produced by these currents interacts with the field of the permanent
magnet to provide a small opposition force (Lenz’s Law), this is the damping force of
the meter and the pointer takes up its position quickly with no oscillation.

The hairsprings being contra-wound ensures that any variations in characteristics

due to temperature change are cancelled out.

The moving coil principle is used in many analogue instruments.

-2-
In its basic form it cannot be used on ac supplies because of the oscillatory nature of
ac. The scale is a linier scale (evenly divided) and is calibrated in amps or volts (or
division/multiples of – kilo, milli etc depending on the values of the shunts and
multipliers - to be discussed later - inside the meter).

Fig. 3 PRINCIPLE OF THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Measurement of Current

The current in a circuit is measured by an ammeter. This has to be connected in

series with the wire or line carrying the current to the load so the total current passes
through the meter. The wire or circuit must therefore be ‘opened’ to insert the
ammeter as shown in Figure 4.

Fig. 4 CURRENT MEASUREMENT

Power is switched off or removed when connecting/disconnecting the instrument and

after fitment the power is switched on and the total current flow through the
instrument is measured.

-3-
Extending the Range of a Moving Coil Instrument as an Ammeter

The moving coil meter movement is small and delicate and the maximum current the
coil typically carries is 15mA with a maximum voltage across it of about 75mV.
Therefore the instrument must be modified if it is to be used to measure currents
above the 15mA value.

To extend the range, a low value resistance is connected in parallel with the
instrument movement. This value of resistance is carefully calculated so that it allows
all the current exceeding the fsd current of the meter to pass through the resistor.
This resistor is known as a shunt since it shunts the excess current past the meter
movement and not through it. The scale of the instrument is calibrated accordingly.
Figure 5 shows the total current (I MAIN) being split up into the coil current (I
METER) and shunt current (I SHUNT).

Fig. 5 A SHUNT

Example

An ammeter gives a full scale deflection (fsd) when carrying 15mA at 75mV. Calculate
the shunt value required to extend the range to (a) 5 amps and (b) 20 amps.

(a) Current through the shunt (IS):

= IMAIN - IMETER

= 5 - 0.15 = 4.85A

Shunt Resistance = Voltage across the meter

Current through the shunt

= 0.75
4.85

= 0.1546Ω

(b) Current through the shunt (IS):

= 20 – 0.15 = 19.85A

Shunt Resistance = 0.75 = 0.0378Ω

19.85

-4-
Measurement of Voltage

Voltages are measured by connecting the instrument across the two points between
which the voltage is to be measured. Therefore, unlike an ammeter a voltmeter is
‘inserted’ without breaking into the circuit. It is attached to the circuit. Again,
remember to disconnect/switch off the power supply before connecting and before
disconnecting.

Figure 6 shows (top picture) a voltmeter fitted to the circuit to measure the total
voltage applied to the circuit and the bottom picture shows how the instrument would
be attached to measure the voltage across resistor R2.

Fig. 6 VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

Extending the Range of a Moving Coil Instrument as a Voltmeter

As mentioned earlier the typical voltage drop across the moving coil is 75mV. To
extend the range, a high value resistor is connected in series with the meter (figure 7).
This value of resistance is carefully calculated so that it drops all the voltage
exceeding the fsd voltage of the meter. This resistor is known as a multiplier.

The scale of the instrument is adjusted accordingly.

Fig. 7 MULTIPLIER

-5-
Example

If the meter in the previous example is used as a voltmeter, calculate the value of the
multipliers required to extend the range to (a) 5V and (b) 100V.

(a) The resistance of the multiplier is related to the voltage across it. This is the
input voltage minus the voltage across the meter, divided by the meter current.

VSHUNT = VINPUT - VMETER

= 5 - 0.75 = 4.25V

ie 4.25v is dropped across the multiplier. Current through the multiplier is

0.15A.

Resistance of Multiplier = V/R = 4.25 = 28.33 Ω

0.15

(b) Resistance of Multiplier = 100 – 0.75

0.15

= 99.25
0.15

= 662Ω

From what has been said so far it can be seen why multimeters have range selectors
fitted to them – to switch in or out the appropriate shunt/multiplier.

Meter Sensitivity

The ideal voltmeter should take no current from the supply since it does not form part
of the current carrying circuit. However, it must take some current in order that the
instrument movement can deflect. The amount of current it takes is a measure of its
sensitivity. The lower the current the higher its sensitivity.

Fig. 8 METER SENSITIVITY

-6-
However, the sensitivity of a voltmeter is not stated in terms of the current it requires
to deflect, but its resistance per volt (ohm/volt). Therefore the higher the Ω/v rating of
the meter the more sensitive it is, as it is drawing a low current from the circuit to
operate.

It should be appreciated, especially in high resistance circuits that the right

sensitivity meter must be used otherwise circuit changes will take place and
components can be damaged.

In the example shown (figure 8), if a 1000Ω/v meter set to the 1V range ie meter
resistance on this range = 1000 x 1 = 1000Ω is placed across the 1000Ω resistance to
measure 1V. It then becomes the circuit as shown in figure 9.

Fig. 9 CIRCUIT 1

The current would increase in this circuit as resistance is now 1500Ω instead of
2000Ω and components may be damaged and the voltage measurement would be
incorrect. However, if we had used a meter with a sensitivity of 1MΩ/v the resultant
circuit would be as shown in Figure 10.

Fig. 10 CIRCUIT 2

As you can see there is minimal effect on the circuit.

For most voltage measurements using a moving coil instrument, eg non-digital

multimeter, the Ω/v rating is 20,000Ω/v for dc and about 3000Ω/v on ac.

Note that if a meter is on the 10V scale and its Ω/v rating is 20,000Ω/v then on this
scale the resistance is 20,000 x 10 = 200,000Ω.

-7-
For normal voltage measurements on aircraft, eg supply voltages to equipment, the
normal non-digital Ω/v ratings are acceptable. It is only in sensitive high resistance
circuits that one has to be careful.

THE MOVING IRON METER

Another type of meter movement used in some instruments is the moving iron
movement. There are two types, the attraction and repulsion type. We shall consider
the repulsion type as the attraction type is only used in certain workshop locations.

Fig. 11 REPULSION-TYPE MOVING IRON METER

With reference to figure 11, the current to be measured flows through the coil (A) and
this produces a magnetic field proportional to the strength of the current. In the left-
hand diagram using the ‘Right Hand Grasp Rule’ the polarity of the bottom of the coil
will be ‘north’ and that at the top will be ‘south’. Inside this field is a fixed iron vane
(B) and a moving vane (C), free to move against a spring. The right hand diagram
shows an end view of the instrument looking at polarity ‘north’.

Repulsion will take place between the two polarised vanes (B and C), the stronger the
current the stronger the force of repulsion and therefore the greater the deflection
against the spring.

At the other end of the instrument the two vanes are polarised ‘south’ and repulsion
occurs. The deflecting force is therefore the repulsion between the two polarised vanes
and the controlling force are the two hairsprings. Without any significant modification
this instrument can be used on ac or dc circuits to measure voltage or current.

If the instrument is used as a voltmeter it has to have a coil of many turns of fine wire
to give a high resistance. If it is used as an ammeter it has a few turns of thick wire to
give a low resistance. The moving iron meter is not as sensitive as a moving coil type
meter but is relatively cheap and robust.

-8-
RATIOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS

A number of analogue instruments use the ratiometer principle to obtain movement.

In general this means that two opposing currents are used within the instrument and
it takes up a position depending on the ratios of these two currents. Some
instruments are designed to work with ac and some are designed to work with dc.

They can be used to measure movement, pressure (from a capsule for example) and
temperature.

Fig. 12 TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEM USING

A RATIOMETER INDICATOR

Figure 12 shows a ratiometer instrument connected to a temperature bulb circuit.

Note that the construction is such that there are two moving coils, A and B. They are
wound on a single soft iron core in such s way that current through coil A (interacting
with the magnetic field) will try to move the armature clockwise, and current through
coil B (interacting with the magnetic field) will try to move the armature anti-
clockwise.

They cannot both move opposite to each other so initially the strongest one will
prevail. As it moves so its torque reduces (it moves towards the larger gap between it
and the magnet and the weaker magnetic field). The opposing coil, however, is being
pulled backwards towards the narrow gap and the stronger magnetic field – so its
torque is increasing. When the two torque’s balance the movement stops.

The temperature bulb is a resistance material with a positive temperature coefficient

and may be placed in any location that requires temperature monitoring, eg:

* In the oil tank of a jet engine (temperature monitoring).

* In the air supply to the pressurised cabin (for temperature control).
* Outside the aircraft as part of an ice detection system.

-9-
Coil A is connected across the supply, and coil B is connected in series with the
temperature bulb. Assuming the temperature to be constant then the torques on the
two coils will be equal and opposite and the pointer remains stationary.

It is important to realise it is the torques that are balancing, the currents will be
different, and torque is proportional to current times flux (T ∝ I x Φ).

If the temperature increases for example, the temperature bulb resistance will
increase. The current through coil B will decrease and its torque will therefore
decrease, the current through coil A will not change as the coil is across the supply.
There is now an unbalance of torques, coil A torque greater than coil B torque and the
armature will move clockwise carrying the pointer with it.

Coil B will move into a stronger flux area (torque increasing) and coil A will move into
a weaker flux area (torque decreasing). At some point the torque’s balance and the
movement stops, the pointer indicating the new higher temperature reading.

In the event of power failure some instruments will have a small spring to pull the
pointer off-scale (for aircraft instruments, a good thing as the pilot would want some
indication if power was to fail to the instrument). Some, non aircraft instruments, do
not have a spring so with power off the pointer remains at some point on the scale.

Note. The temperature probe system above has been used to illustrate the ratiometer
system construction and movement. This principle can be applied to pressure
measurement (using a capsule or a Bourdon tube to change a variable resister) and
movement measurement for flap position indication etc (using a linkage to move a
variable resistor).

NON-DIGITAL MULTIMETER

The non-digital multimeter is a single instrument used for measuring a wide range of
currents, voltages and resistances. Because it measures Amperes, Volts and Ohms it
is often called an AVO meter.

The ‘heart’ of the instrument is a normal moving coil movement and the unit can be
used on ac and dc circuits.

Figures 13 shows a typical instrument. There are many other types in use and all
come with a full set of operating instructions.

Figure 14 shows details of the switching to include a dc and ac range switch and
several different current and voltages ranges that are selectable. Figure 15 shows the
values of the different shunts to be switched in for each range.

blank

- 10 -
Fig. 13 TYPICAL MULTIMETER

Fig. 14 MULTIMETER DETAILS

- 11 -
 Fig. 15 SHUNT SWITCHING

Voltage ranges can be selected by switching in different values of multiplier as shown

in figure 16. Figure 17 shows the several ohmmeter ranges (resistance) that are
available, and on the instrument shown two batteries are required, one for the lower
ranges (1.5V) and one for the higher ranges (9V).

Fig. 16 VOLTAGE RANGE SELECTION

- 12 -
 Fig. 17 RESISTANCE RANGE SELECTION

The resistance circuit consists of a moving coil meter in series with a battery and
variable resistor. When the terminals are shorted the current and deflection in the
meter can be adjusted by the variable resistors (zero Ω for zero and Ω x 100 on the
multimeter to give fsd).

The variable resistor can be adjusted to give fsd, zero ohms on the right hand side of
the scale. If a 1000Ω resistor is now inserted between the terminals, the current falls
due to the added resistance and the pointer comes to rest at the 1000Ω mark.

Fig. 18 BASIC OHMMETER PRINCIPLE

When using the multimeter on the ohms range certain precautions need to be
observed. Since the meter on this range has its own voltage source, any additional
voltage from a circuit under test, would give false readings and may damage the
meter. Therefore always switch off the supply to the circuit under test when carrying
out a test for resistance.

Ensure that any devices that might be damaged by the meter current are isolated, eg
capacitors or electrostatic sensitive devices (FET’s, MOSFET’s, transistors etc).

- 13 -
When on the ohms range the BLACK (NEGATIVE) terminal is the POSITIVE
TERMINAL and the RED (POSITIVE) terminal is the NEGATIVE TERMINAL. This is
important when measuring forward and reverse resistances of diodes.

Earlier it was mentioned that the basic moving coil movement cannot measure ac so
this meter includes a transformer and rectifier bridge to enable the instrument to do
this. The bridge rectifier rectifies ac to dc for use in the instrument.

Figure 19 shows the circuit under test is connected to terminals X and Y, and the
main switch determines whether the instrument is being used to measure voltage or
current.

The bridge rectifier’s input terminals are connected to the secondary of the
transformer whose primary coil is tapped at various places to give a variety of turns
ratio. Each tapping selected gives the required current range. The voltage range is
selected by another switch that brings in the appropriate value of multiplier resistor.

Precautions when using a non-digital multimeter such as the AVO

For accurate readings the meter should be used lying horizontally. When the range of
measurement is not known set the meter to the highest range first and work
downwards if necessary (if set to say 10V it will read fsd with 10V applied to the test
terminals. If say 100V is applied at this setting then the instrument would want to
move 10 times further passed the fsd range causing damage).

Fig. 19 MEASUREMENT OF AC VALUES

- 14 -
Always set zero on the appropriate ohms range before measuring resistance and make
sure the circuit is not ‘live’ and contains no sensitive components.

Check meter calibration document (in the box) and check instrument is within
calibration date. Check leads are serviceable (not damaged, and end crocodile clips
and jack connectors are serviceable.

Always check that circuit is not ‘live’ when connecting/disconnecting as an ammeter

and ensure polarity is correct when measuring dc.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER (THE FLUKE)

There are many types of digital multimeter available, each one very slightly different
from the rest, though in general they are not too un-alike. Each one is supplied with a
set of instructions and these you should read before use. A common digital
multimeter is the Fluke and the following is a description of its operation. You should
read and understand the information and relate what is said to any instrument you
have knowledge of. Figure 20 shows the Fluke 83 digital multimeter.

It is a hand held instrument and will cope with frequencies between 0.5Hz and
200kHz. It is powered by a 9v battery and figure 21 gives details of the input
terminals and the limits for each function.

Fig. 20 THE FLUKE DIGITAL MULTIMETER

- 15 -
 Fig. 21 THE FLUKE – TABLE OF INPUT TERMINALS & LIMITS

The following refers to the numbered items in figures 20 and 22.

1) Amp input terminal (A).

2) Milliamp/microamp input terminal (mA, µA).
3) Common terminal for all measurements (COM).
4) Volts, ohms and diode test input terminal.
5) Function selector rotary switch:
Volts ac.
Volts dc.
Millivolts dc.
Resistance (Ω), conductance (1/Ω), capacitance or continuity testing.
Diode test.
Milliamps, amps or microamps.
6) Blue button used to toggle between ac and dc when measuring current
or between capacitance and resistance when the rotary switch is set to
xxx.
7) Press the MIN MAX button to record minimum and maximum readings.
8) Press to select manual range mode.
9) Holds the display setting.
10) Continuity beeper.
11) Press to store reference value and display difference in present reading
to reference.
12) Frequency counter mode (Hz).
13) Digital display.
14) Analogue bar graph. Provides an analogue representation of readings
and updates 40 times per second. Figure 22 shows the digital and bar
graph display.
15) Bar graph scale.
16) Bar graph polarity.
17) Input range annunciator.

-16 -
 Fig. 22 THE FLUKE DISPLAY

18) Overload indication.

19) Autorange.
20) Low battery.
21) Beeper.
22) Negative polarity.
23) Relative mode. Value displayed is the difference between the present
measurement and the previously stored measurement.
24) Normal recording speed in MIN MAX recording mode.
25) Minimum, maximum and average recording.
26) MAX } Displays the relevant value
27) MIN } since MIN MAX recording
28) AVG } mode was entered.
29) Hold.
30) Indicates the units of the value displayed.

Measuring Voltage (ac/dc). Connect the meter in parallel with the load or circuit. The
meter presents an input impedance of approximately 10HΩ in parallel.

Measuring Current. Connect the meter in series with the load or circuit under test.
Use the blue button to toggle between ac and dc. If you are sure of the current
connect to A input terminal, use mAµA input terminal for currents up to 400mA. It is
essential you do not use the meter to measure circuit current where the open circuit
voltage is greater than 600V, damage to the meter and injury to you may occur.

Measuring Resistance. The meter uses the principle of passing a known current
through the circuit or component under test and measuring the volts drop and
calculating the resistance (R = V/I).

Measuring Capacitance. The meter measures capacitance by charging the capacitor

with a known current, measuring the resultant voltage and calculating the
capacitance (C = Q/V).

Diode Testing. Plug test leads into the VΩ xxx (positive) and COM inputs. Turn the
rotary switch to xxx and connect the test leads across the diode.

- 17 -
A voltage is developed across the components by a test current from the meter. For a
silicon diode the typical forward voltage should be 0.6V. Voltages greater than 3.0V
produce an overload (OL) reading. If the digital reading is the same in both directions
the diode is probably shorted. If the display reads OL in both directions, the diode is
probably open circuit.

Using the ‘touch hold’ mode, when the test leads are placed across the diode, the
meter will ‘peep’ in the forward bias direction if the diode or transistor is good, and
remain silent in the reverse bias direction. A short or resistance below 4000Ω will
cause a ‘beep’ in both directions. If open circuit, the meter remains silent in both
directions.

Using the Analogue Bar Graph. The bar graph functions much the same as the needle
on an analogue meter and is especially useful for displaying trends or slowly changing
signals or rapidly fluctuating signal levels where the digital display is useless. When
you select the ‘Relative mode’ the bar graph enters the ‘Zoom mode’, the centre of the
bar graph becomes the zero point of the bar graph. This mode is ideal for nulling and
zero adjustments.

Measuring Frequency. In the frequency counter mode, the frequency display auto-
ranges to one of five ranges, 199.99Hz, 1999.9Hz, 19.999kHz, 199.99kHz, and greater
than 200kHz. Turn the rotary switch to the V~ setting and connect the meter to the
signal being measured and press the ‘Hz’ button.

Accuracy figures stated are for the Fluke 83 are:

Voltage ac (50-60Hz) + 1.0%

(45-5KHz) + 1.5%
Voltage dc + 0.3%
Capacitance + 1%
* •A, mA, A ac + 1.2%
* •A, mA, A dc + 0.4%
Frequency + 0.005%

The Display

The number of digits displayed on the readout depends on the actual instrument
used, but four to eight digits are common. A decimal point is usual which moves
along the display corresponding to the range displayed.

Often the most significant digit in the display is not of seven segments but merely
displays, or doesn’t display, the number “1”. If the meter has three full seven segment
displays and the most significant digit of this type it is known as a three-and-a-half
digit display.

The maximum indication produced by a 3½ bit display is “1999”. Displays with 4½,
5½ and 6½ bit displays are available.

Figure 23 shows a seven segment display.

- 18 -
 Fig. 23 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

It is important to note that a brief summary of the Fluke multimeter has been given in
these notes and the manufacturer’s handbook should be read carefully before the
instrument is used.

THE SAFETY OHMMETER

When carrying out resistance checks on fire bottle cartridges or windscreen sensors
(and other devises as stated in the AMM), it is essential not to use too high a current,
otherwise the fire bottle cartridge will ‘blow’ or the windscreen sensor will burn out.

A meter designed to check these resistances accurately but keeping the test current
below the operational value is a called a safety ohmmeter. An earlier type of safety
ohmmeter is shown in figure 24 with its circuit shown in figure 25. These are older
instruments and not used much these days.

Fig. 24 THE SAFETY OHMMETER

A standard ohmmeter is similar except that the current is not limited.

- 19 -
The meter is a hand operated generator supplying a ratiometer type mechanism. The
control coil is fed from the generator and the deflective coil current will depend on the
resistance connected across the terminals.

The output current is limited to typically 10mA. Typical scale readings would be zero
to 5 ohms or zero to 100 ohms.

The meter is connected to the circuit/component to be tested and the handle wound
at a constant rpm which will produce about 30V output. The pointer will indicate how
much resistance is in the circuit.

Fig. 25 SAFETY OHMMETER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

When dealing with aircraft circuits, always ensure that earth returns are
disconnected and the circuit is isolated from the supply. If checking explosive items
such as fire bottle squibs ensure they are removed from the fire bottle and facing in a
safe direction away from personnel.

A more common type of meter used today is shown in figure 26 of which there are
various types.

The range of the meter shown is 19.99Ω to 0.01Ω and the test current is 1mA,
maximum open circuit test voltage being 800mV. It has a built-in nickel cadmium
battery which can be charged from a charger. The display is a Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) and the leads are 1.2m long connected to the instrument via BNC connectors
and terminating in shielded crocodile clips.

It is important when using a safety ohmmeter that you check the resistance range is
correct and the test current is below that required to operate the system.

- 20 -
 Fig. 26 TYPICAL ELECTRONIC OHMMETER

CIRCUIT TESTING

Carried out after a reported defect to find and rectify the fault/faults. Also carried out
after a component change and as required at regular intervals as stated in the
maintenance schedule.

The actual tests will be specified in the AMM and all wiring must be tested in a series
of logical steps that form a complete test pattern. Each step must be completed and
cleared of faults before the next step is started. If this is not done, faults in an early
step may seriously falsify test results obtained in later steps.

In very general terms the sequence of the steps are:

1 Visual inspection.
2 Bonding check.
3 Continuity check.
4 Insulation check.
5 Functional check.

Visual Inspection. Always the first check to carry out – on almost any system/any
defect – except possibly for checking the AMM and/or FIM . An important point to
remember here. When answering a CAA question it is not enough just to answer
‘Inspect for serviceability’. You must state what you are inspecting for, eg:
moisture/oil contamination, fraying, proximity to moving/hot parts, signs of
overheating and insulation damage. Inspect plugs and end fittings for corrosion, pins
pushed back or bent, locking, and security of attachment.

Any defects found must be rectified iaw the AMM.

Bonding Check. This may not always be applicable to all forms of wiring/inspection
procedure, but it ensures that screening and earth return paths are intact (the
current can get back from the earth return to the battery or generator). High
resistance values must be investigated and rectified.

Essentially it ensures that the airframe is all at the same potential and provides a
return path for the current from all the services.

- 21 -
Continuity Test. Ensures that wiring is correctly assembled and complete and
indicates a continuous current path along the wires. Interconnections of cables and
connections to components are tested to ensure they conform to wiring or circuit
diagrams. If incorrect and power is applied, wiring can be damaged, and adjacent
cables and components may also be damaged.

Insulation Test. This step ensures that the circuit paths of cables and connections are
fully insulated from the metal airframe, or from other conducting paths such as other
cables. Testing may be required between wiring and airframe, or wiring to wiring.

Some aircraft parts may prohibit insulation testing, particularly with complex
electronic equipment which may easily be damaged by excessive test voltages. Where
insulation tests are used a minimum measurable insulation resistance value will be
stated in the AMM.

Functional Test. This final test ensures that the wiring and the components function
correctly. It is during this check that circuits and systems can be adjusted for
optimum performance after checking operation is in the correct manner, sequence,
sense and direction. It is carried out in accordance with the AMM/component
manual.

Don’t forget that after any work on the aircraft the work done should be recorded in
the log book and signed for.

AIRCRAFT BONDING

Bonding is the electrical interconnection of all the metallic parts of the aircraft so that
they are all at the same electrical potential (normally earth potential). This allows for
the safe distribution of electrical currents and charges and provides a continuous low
resistance link between circuit earths and supply earths. If the aircraft is of all-metal
construction then the aircraft skin and normal bolted/riveted joints are considered as
satisfactory as a primary bond. If it is not, or the structure is composite or some other
non-conducting material then there must be a metal bonding system (bonding cage)
installed.

If any components are not fitted to the airframe by a metal-to-metal joint then
primary bonding leads must be fitted. This applies to parts that have insulative
connections between them (or to the airframe) such as anti-vibration mountings for
piston engines (figure 28), instrument panel mountings and pipe-to-pipe elastomeric
fuel connections (figure 29). For engines there must be at least 2 primary conductors
– one on each side of the engine. If components are connected together where the
connection is likely to offer a high resistance to current flow then bonding leads must
be used – eg at bearings such as at control surface fitment to the airframe.

The bonding system also provides the return path for the electric current in an earth
return electrical system (as fitted to most aircraft).

- 22 -
Electrical charge in the aircraft can build up in flight due to:

1. Movement of the airframe through the air. Air particles/dust particles

rubbing on the airframe causing static electrical build-up.
2. Movement of the airframe through precipitation (rain, snow etc).
3. Flying through clouds within which are electric fields.
4. Induction due to the metal airframe moving through the Earth’s
magnetic field.
5. Lightening strikes. These can increase the aircraft electrical potential
significantly and may cause damage. Structural damage/burning can be
caused at the strike entry and exit points on the airframe and can cause
static wicks/static dischargers and bonding leads to burn out. Electrical
and electronic equipment can be adversely affected. Protection should be
provided up to peak currents of 500,000 amperes during a lightening
strike (duration up to a maximum of 25 micro seconds).
6. The movement of fuel within the fuel system can cause a build-up of
static charges. Refuelling - on the ground - and fuel transfer within the
system from fuel tanks to engines and between fuel tanks. The risk can
be reduced by using larger diameter fuel transfer pipes so reducing flow
rates and adding anti-static additives to the fuel.

During maintenance static charge can build up during:

1. Brush doping or painting an aircraft. Both operator and aircraft must be

separately grounded by grounding leads.
2. Certain cleaning operations (polishing large areas).

This charge, unless kept at one potential throughout the aircraft, can cause:

* Sparking between components not electrically bonded (fire and

electronic interference risk).
* Damage to the airframe and components, particularly during a
lightening strike.
* Build-up of dangerous charges – to personnel, particularly just after
landing.
* Interference with radio, navigation systems and electronic systems.
* Arcing – causing damage and a fire potential.
* Burning of bonding jumper leads, control surface bearings, static
dischargers/wicks etc.

Almost all aircraft will take on a static charge in flight. To help in its discharge the
aircraft is fitted with static wicks and a means to earth the aircraft on landing.

Static Wicks

Static wicks or static dischargers are provided at trailing edges of mainplanes,

tailplanes and fin to help discharge any static charge back to the surrounding air
during flight (figure 27). However, some charge is still liable to remain on the aircraft
and to prevent a shock hazard to maintenance personnel (which can be very serious)
and any discharge to ground equipment and consequent fire hazard this energy has
to be dissipated on landing.

- 23 -
Typically a nose wheel or tail wheel with a tyre (or tyres) made of a compound with
good electrical conductivity is used. The tyre/s is/are marked as electrically
conducting. Sometimes a short flexible steel wire connecting to a nose wheel or main
landing gear which makes contact with the ground on landing is used.

Fig. 27 STATIC DISCHARGERS – EXAMPLE BOEING

- 24 -
Classification of Bonding

The bonding of aircraft is classified under two generic headings namely Primary
Bonds and Secondary Bonds.

Primary Bonds are those conductors that are required to carry lightning strike
potential and are used for bonding between major components such as between
engines and earth (figure 28), flight control surfaces and earth etc.

These conductors, made of copper, must not be less than 0.0045 sq in (3mm2) cross
sectional area ie 0.25in by 26SWG (Standard Wire Gauge), except that where a single
conductor is likely to carry the whole discharge from an isolated section, the cross
sectional area shall not be less than 0.009 sq in (6mm2), ie 0.5in by 26SWG.
Aluminium primary conductors must have a cross sectional area giving an equivalent
surge current carrying capacity.

Where additional conductors are required to provide a supplement to the inherent

bonding paths provided by the structure or equipment, then the cross sectional area
of the conductors made of copper should not be less than 3mm2 except that, where a
single conductor is likely to carry the whole discharge from an isolated section the
cross sectional area should not be less than 6mm2. Aluminium conductors should
have a cross sectional area giving an equivalent surge current carrying capacity.

Primary bonding wires/leads should have as low an electrical impedance as possible

and should be used to connect together electrically (CS25):

* All large separable components to earth.

* The engines to the main earth.
* Any metal component on or outside the airframe to earth.
* Conductors on any external non-metallic part to earth.

Secondary Bonds are those providing bonding between components, engines and
airframe, metal pipelines (where rubber hoses are used) and equipment racks etc.
Figure 29 shows an example.

Fig. 28 PISTON ENGINE ANTI VIBRATION MOUNTING - BONDING

Secondary bonding leads should be made from copper and should not be less than
0.001 sq in (BCAR section D) or 1mm2 (CS25). If a single conductor is used its
diameter should not be less than 1.2mm.

- 25 -
 Fig. 29 PIPE TO PIPE BONDING ON THE A330

Secondary bonding must be used between the following and airframe earth (CS25):

* Metallic parts in contact with inflammable fluids.

* Any isolated parts subject to electro static charge.
* Any electrical equipment accessible to the occupants of the aircraft.
* The earth connections which normally carry the main electrical earth
return supply.
* All components/equipment specified in the AMM.
* Static discharge wicks/static dischargers.

Maintenance Practices

Surface Treatments. To ensure a good electrical contact between bonding lead

attachment and the metal, any resistive anti-corrosive treatments must be removed
prior to fitment and an approved anti-corrosive treatment applied after. Resistive
(non-conducting) treatments include:

* Most primers, finishing coats, varnishes and temporary anti-corrosive

treatments.
* Chromic, phosphate and anodic treatments.

Conducting finishes (which do not need removing – just a good clean) include
cadmium and tin plating. Of course, always test the bonding joint after fitment to
ensure it is a good conductor.

Corrosion washer. This is an anti-corrosion joining washer/joining plate made of a

material that reduces the potential between the parts being bonded and reduces the
electrolytic galvanic corrosion between them. Fitted as specified in the AMM.

Composite Structure. Metal parts on composite structures should be bonded using

bonding leads or bonding links and a bonding cage connecting to earth return and
providing aircraft grounding on landing. Grounding/earthing on landing can be
achieved using electrically conducting nose/tail wheels or a static discharge wick
trailed from the landing gear and making contact with the ground on landing.

- 26 -
Some composite structures can be painted with a conductive paint (eg PR934) to help
in the removal of electrostatic charges.

Replacement of Wiring . When a bonding connection is made or renewed, it is

essential that the conductor has the specified current carrying capacity, since the
bond may have been designed to carry relatively high electrical loads, eg under circuit
fault conditions.

Manufacturers of solid bonding strip and braided bonding cord usually quote the
cross sectional area on the relevant data sheet. However, in the case of renewal or
repair, if the original conductor cannot be matched exactly, a replacement
manufactured from the same type of material, but of a greater cross sectional area
should be selected.

Bonding connections are crimped at either end and must be properly locked iaw the
AMM. They must be able to withstand vibration and must not be too tight or too
slack. Sharp bends should be avoided. Bonding leads should not be repaired by
soldering but replaced.

When using aluminium, anti-oxidant compound consisting of 50% by weight of zinc

oxide in white petroleum jelly and complying with DTD 5503 (or equivalent), should
be applied to the connection.

Where applicable, the soldering of tags or lugs fitted to braided copper should be
carried out using resin flux. Special care is necessary because overheating of
conductors causes brittleness, while a loss of flexibility up to 25.0mm (1 in) from the
lug may occur as a result of capillary action of the molten solder.

Primary flexible conductors are often made of 600 strands of copper wire, 0.048 inch
(1.2mm) in diameter and formed in a flat braid approximately 0.625in (15.8mm) wide.

The number and location of bonding connections to the various components is

important and this should be checked and verified by reference to the relevant
drawing/AMM. For example, where an engine is not in direct electrical contact with
its mounting it should be bonded with at least two primary bonding conductors, one
on each side of the engine. Many engines will have a bonding strip at each mounting
(possible 4 or 5).

In most instances the following joints are considered self bonding, provided that all
insulating materials (eg anodic finish, paint, storage compounds etc), are removed
from the contact faces before assembly, but if any doubt exists regarding the
correctness of the bonds, a bonding test should be carried out:

* Metal to metal joints held together by threaded devices, riveted joints,

structural wires under tension and bolted or clamped fittings.
* Most cowling fasteners, locking and latching mechanisms.
* Metal to metal hinges for doors and panels and metal to metal bearings
(including ball/roller bearings) (also bearings using conducting grease).

In the case of bearings for control surface hinges it should be ascertained which
bearings are classified as self-bonding, eg metal to metal, nylon with conducting
grease etc.

- 27 -
Flexible bonding leads (bonding jumpers) connecting moving components such as
flying control push/pull rods are usually made of braided copper. These should be so
fitted as not to impair the movement of the control system.
The bonding jumpers should be as flexible and as short as possible, of a low
impedance as is practicable and should not be tinned. The possibility of a jumper
jamming the controls must be avoided.

Flexible hose connections. Bonding jumpers for rigid pipes at flexible connections are
fitted using pipe clips (item 3 in figure 29) to support the copper bonding strip (1) at
both ends with the hose clips positioned ½” (13mm) from the rubber hose. To ensure
a good electrical contact between pipe clip and pipe the pipe is thoroughly cleaned
prior to fitment and the correct anti corrosive treatment applied after fitment.

Each pipe run should be bonded at each end, particularly if within a radius of 8ft
(2.42m) of any unscreened radio equipment/aerial lead. If within this radius bonding
leads should be not greater than 5ft (1.5m) apart.
Flexible hose connections used for joining rigid pipes should be bonded by fitting clips
around the pipes approximately 13mm (½ in) away from the hose and bridging with a
corrugated bonding strip or jumper.

High-pressure flexible pipe assemblies are usually self bonding, but a bonding test
should be made between the assembly end-couplings to prove the integrity of the
bonding.

It is most important that with any bonding connection that the correct protection
against corrosion is provided.

Bonding of Metallic and Non Metallic Aircraft Structures

The skin of all metal aircraft is considered adequate protection against lightning
discharge provided that joints are satisfactory.

Many modern aircraft have composite panel structure sections and these are usually
coated with an anti-static paint to prevent charges building up on these areas. Some
panels are also coated with a non-conductive finish paint on top of the anti-static
paint.

On aircraft that are made of all composite construction, or large structure panels,
copper strips built into the composite material at distances typically not more than 6ft
(1.83m) apart around the fuselage and joined together at each end to form a ‘cage’
forms the bonding system.

These conductors must have a surge carry capacity equal to that required for primary
conductors. Some panels have a thin conductive aluminium layer bonded into the
structure.

On metal aircraft the electrical earth system (single pole system) is the aircraft
structure and on composite aircraft it is a two pole system (similar to domestic wiring)
in that there is a supply line to each component and a return line.

- 28 -
BONDING TESTING

The AMM chapter 20-28-00 page 501 will detail maximum permitted resistance
values, and this will also detail the test procedure and the test equipment required.

The maximum resistance will vary depending on the bonding test involved but a
generally accepted figure is that the bond resistance should not exceed 0.05 ohms.
The CAA’s requirements with regard to maximum resistance values are summarised
in the following table (table 1).

In general, the testing will consist of measuring the resistance values (bonding):

1. Between extremities of the aircraft eg, wing-tip to wing-tip, nose to tail

and nose to each wing-tip.
2. Between primary metal structure and metal parts of external surfaces,
eg landing gear units, Pitot probes, radio and navigation antennas.
3. Between primary metal structure and fluid systems, eg pipes, fuel tanks
etc.
4. Between primary metal structure and electrical components, racks and
shielding conduits.
5. Between a metal (steel) plate on which the conducting tyre is placed
(during the bonding test) and the main earth system.
6. Between the engines, other major components and the main structure.
7. Of all external composite panels.

TABLE 1 - BONDING VALUES

- 29 -
We now need to look at the instruments required to carry out the bonding tests. We
shall look at two types, a traditional type and a more modern version.

BONDING TESTER - 1

With reference to figure 30. The tester consists of a wooden box housing a 1.2V cell
and a moving coil ratiometer instrument with a scale calibrated between 0 and 0.1
ohms.

Plug and socket connections on the side of the box allows for the 60ft (18.3m) single
spike cable to be connected to one side of the box and a 6ft (1.8m) double spike cable
to be connected to the other side.

Fig. 30 THE BONDING TESTER

Fig. 31 THE BONDING TESTER CIRCUIT

- 30 -
Operation

Reference to the circuit diagram (figure 31) will show that, with both probes
connected to the bonding or metal airframe, the low-resistance coil A is energised by
current flowing from the cell to the single spike.

The current then flows through the bonding connections or airframe to the right-hand
double spike, then to the coil, and so to the negative side of the cell. So coil A is in
series with the bonding under test.

Coil B, of high resistance, is in parallel with the bonding; it will therefore carry a
current proportional to the voltage drop across the bonding.

The position taken up by the pointer is determined, as in all ratiometer type

instruments, by the ratio between the opposing torque’s produced by the energised
coils A and B. This ratio is approximately proportional to the resistance of the bond.

The double-spike probe acts as a switch controlling the power supply from the cell,
since the circuit through coil B is only complete when both spikes of this probe are in
contact with the same piece of metal.

Before use carry out the following checks:

* Inspect the instrument case and leads for damage, security, and
contamination. Check the calibration date.
* Connect leads to the tester.
* Short the two spikes of the 6ft lead by the single spike of the 60ft lead.
Tester must read zero. If a zero reading is not obtained the battery must
be checked and replaced if necessary. There are no other adjustments.
* Momentarily short together the double spike with a piece of metal
(screwdriver or similar metal object). Check that the pointer deflects to
the full-scale deflection (FSD) reading (0.1 ohm).

Note. Great care must be taken during this operation to try and prevent
the pointer hitting the full-scale stop too hard as this could damage the
unit. Hence the very short duration of contact between the double spike
and the conducting object.

Checking Aircraft Bonding

The 60ft lead of the test equipment should be connected to the main earth (also
known as the bond datum point) at the terminal points that are
shown in the AMM (this lead should always be connected first before any testing is
carried out).

Since the length of a standard bonding tester lead is 60ft, the measurement between
the extremities of the larger types of aircraft may have to be done by selecting one or
more of the main earth points successively. In this event the resistance value between
the main earth points chosen should be checked before proceeding to check the
remote point.

- 31 -
Note. When connecting the 60ft lead to an earthing point, any protective treatment
(eg strippable lacquer etc) should be removed at the point of contact. Remember to re-
apply the protective treatment.

The 6ft test lead should be used to check the resistance between selected points;
these are usually specified in the bonding test schedule or the aircraft AMM.

When the two spikes of the test lead probe are brought into contact with the aircraft
part, the test meter will indicate, in ohms, the resistance of the bond (typically not to
exceed 0.05 Ω).

To ensure good electrical contact between the probe spikes and the airframe, it will be
necessary to penetrate or remove a small area of any non-conducting protective
coating. Therefore, after test, any damage to the protective coating must be restored.
Anodising for example is insulative so the double spikes must be pushed sufficiently
hard to get them to penetrate this layer.

Note. Non-conductive protective treatments include all priming and finishing paints,
varnishes and temporary protectives, chromic, anodic and phosphate coatings.
Metallic coatings eg cadmium and tin are conductive and should not be removed.

BONDING TESTER - 2

A more common type of meter is a milli ohmmeter similar to that shown in figure 32.
With these types of instruments, various test currents may be obtained from 1mA to
1A, depending on the resistance to be measured, by the use of internal batteries.

Fig. 32 MILLI OHMMETER

The current is passed through the resistance to be measured via cables C1 and C2
(figure 33) and the voltage drop across the resistance is measured (P1 and P2) and
using ohms law (R = V/I) the resistance is displayed on the digital LCD display of the
meter.

- 32 -
 Fig. 33 FOUR TERMINAL RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Fig. 34 DUPLEX HAND SPIKES

The test leads may be in the form of duplex spikes as shown in figure 34.
To check the instrument is functioning correctly the two hand spikes should be
placed on a low resistance conductor with the spikes P1 and P2 close together (figure
35) and the instrument should read zero.

Fig. 35 TEST POSITION OF HAND SPIKES

These types of instruments can have various lengths of leads and the batteries can be
charged with a charger supplied with the instrument.

This principle of testing could also be done using a Power Supply Unit (PSU), ammeter
and multi range millivoltmeter where higher test currents can be used.

Note that when doing bonding tests in and around fuel tanks a safety milliohm meter
must be used, ie the meter must have a low test current.

- 33 -
Bonding Testing of Metal Structures

Carry out pre-use checks as previously described, check meter is within calibration
date.

Connect the instrument across the bond to be checked and measure the resistance.
Check that the measured value is not higher than the maximum permitted value.

If the resistance at a bond connection is excessive, rectification action will depend on

the type of connection. The following corrective action could be taken for the more
common types of connections. Note that corrosion tends to form at a bonding or earth
connection and is often the cause of excessive resistance.

In the case of bonding jumpers, the connecting tag or lug should be removed and the
contacting faces thoroughly cleaned, using a slight abrasive if necessary. The bare
metal should be only just large enough to accept the palm of the tag or lug. The
connecting area should be sealed and treated with anti-oxidant as specified in the
relevant drawing/AMM. Readings should be recorded in the aircraft log-book and the
work signed for.

Note. When an abrasive has been used it its important to ensure that all traces of the
abrasive are removed.

Where equipment is bonded through a holding bolt, the bolt should be removed and
the area under the bolt head or nut thoroughly cleaned and protected. The correct
washer (size and material) should be fitted before the bolt is refitted and tightened.
Replace nut, bolt and washer if corroded.

Where the required bond value cannot be obtained at a structural joint contact the
aircraft manufacturer.

Note. After carrying out tests, all areas where the protective coating
has been removed should be re-protected using the appropriate repair scheme.

Bonding Testing of Composite Panels

Typical tests include checking of the electrical bonding of external composite panels to
the rest of the airframe and measurement of the surface electrical resistance of each
panel.

The recommended procedure for the check of the electrical bonding of an external
composite panel with or without non-conductive finish paint on the anti-static paint
is to use a Resistivity – Continuity Test Set.

The test consists of connecting the ground lead of the test set to the adjacent primary
metal structure and the other lead on to the composite panel. The test set will
indicate:

a) A green light – if there is electrical continuity with the structure and the
resistance value is not more than 100kΩ.
b) An orange light – if there is electrical continuity with the structure and
the resistance value is more than 100kΩ and less than or equal to
200MΩ.

- 34 -
 c) A red light – if there is no electrical continuity and the resistance value
is more than 200MΩ.

Alternatively if there is no non-conductive paint finish then the test can be done with
an ohmmeter/Meg Ohmmeter.

The Ohmmeter 100kΩ - 500 volts – 1 mA (max), with 2 rounded point prods would be
used to check the electrical resistance of fairings (but not antenna fairings and
radomes).

The Megohmmeter 200MΩ - 500 volts – 1 mA (max) with 2 rounded point prods would
be used to measure the electrical resistance of antenna fairings and radomes.

Apply one prod to the composite panel typically 100mm from the edge of the panel
from the bonding joint, put the other prod to the adjacent primary metal structure
near the panel.

Fig. 36 MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE ELECTRICAL

RESISTANCE – COMPOSITE PANELS – EXAMPLE B777

Note the resistance values and ensure they are not higher than the maximum
permitted values, eg not greater than 100kΩ for fairings (not antenna fairings and
radomes) not greater than 200MΩ for antenna fairings and radomes.

The recommended procedure for the measurement of the surface electrical resistance
of an external composite panel with or without non-conductive finish paint on the
anti-static paint is to use the same resistivity – continuity test set.

This basically involves applying the probe to the panel and making sure the measured
values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. The probe should be
placed on several different areas of the panel.

An alternative method, and only if the anti-static paint is not covered with non-
conductive finish paint, is to measure the resistance with an ohmmeter/
Megohmmeter or with conductive tape.

- 35 -
Using the ohmmeter and Megohmmeter previously described, place the prod on the
surface of the anti-static paint typically 100mm from the edge and measure the
square resistance value, for probes that have electrodes 100mm apart you have to
multiply the measured value by 0.5 to get the square resistance value.

Ensure measured values are not higher than the permitted maximum eg, fairings (but
not antenna fairings and radome) 50kΩ square resistance. Antenna fairings and
radome between 5 and 100MΩ square resistance.

A further alternative method is to use the Ohmmeter/Megohmmeter but with

conductive copper or aluminium tape.

Fig. 37 MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE ELECTRICAL

RESISTANCE USING CONDUCTIVE TAPE

Apply two parallel strips of tape to the surface, 100mm long and 100mm apart to
make a square. Apply the prod of the Ohmmeter/Megohmmeter on each strip and
read the square resistance value. Repeat this several times at different areas of the
surface, ensure the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted.

Note. As with all testing using meters, always inspect the meter and its leads for
general condition and check the calibration date.

- 36 -
Bonding Test of Aircraft Earthing Point

Place a metal plate between the conducting tyres of the nose landing gear (or tail
wheel) and the ground (if dealing with an aircraft with electrically conducting landing
wheels). (The aircraft is towed onto the plate). Using a Megohmmeter 10MΩ - 500 volts
– 1mA (max), measure the resistance between the plate and the nose/tail gear leg.
The value should not exceed 10MΩ.

EARTH TERMINALS

When earth-return equipment is fitted or replaced, the correct method of fitting to the
structure, the corrosion protection required and the exact location on the structure
should be checked. The procedure for fitting, the method and number of connections
will vary but a study of the relevant drawings and information in Chapter 20 of the
AMM will ensure structural and electrical integrity.

All earth assemblies should be checked for the resistance between the lug attachment
point(s) and the surrounding structure and typically this must not exceed 0.025 ohm.
If the earth terminal carries current then a millivolt drop test should be carried out.

Connect millivoltmeter to the locations as shown in figure 38.

Use normal operating current flowing with power being derived from an external
source. Note. For short rated circuits use a suitable resistance or dummy load with
current scaled down to avoid overheating.

Note the millivolt reading and this should not exceed the value stated in the AMM but
typically not to exceed more than 5mV per 10 amps flowing.

If the joint fails the bonding test or millivolt drop test, the terminal assembly should
be dismantled and the contact faces cleaned with fine abrasive (eg aluminium wool)
and reassembled, using where applicable, new corrosion washers. The joint should be
re-tested. If serviceable, connections should be made as shown in Chapter 20 with
correct torque loadings. All systems must be checked for correct operation, finally the
area should be treated with anti-oxidant compound and any further sealing agent as
detailed in the AMM.

Fig. 38 BONDING TESTING – EARTH TERMINALS

- 37 -
 CONTINUITY TESTING

Continuity is a continuous electrical path in a circuit and must be present for the
circuit to work. A break in a cable that stops current flow is said to be an ‘open
circuit’ and with an open circuit the system will not function. Prior to the open circuit
occurring the resistance measured between one end of the cable in question and the
other end would be low (figure 39a). When the open circuit occurs the resistance
between the two ends will be high (figure 39b).

Fig. 39 OPEN CIRCUITS

To find a concealed break in a cable a continuity test is carried out using an

ohmmeter using the ohms range on a non-digital (AVO) meter or a digital meter.

Before carrying out continuity tests the following precautions should be observed:

1. Ensure power is switched off.

2. Circuit breaks tripped and tagged (warning notices placed).
3. Any parallel paths should be disconnected (there should be only one
path that the current can go through).
4. Use a systematic approach to finding the ‘break’ in a large circuit. In
other words, try half the circuit first, if it is okay then the fault is in the
other half – sometimes called the ‘half and quarter’ split method or the
‘half split’ method.
5. Check that the power source of the meter will not cause damage to
sensitive components eg semiconductor devices.
6. Make sure the circuit is complete, with switches made, contact breakers
(CBs) closed etc.

No hard and fast procedure can be laid down for conducting continuity tests. Each
circuit drawing must be studied to assess the best approach. Simple circuits may be
tested with a few individual tests, more complex circuits may require many tests.

Using an AVO (non-digital multimeter) selected to the lowest ohms range, the test
leads are applied at the ends of the selected test points, a very low reading (ie just the
resistance of conducting part of the cable) should be obtained, a very high resistance
(infinity) reading will indicate an ‘open circuit’, any other value of resistance indicates
some resistance in the circuit that could be caused by dirty contacts or corroded
connections.

- 38 -
Figure 40 shows a simple circuit for a landing light which we will assume is not
operating with the landing light filament lamp checked and serviceable. The fuse or
CB has also been checked and is serviceable/ON, and power is available. The circuit
is then disconnected at the circuit breaker and tagged.

Fig. 40 A SIMPLE CIRCUIT

1. Connect test meter between points A and B.

2. If low reading proceed to next item below. If high reading investigate
cause and rectify.
3. Close switch and test between B and D. Carry out item 2. above.
4. Check if possible (to save disturbing plug and socket EF) between D and
G. Carry out item 2 above.
5. If not practicable then check between D and pin E using substitute
socket on pin and then check between socket using suitable substitute
pin and G. Carry out item 2 above.
6. Finally check earth connection between H and J. Carry out item 2
above.

If possible, and to save time, the circuit could be split into two equal halves and each
half checked separately. If one half is okay then split the other half into two halves
and repeat the operation.

In our circuit a check could be made between A and D (switch closed) if OK, then you
know the fault is ‘downstream’ from D.

If open circuit was between D and G then check between D and pin E, if this is OK we
know the fault lies between socket pin F and G.

This method may involve long test leads and this may not be practicable, so a Fluke
digital test meter can be used. Using the Fluke digital meter the same procedure is
used but without the need for long test leads. The meter rotary switch is set to the
xxxΩxxx position, press the xxx button and connect the meter to the test positions.
Test resistances below the values listed in the following table will cause the meter to
emit a continuous tone. The 400Ω range should be used for most wiring checks.

Input Range Beeper ON if

400.0Ω < 40Ω

4.0kΩ < 200Ω
40.0kΩ < 2kΩ
400.0kΩ < 200kΩ
40.0MΩ < 200kΩ

- 39 -
An alternative method of finding the approximate location of an open circuit is to do
voltage checks on a live circuit. Ensure all necessary safety precautions are followed
and ensure the power is off when connecting and disconnecting the test equipment.
Use the AVO or Fluke set to the appropriate Volts range. Where there is no volts drop
indicated then there is continuity. Where there is a voltage shown then there is some
discontinuity.

Looking at the circuit again.

The first check would be at the landing light pin G (between G and earth), if no voltage
is found go to terminal block D and check between D and earth. If the correct voltage
is found at D further checks at pin E will have to be made to ascertain whether the
fault lies between D and E or F and G. If no volts are found at D then further volts
checks at A, B & C will establish where the fault lies.

INSULATION TESTING

The perfect aircraft circuit/s should have an infinitely high resistance between the
separate circuit cables and also between the actual circuit cable conductors and the
metallic structure of the airframe - other then earth connections of course.

All components internally must be insulated from the case of the component.

In the case of faulty insulation the resistance will fall across the insulation and, in the
worse case, if the resistance drops to zero we have a ‘short circuit’ (sometimes caused
a ‘dead short’).

This could be caused by breakdown of insulation between adjacent cables, breakdown

of insulation of one cable to the airframe or breakdown of the internal wiring of a
component.

To ensure that the insulation is adequate an insulation test is carried out. This can
only be achieved satisfactorily by applying a voltage well above the normal operating
voltage of the circuit and checking that little or no current leaks out. The mechanical
analogy of this is the pressure testing of manufactured pipelines where they are
pressure tested to 1.5 times their normal maximum working pressure (there should
be no leaks).

The conductor under test is isolated at both ends electrically and a high voltage is
applied. A meter connected to the insulation or the airframe should show that little or
no voltage is escaping.

If the insulation resistance is satisfactory at this high voltage then it must be safe at
the lower operating values. To carry out an insulation test on a cable it is generally
considered that a test voltage of at least twice that of the normal maximum voltage is
required.

(The CAA ask a question about an insulation test on a wire rated at 115V. Now if this
is ac the 115V is an rms voltage and the peak voltage is 115V x 1.414 which equals
about 163V – and it is the peak voltage that is important. Double this gives 362V so a
250V meggar would not be big enough and a 500V meggar should be used.

- 40 -
CAAIPs [published by the CAA but have no legal standing] do not go into the subject
to this depth but simply state that a 250V meggar is to be used on cables. We THINK
the answer the CAA want is 250V but are not sure. We would STRONGLY suggest
that if you get this Q that you bring the problem to the attention of the examination
invigilator, write a comment there and then, AND write a letter to the CAA as soon as
possible afterwards.)

INSULATION TESTERS

One type of tester is the Meggar, there are many others including all electronic
operated instruments. Figure 41 shows the Meggar and figure 42 shows its internal
circuitry. It is basically a hand wound dc generator and winding the handle
sufficiently fast will generate the required voltage.

Fig. 41 THE MEGGAR

Fig. 42 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM – THE MEGGAR

The instrument is supplied in two forms, a 250V and a 500V version. The drawings
shows the 250V Meggar. It consists of a ratiometer indicator, hand driven dc
permanent magnet generator and two test connections.

- 41 -
When the handle is cranked at about 160 rpm the generator produces 250V which is
smoothed by the smoothing circuit and fed directly across the control coil of the
ratiometer type instrument. This voltage will also try to drive a current through the
resistance under test and the deflecting coil of the ratiometer indicator.

The current through the control coil is constant, whereas the current through the
deflection coil is dependent on the resistance under test, ie the insulation resistance
of the system being tested.

Normal ratiometer action will take place as previously described and, when the
torques balance, indicate the resistance value on the scale from zero to infinity in
ohms.

It should be noted that on this instrument prior to use, the pointer can take up any
position on the scale. In the 250V Meggar there is a voltage limiting circuit, which,
should the voltage exceed 300V the silicon carbide disc will break down (acts like a
zener diode) and limit the output.

Pre-use Test

Physical check the instrument for damage, contamination etc. Check calibration date.

Inspect test leads for condition, damage and contamination.

Operate tester at rated speed without test leads connected, meter should read infinity.

Plug in test leads and connect the exposed ends together and turn tester handle
slowly and the meter should indicate zero.

Later instruments are of the transistorised types similar to those shown in figure 43.

Fig. 43 TRANSISTORISED INSULATION TESTERS

- 42 -
Figure 43 (a) shows a Megger that is also a continuity tester (0-200Ω scale), resistance
measurement (0-5000kΩ) and insulation tester 0-50MΩ and infinity at 250V. It is
battery operated (9V) with transistorised circuitry providing the necessary voltages for
each scale position. The meter is a permanent magnet moving coil type.

Selection of the scale is by the central switch, position B being the battery test
position. To test battery, switch to B and press central button and ensure the pointer
moves into the green 6-9V sector.

Pre-use testing is achieved by selecting to each scale selection, with no leads

connected and the button pressed the pointer should indicate:

INFINITY on the MΩ range

INFINITY on the KΩ range
200Ω on the Ω range

Inspect the leads for serviceability, connect to the instrument and with the exposed
ends touching, the pointer should indicate zero on all ranges when the button is
pressed.

Later types of transistorised insulation testers may be of similar construction to (a) or

be like diagram (b) but the principle of operation is similar.

These are battery operated (typically 9V) transistorised circuits providing test voltages
of typically 50V, 100V, 250V, 500V and 1000V dc selected by push button or rotary
switch.

The scale reading may have to be adjusted by a multiplying or dividing factor

depending on range selected. These instruments can be used on high capacitance
circuits and may have a discharge switch to enable the capacitor to be discharged
before disconnection of the instrument from the circuit.

Pre-use testing will be by turning the range switch to a particular selection and
pressing a button and the meter should indicate above a certain scale mark. Check
leads for serviceability insert leads into tester leave exposed ends apart set to 1000V,
press button, pointer should indicate ‘infinity’. Connect the leads together select 50V
range press test button, the meter should read zero.

INSULATION TESTING

Selecting the correct insulation test value for the system under test is important and
in general the normal operating voltage of the circuit determines the insulation tester
to be used.

0 – 110V - 250V tester

110 – 300V - 500V tester

However, one golden rule for insulation testing – always follow the maintenance
schedule or AMM which will indicate the type and voltage of insulation tester to be
used and the precautions necessary. There are various ways of testing single
cables/cable bundles/electrical equipment and it is also important to check the test
instrument manufacturer’s operating manual. There are also many types of
instruments on the market.

- 43 -
Preparations and checks when testing include:

1. All supplies switched off and isolated.

2. Circuit fuses removed, circuit breakers tripped.
3. Disconnect any items of equipment which are supplied by the circuit.
These would be tested separately in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions.
4. On modern aircraft be aware of printed circuit boards (PCBs) and its
sensitive components. Severe damage could be done by the test voltage
being applied.
5. Any other circuits that could be affected by the test voltage eg fire
extinguisher cartridges, should also be disconnected.
6. When testing a complete circuit it may be necessary to bridge relay
contacts to ensure continuity of the circuit. Disconnected leads from
suppressors should also be bridged. Where a suppressor cannot be
bridged and plug and socket connections are used, the capacitors
should be discharged before the circuit is reconnected, otherwise arcing
and burning of the pins may occur.
7. It is important to note that the test voltage does not exceed the working
voltage of the capacitors or damage will result.
8. Ensure no parallel paths.
9. Disconnect earth connections.

Testing of Cables

Single cable. Carry out the precautions as stated above. Connect the test leads of the
insulation tester as shown in figure 44 using crocodile clips - positive lead to the
insulation and the negative lead to the conducting core. The guard lead is only used
to allow certain components to be switched out during the test.

Crank the handle at 169rpm (the actual rpm is not critical – fast will do). Keep this
going for a time period as stated in the manual (some manuals say 1 minute) and
note the reading on the gauge. The resistance value should hold high or maybe start
high then drop slightly due to capacitive and absorption currents.

Fig. 44 INSULATION TESTING SINGLE CABLE

Multiple cables. Multiple cables may be tested by bridging wires connecting the
conductors of all the cables in the bundle. Connect the insulation tester across the
ends of the cables as shown in figure 44, one lead connected to the conductor and the
other connected to the insulation.

- 44 -
Operate the Megger as before. If there has been no insulation breakdown between the
cables then the indicated resistance will be a high, however, if there has been
insulation breakdown causing the conductors to touch or get close to one another
then the indication will be low, indicating a fault.

To test a cable or group of cables for breakdown of insulation to the aircraft fuselage,
then the tester should be connected between the cable conductor and airframe earth.
If a bunch of cables is to be tested then, it is advisable to limit the number to the
smallest convenient figure.

If the insulation is less than the values given in the AMM (see later notes) the number
of circuits being tested should be reduced. Testing should continue until by the
process of elimination the defective cable/s have been identified.

Fig. 45 INSULATING TESTING SEVERAL CABLES

Component Testing

This would normally be carried out in the workshop in accordance with overhaul
manual. Some examples would be:

a) AC generator between each 3 phase main terminal and the frame.

b) Battery between a main terminal and a metal plate on which the battery
is placed.

TEST RESULTS

The manual will usually quote that the insulation resistance must not be less than a
certain figure. However, it should be realised that test results are of little significance
unless they are related to test results obtained from previous tests. The values are
likely to vary with changes of humidity and temperature (the weather), eg if aircraft
has been in damp conditions for some time, the test readings will be low. If the
temperature increases the insulation decreases.

Results of tests and the temperature and humidity conditions at the time of the test
should be recorded.

- 45 -
The CAA do not specify minimum values of insulation resistance but give guidance
values that may be expected during maintenance testing. These values can be, and
frequently are, exceeded on new installations. The guidance values are:

* Wiring (including accessories for jointing and terminating):

In engine nacelles, undercarriage wheel wells

and other situations exposed to weather or
extremes of temperature. 2 megohms

Galley and other non-essential services, lighting,

signalling and indication services. 5 megohms

Other services 10 megohms

Note. The above values relate to single circuits or small groups of

circuits.

* Wiring accessories alone (eg, terminal blocks, connectors, plugs and

sockets, etc):

Between terminals. 100 megohms

Between terminals bunched 200

together and earth. number of terminals megohms

* Rotating machinery
whichever is the greater: rated voltage
150 or 0.5 megohms

* All other equipment (including

indicating instruments) 5 megohms

After an insulation test a full function check should be carried out on the system and
any services supplied by the system.

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

Ratiometer Type Frequency Meter

The meter is a permanent magnet instrument with two coils A and B mounted
symmetrically on a control pivoted spindle which carries the pointer. Current is fed to
and from the coils by ligaments.

The magnet system is so arranged that when either coil moves upwards (figure 46) it
moves into a larger air gap (and weaker magnetic field) and when it moves downwards
the gap becomes smaller (where the magnetic field is stronger). The coils are fed with
current which interacts with the magnetic fields and produces a torque on the
instrument. These two torques are so arranged that they oppose each other. In the
centre pointer position equal fluxes link with each coil, therefore equilibrium is
obtained when the coils carry equal currents.

- 46 -
With a changing impedance Z, the coil supply circuits divide, coil B is fed via
resistance’s R whilst coil A is fed via capacitor C and inductance L, these being
resonant well above the nominal frequency.

IB will be constant for a given supply voltage (assuming coil inductance to be

negligible) whereas IA will increase with frequency.

Below nominal frequency IB predominates so that coil B torque moves the pointer to
the left and at the same time moves itself into a weaker flux area and coil A into a
stronger flux area. The pointer stabilises when the torque’s are again equal, the
movement being proportional to the amount by which the frequency is below nominal.
Above nominal frequency the movement is reversed because IA is now greater than IB.

Fig. 46 RATIOMETER PRINCIPLE

POWER MEASUREMENT

The Dynamometer Watt Meter

The electrodynamic, or dynamometer, type watt meter operates on the deflecting

torque due to the interaction of the magnetic fields produced by currents in fixed and
moving coils.

- 47 -
Figure 48 (a) shows the magnetic field due to current flowing through the fixed coils A
and figure 48 (b) shows the magnetic field due to current flowing through the moving
coil B.

When the two magnetic fields are combined by simultaneous currents through both
coils, as is shown in figure 48 (c), the resultant magnetic field is distorted, and a
clockwise torque is exerted on coil B.

The amount of torque produced will depend on the value of current produced through
coil A and the current through coil B.

Fig. 47 DYNAMOMETER WATT METER

Fig. 48 FLUX PATTERNS

When this instrument is used as a watt meter, coil A is connected in series with the
load and this carries load current. It is called the current coil. Coil B is connected
across the supply and is known as the pressure coil.

The magnetic field associated with coil A is proportional to the load current. The
magnetic field associated with coil B is proportional to the supply voltage. Thus the
torque produced by the interaction of the two fields is proportional to the product of
the load current and the supply voltage. The pointer deflection is therefore
proportional to power in the circuit (watts).

- 48 -
If the current in coil A is 90º out of phase with the current in coil B, the magnetic
fields will not be coincident and there will be no interaction between them, so the
instrument will not deflect. The instrument therefore measures true power.

As shown in figure 49 with the switch at the kW position coil A is fed via a current
transformer on phase B and the voltage coil B is connected across phase B measuring
its voltage. The interaction of the two fields (as discussed above) will give a reading of
true power in kilowatts.

Fig. 49 WATTMETER – CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

If the switch is placed to the kVAR position (Kilo Volt Amps Reactive) the field coil A is
still measuring phase B current but the voltage across the moving coil is now across
phase A and phase C, that is a line voltage. There is a 90º phase difference measured
between current and voltage and the meter will now indicate reactive power in kVAR.

”””””

The next part of the book deals with Avionic General Test Equipment, and the ATC
600 and NAV 402 test sets are used as examples. The description of them goes into
some detail as to their use and all this need no be committed to memory, however,
you should have some knowledge as to how the systems, to which they relate, are
tested. This applies to both the B1 and B2 person with the knowledge requirement for
the B1 person being level 2 and for the B2 person being level 3.

For the B1 person the syllabus requires that you have some knowledge of these
systems which are covered in modules 11/12. For the B2 person the systems are
covered in module 13.

For each test set there is a brief description of how the aircraft system works.

- 49 -
 THE ATC 600 TEST SET

The ATC 600 (A) test set is designed for simplicity of operation and no other external
test equipment is required except the remote test antenna and it’s tripod. It can test
both DME and the ATC transponder with a range of checks including functional tests
on the bench or on the ramp (on the aircraft).

Fig. 50 THE 600A TEST SET

Before going into the test procedure itself a brief summary of the Air Traffic Control
Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) is given below as background information. (More
details can be found in module 13 – for the avionic person and module 11 for the
fixed wing and module 12 for the rotary wing mechanical persons.)

THE ATCRBS

Often called Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR). In general, it is a ground based

radar system that ‘interrogates’ aircraft as they fly into a particular air traffic control
zone. The signal is picked up by the aircraft transponder (TRANSmitter/resPONDER)
which automatically responds by sending aircraft code and altitude data back to the
ground based transmitter. It consists of three main components:

Interrogator. Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) relies on a signal being transmitted

from the PSR antenna or aerial (on the ground) and for part of this signal to be
‘bounced back’ from the aircraft. This reflected signal is then displayed as a ‘target’ on
the ATC controller’s radarscope (CRT/flat screen display).

In the ATCRBS the rotating ground based directional interrogator antenna scans in
synchronisation with the PSR and transmits discrete radio signal pulses which
request all receiving transponders to reply.

The received replies are then mixed with the PSR returns and both data are displayed
on the CRT/flat screen display.

The omni directional interrogator antenna provides a Side Lobe Suppression (SLS)
signal which prevents transponders from responding to side-lobe radiation
transmitted by the directional interrogator antenna. (Side-lobe is a form of a small
additional radio signal that is generated automatically).

- 50 -
Transponder. This aircraft fitted radar beacon transmitter/receiver receives the
signals from the ground interrogator and automatically replies with a specific pulse
(code) to answer the interrogation being received. It responds by sending data back on
aircraft identity (Mode A) and altitude (Mode C). Altitude information is obtained from
the aircraft’s encoding altimeter of from computer stored data (DADC).

Radarscope. A CRT/flat screen display that receives signals from the PSR and
ATCRBS antennas. Radar echoes bounced back from all aircraft in range are shown
as small white ‘blips’ (targets) giving range and azimuth (direction). Identity code and
altitude is displayed next to each target with operating transponders.

Fig. 51 THE ATC SYSTEM

Operation

The aircraft mounted powered transponder receives the 1030MHz rf (radio frequency)
interrogation signal from the ATC ground station. The transponder validates the
interrogation signal and automatically transmits a coded 1090MHz rf reply signal
back to the ground station through the same antenna. The transponder only
responds to Mode A (ident) and Mode C (alt) interrogations.

The transponder encodes the identity reply using the ident code selected by the pilot
on the flight deck control panel. The transponder encodes the altitude using the
current barometric altitude (29.92 inches Hg) value provided by an Air Data
Computer (ADC) or an encoding altimeter.

Back to the ATC 600 tester.

TESTING THE TRANSPONDER

The following procedures are intended to provide information necessary to effectively

operate the ATC 600 (A) as a testing instrument. Variations in the procedures may be
made to suit different situations and it is important that the manufacturer’s
documents that accompany the test set are followed – and check the AMM of course.

- 51 -
The following procedures are used on the ramp. Bench testing is identical except that
the unit under test is connected to the test set through a 34dB pad and suitable
coaxial cables.

Transponder Operation Test Equipment Set-up

1. Set up the tripod and remote test antenna (figure 52). Adjust the test antenna
height (tripod height) to be equal to that of the aircraft transponder antenna.
The bearing between the antennas is not critical. The test antenna is usually
positioned for convenience use only.

2. Horizontally place the test antenna the distance from the aircraft antenna
indicated on the test antenna’s coaxial cable, approximately 21 inches
(53.34cm).

3. Route the loose end of the coaxial cable into the aircraft via the pilot’s dv
window, door, or other opening. All ramp testing with the ATC 600 (A) is
accomplished from the flightdeck, once the remote antenna is in position.

Warning. Never place the remote test antenna closer than 15 inches (38.4cm) to the
aircraft antenna while the ATC 600 (A) power is on. DAMAGE TO THE TEST SET WILL
RESULT.

Fig. 52 SET-UP OF ATC 600 TEST EQUIPMENT

blank

- 52 -
The ATC 600 (A) will test or verify:

1. The pilot’s code.

2. The altitude code. Using the Pitot static test set and the aircraft
configured for flight.
3. Peak transponder power.
4. Transponder frequency.
5. Percent reply.
6. SLS operation.
7. Ident (XPDR) pulse output.
8. INVALID ALT indication.
9. Transponder receiver-decoder limits.
10. Transponder pulse spacing.
11. Receiver sensitivity.

Pilot’s Code

Put the ATC 600 (A) into battery operation by pressing the PWR AC/BAT switch (28)
(figure 53) down once to BAT. Plug the remote test antenna coaxial cable into the RF
Input/Output connector (13). Position the Mode switch (21) to A/C CODE.

Power up the aircraft transponder and allow it to run in standby mode for a few
minutes. Place the transponder control head in A/C Mode. Set any pilot’s code into
the control head.

The ATC 600 (A) Numerical Readout (7) should show the pilot’s code and the Binary
Readout Indicators (8) should indicate the pulses that are stimulating the code
display.

As many codes as desired may be tested in this manner.

Altitude Code

Set the ATC 600 (A) Mode Switch to A/C ALT. The Numerical Readout should indicate
the output of the encoding altimeter (with Pitot statics ‘pumped up’) in thousands of
feet if the Baro knob on the encoding altimeter is set to 29.92 inches (76.0cm) Hg. The
Binary Readout Indicators should indicate the Gray Daytex Code stimulating the
Numerical Readout display.

The altitude code is given in a table in the lid of the test box.

Note. The encoding altimeter code output is not affected by changing the Baro knob
setting and always indicates altitude referenced to 29.92 inches (76.0cm) Hg.

Peak Transponder Power

With the ATC 600 (A) set to interrogate the transponder, set the FREQ/PWR switch (9)
to PWR. If the remote test antenna is properly set-up the FREQ/PWR Meter (10)
should indicate the peak transmitting power of the transponder.

- 53 -
Transponder Frequency

Set the ATC 600 (A) FREQ/PWR Switch to FREQ. Set the pilot’s code into the
transponder control head at 0000 and remove all altitude code pulses. Adjust the
ATC 600 (A) FREQ Gain Control (12) for a mid-scale FREQ/PWR Meter indication.
Rotate the XMTR FREQ Control (11) for a peak FREQ/PWR Meter indication. At peak,
read the deviation in MHz from 1090MHz directly from the XMTR FREQ Control dial.

Note. In measuring transponder frequency the pilot’s code of the transponder is set
to 0000 and the altitude pulses are removed in order to eliminate unnecessary
responses on the ATC 600 (A) FREQ/PWR Meter. If all information pulses were
present the XMTR FREQ Control would cause the FREQ/PWR Meter, to peak
every 0.69MHz, as would a spectrum analyser. So, in order to reduce the
spectrum, eliminate as many information pulses as possible to find what the
primary response is on the dial.

Percent Reply

The XPDR % REPLY/DME PRF MTR (1) indicates the percent reply of the transponder
to interrogations from the ATC 600 (A). The meter should indicate 100% reply under
most normal operating conditions.

SLS Operation

Set the Mode Switch to either A/C ALT or A/C CODE Mode for SLS Tests. Using the
XPDR SIG Level Control set the output RF level to 3dB above minimum trigger level
(MTL).

Note. If the transponder’s sensitivity is near the insensitive limit, it may be necessary
to move the antennas closer together in order to get 3dB above MTL. At the
closer than normal antenna spacing, re-establish the dial setting for MTL and
adjust the dial 3dB above MTL.

When the ATC 600 (A) 0/OFF/-9 dB SLS Switch (24) is set in the 0dB (up) position,
the transponder should not exceed three replies per second (FAA Spec). When the
switch is set at –9dB (down), the transponder should reply at a minimum of 907 or
211 replies per second (FAA) on the XPDR % RPLY/DME PRF MTR. At 0dB both the
Numerical Readout and the Binary Readout Indicators will blank out in either the
A/C ALT or A/C CODE Modes and both meters should drop to zero.

On the basic ATC 600 test set the SLS Switch has only the 0dB and OFF selections.
When the ATC 600 SLS Switch is depressed, the transponder should not exceed three
replies per second (FAA). There is no signal level control on the basic ATC 600 set. (In
the US refer to FAR 43.)

IDENT (XPDR) Pulse Output

The IDENT Pulse Indicator (6) will show the presence or absence of the Ident Pulse
generated by the transponder. The IDENT Pulse Indicator will light for the duration of
the time that the Ident Pulse is added to the output, usually about thirty seconds.

- 54 -
INVALID ALT Indicator

The INVALID ALT Indicator (3) shows the reception of an unassigned combination of
altitude codes. This does not necessarily mean that an incorrect altitude
measurement is being sent, only that the wrong altitude code is being received. Valid
altitude information is shown by the presence of at least one of the ‘C’ pulses, but
never C1 and C4 at the same time.

Fig. 53 FRONT PANEL OF ATC 600 TEST SET

Legend for Figure 53

1. XPDR & RPLY/DME PRF MTR 17. DME RANGE/VELOCITY Switch

2. NO ALT Indicator 18. VELOCITY HI/LO Switch
3. INVALID ALT Indicator 19. SLOW SLEW Switch
4. F2 Pulse Spacing Indicator 20. Squitter On/OFF Switch
5. DME PRF Switch 21. Mode Switch
6. IDENT Pulse Indicator 22. X/Y Channel Switch
7. Numerical Readout 23. DME IDENT Tone Switch
8. Binary Readout Indicators 24. SLS Switch
9. FREQ/PWR Switch 25. FRAMING Pulse Spacing Control
10. FREQ/PWR Meter 26. Altitude ENCODER Input Connector
11. XMTR FREQ Control 27. Interrogation Spacing Control
12. FREQ GAIN Control 28. PWR A/C BAT Switch
13. RF Input/Output Connector 29. PWR Indicator
14. DME 50% RPLY Switch 30. BAT Test Switch
15. FAST SLEW Switch 31. SYS/LAMP Test Switch
16. VELOCITY IN/OUT Switch

XPDR Receiver-Decoder Limits

By varying the Interrogation Spacing Control (27) setting in both directions from zero,
the transponder decoder input limits may be checked. As the limits are exceeded, the
XPDR % RPLY/DME PRF MTR indication will drop and eventually fall to zero.
Normally the Interrogation Spacing Control is set at zero.

- 55 -
Transponder Pulse Spacing

If the F2 Pulse Spacing Indicator (4) lights, the F2 pulse of the reply is either missing or
is improperly spaced. The position and approximate width of F2 is determined by
varying the Framing Pulse Spacing Control (25).

As the control is rotated to the left or right of zero until the F2 Pulse Spacing Indictor
lights, the knob calibrations in microseconds show the leading and trailing edges of F2
respectively. The difference between the readings is the approximate width of F2. This
test is useful because when F2 is displaced, the other reply pulses will be skewed out
of position proportionally.

Receiver Sensitivity

Set up the remote test antenna as shown. Set the Mode Switch to A/C CODE Mode.
With the XPDR SIG Level Control fully counter-clockwise, verify that the percent reply
shown on the XPDR % REPLY/DME PRF MTR is 100%.

Rotate the XPDR SIG Level Control clockwise until the XPDR % RPLY/DME PRF MTR
indicates 90% reply. Note the reading on the XPDR SIG Level Control scale. This is
the minimum trigger level (MTL) of the transponder in –dBm. For all transponders this
MTL should be from –69dBm to –77dBm with a 34dB pad. When using portable test
equipment, an additional 3dBm tolerance is allowed.

Move the Mode Switch to A/C ALT and perform the tests outlined above. Note the
MTL reading. According to FAR 43 receiver sensitivity between Modes A/C CODE and
A/C ALT should not have a difference greater than 1.0dBm. Return the XPDR SIG
Level Control to the full counter-clockwise position.

TESTING THE DME

A brief description of DME is included here for a better understanding of the testing
procedure. For the avionic person more information can be found in module 13 and
for the B1 fixed wing person – module 11, and for the helicopter person – module 12.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is fitted to aircraft to give the distance in

nautical miles from a selected VOR ground station. The system sends out signals
which are returned by a ground based transponder and the round trip time
measured. As the speed of the signal is known then distance (line of sight) can be
calculated. The time is converted to a distance signal and displayed on the DME
indicator in the flight deck displaying ‘miles to go’ in nautical miles.

This distance is measured and determined by the interrogator (receiver/transmitter)

unit. When a VOR frequency is selected the DME frequency is automatically selected.
In flight, the DME is constantly monitoring and computing the DME slant range.

DME testing includes checking distance accuracy and checking velocity accuracy. In
addition to basic range and velocity tests, other DME characteristics common to both
modes of operation are tested, including DME
Transmitted PRF, Transmitter Peak Power and Frequency, Ident Tone, Percent Reply,
Squitter Lock-Out and Y Channel Operation.

- 56 -
 Fig. 54 THE DME SYSTEM

Test Equipment Set-Up

The remote test antenna set-up and test coaxial cable routing are as previously
described. Observe the precautions about close antenna spacing - care in proper
remote test antenna to aircraft antenna spacing will give the most accurate power
readings.

DME Range or Distance Operation

Press the PWR AC/BAT Switch (28) (figure 53) down once to BAT. Connect the remote
test antenna to the test set. Power up the airborne DME and allow it to operate for a
few minutes before testing.

Put the DME into a Distance Display Mode in any desired range scale. Set the DME
frequency at 108.00. After a brief warm-up, begin tests by placing the Mode Switch on
the DME Setting. Set the DME RANGE/VELOCITY Switch (17) on RANGE. Set the
X/Y Channel Switch (22) on X, and the Squitter On/OFF Switch (20) on SQTR.
Operate the FAST and SLOW SLEW Switches (15 and 19) IN or OUT to obtain a
desired distance in nautical miles.

The DME should lock-on to the ATC 600 (A) at the precise range programmed. Any
number of different distances from 0 to 399 nautical miles (nm) may be similarly
checked in one nautical mile increments.

- 57 -
DME Velocity Operation

Set the ATC 600 (A) and airborne DME controls as above. However, set the DME to
display Velocity and set the DME RANGE/VELOCITY Switch to any desired velocity
setting. Use the VELOCITY HI/LO Range Switch (18) to choose one of the two values
of the VELOCITY setting. Use the FAST and SLOW SLEW Switches to set any desired
starting range and use the VELOCITY IN/OUT Switch (16) to track the distance
toward or away from the ground station. The DME should lock-on to the ATC 600 (A)
and display the correct velocity.

If the DME is set to display distance in nautical miles, the distance should equal the
instantaneous range indicated in the ATC 600 (A) displays on the Numerical Readout
in 0.1 nm. Distance should be tracing inbound or outbound as set with the
VELOCITY IN/OUT Switch. Any number of velocities and instantaneous distances
may be similarly checked.

DME Tests Common to Range and Velocity Operation

DME Transmitted PRF

Set the ATC 600 (A) DME PRF Switch (5) to 0-30 while the DME is locked-on to any
range or velocity. The XPDR % RPLY/DME PRF MTR will indicate Track PRF. Unlock
the DME by channelling the frequency or changing the ATC 600 (A) distance setting.

Move the DME PRF Switch to 0-300. While the DME searches for a new lock-on, the
XPDR % RPLY/DME PRF MTR should indicate Search PRF.

Note. Unlocking the DME by changing the ATC 600 (A) range setting by 30 to 50
miles (48.28 to 80.47km) is also a good way to check DME ‘memory time’.
When the range is slewed, the DME will hold the last displayed range for a
certain time (usually around 8 to 10 seconds) before unlocking and searching.

Transmitter Peak Power and Frequency

Set the FREQ/PWR Switch to PWR, while the DME is operating into the test set. The
RF peak power will appear on the FREQ/PWR Meter in kW.

The DME is a crystal-controlled device. Reading the transmitter frequency confirms

that the DME is on the correct channel but does not test crystal tolerance. To check
crystal tolerance, set the FREQ/PWR Switch to FREQ, adjust the FREQ GAIN Control
(12) for a mid-scale deflection of the FREQ/PWR Meter (10), and adjust the XMTR
FREQ Control (11) for a peak FREQ/PWR Meter reading.

Note. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs on the XMTR FREQ Control (11) dial are
reversed in DME operation.

- 58 -
Ident Tone

The DME IDENT Tone Switch (23) of the basic ATC 600 and the IDENT (up) position
of the ATC 600 (A) IDENT/50% RPLY Switch serves the same function. When the
DME IDENT Tone Switch is depressed or the IDENT/50% RPLY Switch is flipped to
the IDENT (up) position, the Ident Tone is added.

A rough 1350Hz tone should be heard through the audio system. Adding the Ident
Tone can also be a good check of memory time, as the tone supersedes all range and
squitter pulses.

Percent Reply

The DME 50% RPLY Switch (14) of the basic ATC 600 and the 50% RPLY (down)
position of the ATC 600 (A) IDENT/50% RPLY Switch serve the same function.

Depressing the DME 50% RPLY Switch or throwing the IDENT 50% RPLY Switch to
50% RPLY (down) should delete half of all replies to the DME on a 50-50 basis.
Deleting half of the replies to the DME checks the ability of the DME to lock-on or to
track under poor signal conditions.

Squitter Lock-Out

Turn the Squitter On/OFF Switch (20) OFF. Slew the range to any desired position.
Set the DME frequency for the appropriate channel (108.00 for X
Channel, 108.05 for Y Channel). Check that after memory time the DME drops out
and does not search. Most DME’s are equipped with a squitter lock-out circuit to
prevent searching until the squitter is received. Placing the Squitter On/OFF Switch
to SQTR should cause the DME to begin searching.

Y Channel Operation

If the DME is equipped for Y Channels (50 kHz spacing on the DME frequency
control), set the DME frequency to 108.05 and the X/Y Channel Switch (22) to Y.
Repeat all tests and functions as before in Y Channel.

THE NAV-402 TEST SET

The NAV-402 is a self contained unit designed for functional and calibration testing of
MKR, ILS, VOR, and COM avionics equipment. All the necessary test signals are
generated within the NAV-402 unit for bench and ramp use. A general purpose
counter is included for audio and rf frequencies from 5Hz to 250MHz.

(MKR = marker beacon. Marker beacons are low powered 75MHz radio transmitters
positioned on the ground along airport approach flight paths. They send up a fan
shaped signal which is picked up by the receiver equipment on the aircraft and gives
the pilot an aural and visual signal letting him/her know the aircraft’s position in
relation to the beacon. ILS is an instrument landing system.

- 59 -
This uses marker beacons and radio signals from a localizer [produces a narrow beam
to guide the aircraft laterally onto the runway] and a glide slope beam to guide the
aircraft vertically onto the runway. VOR is variable omnidirectional radio range which
uses ground based VHF transmitters to produce a circular horizontal signal radiating
out in all directions. This is picked up by the aircraft receiver which displays to the
pilot the distance from the VOR station, the bearing and the VOR ident. COM is radio
communication systems.)

With reference to figure 55. The aerial output is connected at position 9 so that the
signal generator output can be transmitted to the aircraft receivers.

Fig. 55 THE NAV 402 TEST SET

Controls and Connectors (figure 55)

Frequency Mode Switch (1). Selects the frequency band to be used. Each band
except COM is divided into two positions; a crystal controlled frequency mode, and a
variable frequency mode. COM utilises three switch positions; the crystal controlled
mode (126.9 MHz) and two variable frequency modes (LO-117 to 136 MHz, H1-134 to
154 MHz).

The VAR positions allow the Signal Generator to cover all the frequencies of each
bank, along with frequencies slightly higher and lower than the bank specified. (MKR
- 72 to 78 MHz, VOR/LOC-107 to 120 MHz, G/S 318 to 338 MHz).

Crystal Frequency Switch (2). Switches in either the high or low crystal frequency.

HI LO
LOC XTAL 115.6 MHz 112.8 MHz
G/S XTAL 334.7 MHz 329.6 MHz
VOR XTAL 110.5 MHz 108.1 MHz

- 60 -
Counter Mode Switch (3). Selects the source of signal to be counted.

GEN The frequency of the internal signal generator is displayed.

Hz, kHz, kHz or MHz - in any of these positions either the frequency of a
COMM transmitter is displayed if transmitting into the XMTR IN connector,
or an external signal source is counted. The external signal must be
applied to the EXT IN (MODE IN/CTR IN) connector.

BRG Displays the VOR Bearing Switch indication, providing a check on the
bearing selection circuits. Also in this position the bearing monitor circuitry
is energised to check the VOR. Modulation for proper operation is 90°.

Note. A push-button switch is incorporated into the rotary switch which applies
power to the counter read-out components when in battery operation. This
is to allow the main current using part of the counter to be turned off and
conserve battery use time. When in portable operation use the counter
read-out only when necessary, otherwise battery operation time is
shortened. In AC operation the read-out is on irrespective of the push-
button switch position.

Meter Bearing - Centre Adjust (4). This control centres the monitor meter before
making a VOR system bearing check. The Counter Mode Switch MUST NOT be in the
BRG position while the meter is being centred.

Variable Frequency Controls (5). With the Frequency Mode switch in any of the VAR
positions the course (large, lower) and fine (small, upper) Variable Frequency controls
manually sweep the internal signal generator frequency.

Course control knob gives from one to two MHz deviation per turn. Fine control knob
gives approximately 20 to 40MHz deviation for its rotation.

Phase Lock Circuit. The phase lock circuit is activated by turning the fine tuning pot
fully counter clockwise. Phase lock can be obtained every 25kHz on the variable
frequency modes except for Glideslope when it is 50kHz.

The course frequency pot is used to select the 25kHz frequencies. Phase lock is
indicated by the proper count on the frequency counter.

Tune Control and Tune Indicator Lamp (6). The Tune control adjusts the tuning of the
signal generator. It must be readjusted for each different frequency band used, when
the variable frequency control changes the frequency more than a few megahertz in
any one band, or when the attenuator is used in or changes in the attenuation range
of -15dBm to max rf output. The indicator will light for an out-of-tune condition.
Adjusting the Tune Control will cause the indicator to go out when the signal
generator is properly tuned for the frequency in use.

Fine Tune Switch (7). This is a more sensitive tuning mode. After adjusting the Tune
Control for a non-illuminated indicator lamp depress the Fine Tune Switch and tune
for a minimum reading of the monitor meter.

- 61 -
Attenuator (8). Sets the rf level from the signal generator at the output jack into a 50
ohm load. The attenuator dial reads out in -dBm, or dB below one milliwatt. The dial
reads true output from -20dBm and greater attenuation, and becomes slightly non-
linear at outputs greater than -20dBm. An Attenuator Correction Chart is included
with each instrument.

RF Output Connector (9). Presents the attenuated signal generator output to the
equipment under test. The connector is diode protected against a COM transmitter
being inadvertently keyed. Care is still needed, however, to make sure this does not
happen. The output is source terminated in 50 ohm.

COMM Transmitter Input Connector (10). This is the input to the power meter, and is
connected via 50 ohm cable for power and frequency measurement. Power indicated
is either peak or average in level. Transmitter frequency is read by proper position of
the counter mode switch.

Measurement of COMM transmitter power is in two ranges - 0 to 10W and 0 to 100W.

Input power versus time limits - 20W CW level continuous duty:

Power Minutes: On Off

20W-40W 5 20
40W-80W 1 20
80W-100W .5 20

Localiser - Peak or Average Power Measurement Switch (11). This switch has two
functions:

(a) Placing the switch on LOC ON-PEAK position activates a separate

LOC generator which permits simultaneous LOC & G/S outputs
when the test set is operated in G/S XTL mode.

(b) Selects the mode of operation of the power meter. In Peak

position, the power meter indicates the peak power amplitude of
a COM transmitter which modulation applied. In AVG position
the power indicated is the average RF power of a COM
transmitter and disregards power changes due to proper
modulation.

90/150Hz Variable Phase Mode Switch (12). Normally the 90Hz and 150Hz tones
used for LOC & G/S modulation are phase-locked together. However, when the VAR
Phase Mode Switch is depressed the 150Hz phase relationship is variable in 5° steps
by use of the VOR BRG switches. The facility is for bench tests only.

Glideslope DDM Control (13). Selects the amount of G/S deviation on an ILS indicator
under test. Calibrations are in DDM - difference in depth of modulation - and
represent standard deflection, full scale, and greater than full scale deflections.
Clockwise rotation gives up deflection; counter clockwise rotation giving down
deflection. In either the 90Hz or 150Hz positions the opposite tone is deleted and the
selected tone is at the same level as the on course value (40%) so that a flag test can
be made. The localiser DDM control must not be on the 90Hz or 150Hz position when
using the Glideslope function. Otherwise either the 90Hz or 150Hz tone will be deleted
by the Localiser control.

- 62 -
CW operation can be obtained by placing the Glideslope DDM control on 150Hz and
the Localiser DDM control on 90Hz or vice versa.

Glideslope DDM Variable Control (14). This control continuously varies the GS pointer
deflection from .8 DDM down through 0 DDM to .8 DDM up. CW rotation gives up
pointer deflection. The G/S DDM control must be in the arrow position for operation.

Glideslope Centring Adjust (15). This control varies the amplitude of the 90 Hz tone
and is used as an exact course centring control for Glideslope modulation.

Tone Select Switch (16). Has three functions:

(a) In CTR (Counter) position the EXT IN (17) connector is fed to the
general purpose counter input.
(b) In the MOD (Modulation) position, the EXT IN connector becomes
the modulation input to the signal generator.
(c) In any of the four tone positions, that tone is selected to
modulate the various frequency bands selected by the frequency
mode switch, except the G/S generator.

External Counter/Modulation Input Connector (17).

Localiser DDM Control (18). Selects the amount of deviation of the LOC pointer of an
ILS instrument under test. Calibrated in DDM the switch positions correspond to
standard deflection, full scale, and greater than full scale deflection. In either the
90Hz or 150Hz positions the opposite tone is deleted and the selected tone is at the
same level as the on course value (20%) so that a flag test can be made. The
Glideslope DDM control must not be on the 90Hz or 150Hz position when using the
Localiser function. Otherwise either the 90Hz or 150Hz tone will be deleted by the
Glideslope control. CW operation can be obtained by placing the Glideslope DDM
control on 150Hz and the Localiser DDM control on 90Hz or vice versa.

LOC, DDM and SWEEP AMP - VAR Control (19).

(a) When sweep control is in OFF position. This control varies the
LOC pointer deflection from .4 DDM left through 0 DDM through .4
DDM right. CW rotation gives right pointer deflection. The LOC DDM
control must be in the arrow position for operation.
(b) When sweep control in Arm position. This control sets the
desired sweep amplitude from 0 to 30 micro-amps.

SWEEP Control (20). This is a three position switch:

(a) OFF. The LOC/DDM/SWEEP/AMP control will be used as a

normal LOC DDM control.
(b) ARM. In arm position LOC./DDM/SWEEP/AMP - VAR control
will allow a choice of the Peak sweep amplitude from 0 to 30
micro-amps. The LOC DDM control should be in 0 DDM
position.
(c) SWEEP. In sweep position the LOC modulation will sweep about
0 DDM at a peak amplitude set by 0 to 30 micro-amp control.

- 63 -
Localiser Centring Adjust (21). Varies the amplitude of the 90Hz tone and is used as
an exact course centring control for Localiser modulation. See calibration procedures.

30Hz VAR Level Control (22). Changes the percentage of modulation of the 30Hz VAR
tone of the VOR composite signal from 0 to 30%. It remains at 30% as the knob is
turned past the 30% line to the stop. This position is ramp use.

9960Hz REF Level Control (23). This control changes the percentage of modulation of
the 9.960Hz tone of the VOR composite signal from 0 to 30%. It remains 30% as the
knob is turned past the 30% line on the stop. Use in this position on the ramp.

Master Modulation Level Control (24). In the CAL position (full CCW) the modulation
levels of each type of signal - LOC, G/S, etc. - are fixed at their proper values of 20%,
30%, 40%, etc. For ramp use. In other than the CAL position the control varies the
level of modulation of any signal from 0 to twice the normal level for that signal.

AC Power/Battery Power Switch (25). AC supply is 115V 400Hz or 240V 50Hz when
the rocker switch is pressed to AC. The set's DC power is connected to the rectified
DC from the power transformer. The battery is charging anytime the test set is
connected to AC power.

If the BAT switch is pressed, which is a momentary position, the BATT 8 minute timer
is started. The set will operate completely on BATT power until the timer turns the set
off, or until the Power Switch is again pressed to BAT which will stop the timer at any
time less than 8 minutes. When the switch is depressed to BAT it also activates the
lamp test circuit of the display counter to light all seven bars of each counter readout.

Power ON Indicator Lamp (26). The power Indicator Lamp lights whenever the NAV-
402 has power applied, whether from AC or battery source.

VOR Bearing Selector Switches (27). Four thumbwheel switches select the VOR
bearing. The hundreds switch is stopped at 3. Bearings from 360° to 399° are not
valid, ie the bearing selector operates only from 0° to 359.9°.

VOR Bearing TO/FROM Switch (28). To TO/FROM switch changes the selected VOR
bearing to the reciprocal bearing for flag tests etc.

Monitor Meter (29). The Monitor Meter is a multimeter measuring:

(a) RF Power.
(b) Signal Generator RF output level.
(c) Battery voltage.
(d) Percent modulation on the signal generator.
(e) An indication at 90° that the VOR bearing circuitry is functioning
properly.

Monitor Meter Switch (30). POWER is measured 0-10W FS and 0-100W FS of any
COMM transmitter operating into the XMTR IN connector.

The RF position is used to indicate proper RF levelling of the signal generator.

- 64 -
In BAT position the left edge of the bank in the centre of the meter is a voltage of
13.2V which is discharged battery condition. For a fully charged battery the meter will
indicate near the centre of the band with charger off and to the right side of the band
with charger on, ie with the test set connected to AC power.

Modulation of the signal generator in use is indicated from 0-30% or 1-100%.

In BRG position the VOR generator is checked at 90°. The centre of the band is 0° and
either left or right meter scale limits indicate ±0.5° error. The meter is centred first
with the Meter Bearing - Zero Adjust and then compared to the VOR generator.

For the setting up procedure refer to figure 55 and carry out the following:

1. Set Crystal HI-LO Switch (2) to LOW.

2. Set Monitor Switch (30) to BAT.
3. Set Display Switch (3) to GEN.
4. Set Peak/Avg Switch (11) to AVG.
5. Set G/S DDM Switch (13) to ‘O’.
6. Set LOC DDM Switch (18) to ‘O’.
7. Set 30 Hz Vari Phase Switch (22) fully CW.
8. Set 9.96 kHz Vari Phase Switch (23) fully CW.
9. Set TO/FROM Switch (28) to FROM.
10. Set Master MOD Switch (24) fully CCW (Click Stop).
11. Set Modulation Switch (16) to MON IN.

Notes

1. Whenever the frequency is changed or the output (O/P) Control (8) is

adjusted ensure the tune light (7) is extinguished. To extinguish the
tune light select RF on the Monitor switch (30) depress Tune Button (6)
and adjust fine tune control (6) for a peak indication on the meter (29).
2. Maximum O/P control (8) setting is physically restricted to –12dB.

Localiser No 1 Checks

1. Ensure aircraft compass and heading systems are switched on and serviceable.
2. Switch on interphone and select No 1 Nav audio feed to speaker or headphone.
3. Switch on No 1 ILS and select 108.1 MHz.
4. Connect test set aerial to XMTR OUT socket (9) (figure 55) and switch test set
power switch (25) to BAT. Check meter indications are approximately 15V.
(Readings below 12V are unacceptable and may cause incorrect readings).
5. Mode switch (1) to LOC XTAL and ensure readout indicates 108.1 MHz.
6. Set O/P control to -15dB and ensure LOC flag has disappeared.
7. Decrease attenuator O/P until LOC flag reappears.
8. Increase attenuator O/P until LOC flag disappears. Reset to -15dB.
9. Select LOC VAR on mode switch (1) and adjust VAR FREQ control (5) to
111.9MHz.
10. Select 111.9MHz on No 1 LOC and repeat numbers 6 – 8 above.
11. Select LOC XTAL on mode switch and 108.1MHz on No 1 ILS controller and
check deviation pointer is central.
12. Select LOC DDM switch to 0.093 right and check deviation pointer indicates
60% of 2 DOT deviation right (or 3 dots on an indicator with 5 dot
presentation).

- 65 -
13. Select LOC DDM switch to 0.155 right and check deviation pointer indicates 2
dots/5 dots right.
14. Select LOC DDM switch to 0.2 right and check for fsd right.
15. Select LOC DDM switch to 90 and check for fsd right and the LOC flag
reappears.
16. Repeat steps 12 to 15 above for LOC DDM left hand switch positions checking
the deviation pointer indicates left.
17. Select LOC DDM switch to 0 and modulation switch to 1020Hz. Check 1020Hz
audio tone is heard over the interphone.
18. Repeat for No 2 ILS LOC.

Glidepath No 1 Checks

1. Ensure No 1 ILS is switched on and 108.1MHz is selected (G/P is 334.7MHz).

2. Select mode switch (1) (figure 55) to G/S XTAL and ensure 334.7MHz is
displayed on the readout.
3. Set O/P control (8) to –15dB and ensure G/S flag has disappeared.
4. Decrease attenuator output until G/S flag reappears.
5. Increase attenuator output until G/S flag disappears and set to –5dB.
6. Set HI/LO Switch (2) to LO and CHECK indictor reads 329.6MHz.
7. Select 110.5MHz on No 1 ILS controller and repeat items 3 to 5 above.
8. Set HI/LO switch to HI and 108.1MHz on ILS controller, ensure 334.7MHz is
displayed and deviation pointer is central.
9. Set G/S DDM switch (13) to .091 right and check deviation pointer indicates
approximately 1 DOT up (or 2 ½ DOTS on an indicator with 5 DOT
presentation).
10. Set G/S DDM switch to .175 right and check deviation pointer indicates 2
DOTS/5 DOTS up.
11. Set G/S DDM switch to .4 right and check deviation pointer goes fsd up.
12. Set G/S DDM switch to 150 and check for fsd up and G/S flag appears.
13. Repeat 9-12 for G/S DDM left hand switch positions, checking the deviation
pointer indicates down.
14. Repeat all above checks for No 2 G/S.

Marker Lights and Audio

1. Ensure marker receiver is switched on and select marker HI/LO sense switch
to HI.
2. Check aircraft marker lamps operate.
3. Set test set mode selector switch to MKR XTAL and check that 75MHz is
displayed.
4. Position test set close to the Marker aerial and select 400Hz on the Modulation
switch.
5. Check the blue marker lamp is illuminated and a 400Hz tone is heard over the
interphone.
6. Decrease the attenuator O/P control until the marker lamp is extinguished,
increase attenuator control until marker lamp is just illuminated.
7. Set the marker HI/LO sense switch to LOW and ensure the marker lamp is
extinguished.
8. Increase attenuator O/P by 10dB and ensure marker lamp is illuminated.

- 66 -
9. Set the marker HI/LO sense switch to HI and the test set attenuator control to
-15dB.
10. Select 1300Hz and 3000Hz on the modulation switch in turn and check the
appropriate lamp is illuminated and the correct audio is heard over the
interphone.

VOR Checks

1. Select 117.9MHz on No 1 ILS controller.

2. Select a course of 000° on the OBS.
3. Select VOR VAR on test set mode selector and adjust the variable frequency
control to display a frequency of 117.9MHz.
4. Ensure LOC flag has disappeared and deviation bar is central.
5. Adjust thumb wheels (27) to show 5° and check HSI deviation pointers
indicates 1 DOT left (2 ½ DOTS on a 5 DOT presentation).
6. Adjust thumb wheels to show 10° and check deviation pointers indicate 2
DOTS/5 DOTS left.
7. Adjust thumb wheels to show 355° and check deviation pointers indicate 1
DOT right (2 ½ DOT on indicator with a 5 DOT presentation).
8. Adjust thumb wheels to show 350° and check deviation pointers indicate 2
DOTS/5 DOTS right, then reset thumb wheels to 000°.
9. Rotate 30Hz VAR PHASE control (22) fully CCW (counter clockwise) and check
that LOC flag appears in view. Reset control fully CW.
10. Repeat item 9 using 9.66kHz control (23).
11. Adjust thumb wheels to indicate the bearings in Table 2 and ensure the RMI
and HSI indications are as shown.
12. Repeat items 1 to 11 above for No 2 installation.
13. Switch off interphone, aircraft compass and heading systems.
14. Switch off the ILS system and remove test set. Record all work done and sign.

Fig. 56 THE RMI

- 67 -
 TEST SET RMI HSI HSI COURSE
BEARING SELECTOR POINTER INDICATION TO-FROM DEVIATION BAR
SETTING INDICATION INDICATION
000° 180 + 4° FROM Centred
315° 135 + 4° FROM Full scale right
270° 90 ± 4° - Full scale right
225° 45 ± 4° TO Full scale right
180° 000 ± 4° TO Centred
135° 315 ± 4° TO Full scale left
90° 270 ± 4° - Full scale left
45° 225 + 4° FROM Full scale left
000° 180 + 4° FROM Centred
45° 225 ± 4° FROM Full scale left
90° 270 ± 4° - Full scale left
135° 315 ± 4° TO Full scale left
180° 000 + 4° TO Centred
225° 45 ± 4° TO Full scale right
270° 90 ± 4° - Full scale right
315° 135 ± 4° FROM Full scale right
000° 180 + 4° FROM Centred

TABLE 2 – INDICATOR READINGS

Fig. 57 THE HSI

”””””””

- 68 -
Book 5 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
ELECTRICAL CABLE MAINTENANCE
EWIS
SOLDERING

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7.7 7.15(a) ISSUE 07 1010

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Aircraft electrical cables – maintenance practices 1

Storage 2
Handling 3
Installation 3
Failures 5
Stripping 6
Crimping 7
AMP crimping 7
Powered crimping machines 13
ERMA hydraulic crimping machine 13
Testing of crimped joints 14
Plugs and sockets 15
Connector pin removal/insertion 17
Co-axial cable installation 21
Fibre optic cables and connectors 24
Wiring protection techniques 25
Protective sleeving techniques 27
Shielding 29
Cable changing 31
Electrical wiring interconnection system (EWIS) 33
Soldering 39
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book deals with syllabus item 7.7 (the Electrical Cables and Connectors element)
and item 7.15(a) (Soldering Methods) of the EASA Part 66 syllabus.

Note that as from September 28th 2010 syllabus item 7.7 of EASA Part 66 is re-titled
‘Electrical Wiring Interconnection System (EWIS)’. The contents are essentially the
same as under the old syllabus title but with the addition of EWIS installations, wire
types and damage tolerance.

EWIS maintenance will be in chapter 20 of the AMM.

It should be read in conjunction with the appropriate book in module 6, which gives
description and identification of aircraft electrical cables and types, and the book in
this series dealing with electrical test instruments.

Most of the book is straightforward. It is recommended that you have a close look at
the bonding and cable system on your aircraft, checking on the manufacturer, the
type of cable and identifying the codes. Check the wiring Manual/wiring diagrams
and make sure you understand the maintenance that can be carried out from visual
inspections through to complete cable replacement/testing and bonding checks.

Soldering of cables has mostly given way to crimping and is not often carried out on
aircraft – there are safety concerns such as burns from hot electrical irons and fire
risk from the same source as well as electrical supplies to the iron. It would be of
benefit if you can observe any soldering processes.

The requirements for the installation and maintenance of electrical cables and aircraft
bonding are laid down in British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCAR’s) D, K and
G (old system), now in EASA CS25 (large aircraft), EASA CS27 and 29 (helicopters),
EASA CS23 (small aircraft), EASA1 and CAP562 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
Information and Procedures (CAAIPs) (CS = Certificate Specification).

It is recommended that you check on the latest amendments to the regulations in

CAP562 (CAAIPs) (electrical equipment). This section deals with aircraft electrical
cables and systems and can be read on the net at www.caa.co.uk.
 AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL CABLES – MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Reliability is of prime consideration for aircraft cables since the performance and
safety of the aircraft and its occupants is dependant on electrically operated systems.
Care, therefore, must be exercised during the manufacturer and maintenance of
cables, looms and circuits and these must be fully tested after
manufacture/replacement/disturbance.

Listed below are a number of qualities that an aircraft cable should possess.

Minimum Weight and Size. Cables should be of minimum mass and size but at the
same time provide maximum insulative properties for the insulation cognisant with
the voltages to be carried and low resistivity coefficients for the conductors.

Resistance to Fluids. Aircraft cables should be able to withstand the effects of water,
engine oils, fuels, hydraulic oils, solvents, etc.

Non-inflammability. Wiring is often in high fire risk areas such as engine nacelles,
APU bays etc. Such wiring should not cause any fire to spread and for this reason the
protective covering should be made of a self-extinguishing material. During flight
some cables could experience a large range of temperatures and must remain flexible
at all times.

Resistance to Abrasion. Aircraft cables must be resistant to abrasion that might be

induced by vibration. Cables should be strong enough to support their own weight
and easily workable (have high ductility and be malleable).

Electrical Requirements. The conductor must have a low volts drop per unit length
(low resistance) and the insulation must have a high resistance (good insulation)
consistent with the voltage rating of the cable.

Current Rating. The normal current rating of a cable can be defined as: ‘The amount
of current it will carry without sustaining a temperature rise sufficient to cause the
value of insulation resistance to deteriorate to an unacceptable level or without
exceeding a specified voltage drop’. Earlier cables either had the current rating
stamped on the outer sheath or had a colour identification related to the current
rating.

However, because a cable’s current carrying capacity is influenced by a number of

factors other than just electrical load current, it is nowadays the practice of cable
manufacturers to use a classification based on the American Wire Gauge (AWG).

Modern aircraft cables have a wire gauge number stamped on the outside. The
aircraft electrical designer will take into account the factors listed below before
choosing a cable for a particular job:

* The electrical loading of the cable.

* The amount of heat generated by neighbouring cables.
* The number of cables in the loom (the more cables the less current each
cable can carry).
* The ambient temperature of the surrounding air.
* Whether the cable is enclosed in a conduit or in free air.
* The thermal conductivity of the cable.

-1-
Note. Cables have a specified maximum continuous operating temperature, which is
caused by the combination of ambient temperature and temperature due to
I2R (power in watts) losses in the cable. In general it is undesirable to
contribute more than 40°C rise by electrical heating.

Plating is employed on copper, copper alloy and aluminium conductors to improve

resistance to corrosion and to assist termination connection techniques. Often it is
the plating which will determine the temperature rating of a given cable. Typical
temperature values for continuous use are:

Tin plated copper 135°C.

Silver plated copper 200°C.
Nickel plated copper 260°C.
Nickel clad copper 260°C.

Nickel clad copper is used in place of nickel plated copper on fire resistant cables to
provide a thicker nickel coating. Plating used on crimped terminal ends must be
compatible with the conductor plating on the cable – information on this is obtained
from the termination manufacturers.

Deterioration. Aircraft cables are designed to provide the best possible combination of
resistance to deterioration caused by extremes of temperature, mechanical damage
and contamination by fluids, and in general, are suitable for installation without
additional mechanical protection.

Working conditions and the environment, however, may necessitate the provision of
extra protection in those places where the cables are exposed to the possibilities of
local damage or conditions that could cause deterioration. These areas can include:
wheel bays, landing gear bays, engine bays, toilet systems etc.

STORAGE

After manufacture and prior to delivery the cable is given a quality control check that
will normally include an insulation test and a continuity check. The ends are sealed
to prevent ingress of moisture. The cable is wound on drums, suitably labelled and
documented (EASA form 1). The drums are protected to prevent damage during
transit and storage. Smaller sizes of cable may be supplied in wrapped coils.

On receipt the cable should be inspected as far as possible for any signs of damage or
moisture ingress. If any is found the whole drum/coil should be returned to the
supplier together with all documentation. If the condition of the packing, as received,
gives rise to doubt regarding the soundness of the cable, it should be returned.

Note. Check the cable part number/batch number and confirm its identification
against its documentation/stores release certificate (EASA form 1).

Cables should be stored in a clean, well-ventilated store. They should not be stored
near chemicals, solvents or oils and, if necessary, protection should be provided
against accidental damage.

-2-
Loose coils, wrapped or not, must not be stored so that a heavy weight is placed on
them. This may cause distortion/damage to the insulation or the conductor core. The
ends of cables should be sealed by the use of waterproof tape or sealing compound.

HANDLING

Cables should be handled carefully at all stages of storage and installation.

When taking lengths of cable from a drum or reel, the cable should not be allowed to
come in contact with rough or dirty surfaces. The drum should be mounted so that it
can rotate freely and the cable pulled off using little or no force and avoiding kinks.

Made-up Cabling

Most looms are made up in a Loom or Cable Bay prior to being fitted to the aircraft.
Separate cables are laid out on a smooth bench, cut to size and end fittings attached
– all in accordance with an approved drawing (in some bays a full size plan of the
loom is laid out on the bench it-self).

Each cable in the loom will have printed on its insulation at regular intervals its
aircraft wiring code – at the same time the printing machine will automatically carry
out an insulation check.

Cable looms and cable runs made-up on the bench should be inspected before
installation in the aircraft to check that:

a) Cables, fittings, crimped joints etc, are of the correct type, have been
obtained from an approved source, have been satisfactorily tested before
making up and are not damaged in any way.
b) Connectors and cable looms conform to the AMM, Wiring Diagram
Manual or Modification Drawing in respect of terminations, length, angle
of outlets and orientation of contact assemblies, identification and
protection of connections.
c) Crimped and soldered joints have been made in accordance with the
AMM, Wiring Diagram Manual or Modification Drawing, are clean and
sound.
d) That cable loom binding and strapping is secure.
e) Continuity, resistance and insulation tests have been carried out.
f) Cables should be identified using the aircraft wiring code (iaw the wiring
diagram).

INSTALLATION

Guidance on the factors requiring special attention during the installation is given in
the following paragraphs – but always check the AMM.

Contamination. To prevent moisture from running along the cables and seeping into
the associated equipment, the cables should be so routed as to run downwards away
from the equipment. Where this is not possible, the cable should incorporate a
descending loop immediately before the equipment connection.

-3-
Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they should be installed in such a way that
any moisture accumulating in them will be able to drain away. Cables that are routed
through such fittings should be capable of withstanding any such moisture that may
be encountered.

Interference. Interfering magnetic fields may be set up by electrical equipment,

electrical currents in the cabling, or the aircraft structure and also by magnetic
materials. Cables must be installed so as to reduce electrical interference to a
minimum and avoid interaction between the different electrical services.

For example, cables carrying dc should be positioned at least 2ft (600mm) away from
the aircraft compass. If supply and return cables run close together the magnetic
effects are insignificant.

Note. Requirements for the avoidance of compass and radio interference are given in
Chapter J4-1 of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements. (Now EASA CS23 –
light aircraft, CS25 – large aircraft, CS27 & 29 – helicopters).

Protection of Cabling. The cables are required to be protected from abrasion,

mechanical strain and excessive heat and against the damaging effects of fuel, oil and
other aircraft fluids, water in both liquid or vapour form and the weather.

Cables should be fitted away from the skin of the aircraft so as to reduce the effect of
the high skin temperatures, likely to be reached in the tropics, from affecting the
cable. The cables should not be run near the hot parts of an engine or other hot
components unless a cooled air-space or heat barrier is provided.

Where cables are routed through metal fittings or bulkheads etc, the edges of the
holes through which they pass must be radiised and smoothed and fitted with an
insulated bush or sleeve. Cables which are drawn through holes or tubes must be an
easy fit requiring only a moderate, steady pull. Care being taken to keep the cables
parallel to one another and to avoid the formation of kinks (which may cause
fracture).

Conduits, ducts and trunking used for carrying cables should have smooth internal
surfaces and have sufficient diameter to allow the cable to be pulled through using
only a moderate steady pull. The designer should also take into consideration cable
cooling (or lack of) when placing cables in ducts.

Cables fitted through pressure bungs (pressure bulkheads) should be fitted into the
correct size holes for the size of cable, to ensure sealing. Use the correct cable
threading tool to avoid damaging the bung.

Support of Cabling. The cabling must be adequately supported throughout its length
and a sufficient number of cable clamps must be provided for each run of cable to
ensure that the unsupported lengths will not vibrate unduly. The minimum bend
radius should not be less than that stated in the appropriate specification (eg SAE
specifies – for cable groups - 10x the largest cable diameter in the group).

For single cables 10x the diameter is given by the same standard.

At terminal blocks, where the cable is suitably supported at each end of the bend, the
minimum radius may be 3x (CAAIPS).

-4-
The same standard for co-axial cables states a minimum bend radius of 6x the
outside diameter (for flexible cables) and 10x for semi rigid cables.

Cables must be fitted and clamped so that no tension will be applied in any
circumstances. Any loops or slackness will not occur in any position where the cables
might be caught and strained by normal movement of persons or controls or moving
equipment in the aircraft, or during flying, maintenance or adjustment.

Where it is necessary for cables to flex in normal use, eg connections to retractable

landing gear etc, the amount and disposition of slack must be controlled so that the
cable is not stressed in the extended position and that the slack will not be fouled,
chafed, kinked or caught by anything during movement in either direction.

Cables should normally be supported independently of, and with maximum

practicable separation from, all fluid and gas pipelines.

To prevent contamination of the cables in the event of leakage, cables should be

routed above rather than below liquid carrying pipelines.

FAILURES

Typical failures might be:

Wet arc tracking. An Airworthiness Notice (AN 12) - now cancelled, highlighted
the problem of fluid contamination where there is insulation damage. The cable in
this case had been hot stamp printed (for identification purposes) but the stamp
had penetrated the insulation. Fluid from a leaking toilet waste system
contaminated the cable which caused electrical arcing to occur. This caused
rupture of the cable and also others nearby.

Cable looms are particularly vulnerable to liquid contamination because they can
provide a drainage path and also once wet can remain so for a long time. Correct
routing, as mentioned earlier, is important.

Dry arc tracking. Occurs when two cables short circuit together, which will cause
intense local heating which may cause damage to other cables in the loom.

Abrasion. This may occur due to cable rubbing on cable or cable rubbing on the
structure of the aircraft or equipment. Careful inspection of cable loom clipping
and tying is necessary to check on this problem.

Conductor ‘knuckling through’. Some earlier cables had this problem of the
conductors ‘knuckling’ (bending) and penetrating the insulation. This was due to
applying excessive pull-through forces, so great care must be taken not to put the
cables under tension.

Red Plague. Cables with silver plated conductors can exhibit the aptly named ‘Red
Plague’ if the plating has been damaged and then exposed to moisture. Silver-
plated conductors are generally unsuitable for use in unpressurised areas.

-5-
Glycol Fires. If de-icing fluid contaminates silver-plated conductors an electrical
fire can result. These conductors must therefore be kept away from areas where
de-icing fluids can be present.

STRIPPING

This is the stripping away of the insulation to leave the conductor exposed. Carried
out in preparation for soldering or crimping or compression joining of the cable to an
end fitting/termination.

The following precautions should be followed when stripping any type of cable:

a) Use approved tools only. Never use a knife for stripping.

b) Ensure blades of cutting tools are sharp and free from nicks.
c) For size 8 or larger cables a knife may be used to make cuts lengthwise
through the outer covering and insulation. The insulation should be
bent back and cut off with side cutters or scissors. The cable must be
examined for any damage to the conductor strands. No strands should
be damaged or missing.
d) Ensure that the blade of the cable stripper is square to the cable and the
outer covering and insulation is clean cut, with no frayed edges.
e) When using hand strippers to remove lengths of insulation longer than
19mm (0.75in) the stripping should be carried out in more than one
operation – taking off a short length of insulation each time.
f) If the lay of the conductor strands is disturbed in the stripping action,
the strands should be re-laid with a light twist.
g) When stripping aluminium cables extra care must be taken as the
individual conductor strands break easily if nicked.
h) Bending of aluminium cables can cause work hardening, resulting in
failure of strands sooner than in cables with copper conductors.
i) Aluminium, when exposed to the atmosphere, forms an oxide film,
which acts as an insulator. If left untreated it can cause corrosion at
connecting joints and it also increases its thickness as heat is generated
by current flow, and thus increases the electrical resistance of the joint.
Treatment when crimping is by using an inhibiting compound to
specification DTD 5503 (50% by weight zinc oxide in white petroleum
jelly).
j) When setting up and adjusting cable strippers/pliers it is advisable to
first try the stripper setting out on a scrap piece of cable of the same
type and gauge as the actual piece to be worked on.

CRIMPING

A crimped connection is one in which a cable conductor is secured by compression to

a termination so that the metals of both are held firmly together in close contact.

A typical crimp termination (figures 1 and 3) has two principal sections, crimping
barrel and tongue, together with, in some types, a pre-insulated copper sleeve that
mates with the crimping barrel at one end and is formed, during the crimping
process, so as to grip the cable insulation as well as the cable conductor to give
increased support.

-6-
The barrel is designed to fit closely around the cable conductor so that after crimping
a large number of points of contact are made. The crimping pressure is applied with a
hand or hydraulically operated crimping tool fitted with a die or dies shaped to give a
particular cross-sectional form to the completed joint. The precise form of the crimp is
determined by such factors as the size and construction of the conductor, the
materials, the dimensions of the termination and the type of crimping system used.

It is, therefore, important that only the correct type of die and crimping tool should be
used, and that the necessary calibration checks have been made to the tool.

There is a vast range of terminations available, many of which are colour coded and
suitable for use only with specific types of aircraft cable and crimping tools. It is
important, therefore, that the appropriate crimping equipment manufacturer’s
instructions regarding the use of cables and terminations are followed.

Figure 1 shows two typical terminations: (a) a ring tongue termination - note the
insulation grip portion (C) and the conductor grip portion (B) and (b) an inline splice.

Fig. 1 TYPICAL CRIMP TERMINATIONS

There are many types of hand crimping tools and the following notes are related to the
AMP crimping tool. In general most of the information given will apply to most tools.
Figure 2 shows the AMP crimping tool which uses AMP terminations.

AMP CRIMPING

The tool used for crimping AMP terminals has several design features to ensure a
consistent quality of completed crimp joint to include:

1) Crimp ratchet.
2) Locator.
3) Insulation adjusting pins.
4) Colour and dot coding.

-7-
Crimp ratchet. This ensures the bottoming of the die jaws before the jaws can be
opened again. The tool cannot be released until the jaws have been completely closed.

It is important with crimp ratchets that the correct size cable; correct size termination
and correct size dies/crimping tool is used. If not, it is possible to jam the tool as the
crimp will not complete and the ratchet will not release.

Locator. The locator holds the terminal in the correct position in the die jaws and
allows the conductor strands to protrude 0.8mm from the terminal barrel when the
wire is fully inserted.

Fig. 2 TYPICAL CRIMPING TOOL – EXAMPLE AMP

Insulation Adjusting Pins. To allow for small variations in wire size and to ensure
optimum mechanical strength of the joint the insulation die head has three degrees of
adjustment:

1) Tight.
2) Medium.
3) Loose.

Colour and Dot Coding. The wire size range is stamped on the face of the tool, the
colour of the handle is related to the wire size range and the terminals are also of the
same colour, eg for a red handled tool you use red coloured terminals. There are
various colours - related to wire size, eg blue, green and yellow.

During the crimping operation a code marking related to the size of the tool is
impressed on the terminal insulation.

-8-
This is a dot as indicated in figure 3. The number of dots is related to the size of the
tool. Therefore on inspection after crimping the operator is able to ascertain that the
correct tool was used.

The AMP terminals are known as Pre-Insulated ‘Diamond Grip’ (PIDG) terminals. We
shall now look at a crimping operation on a ring tongue terminal.

Fig. 3 TYPICAL CRIMP

Preparation – General

Note. It is advisable to set up the crimping process using scrap pieces of wire of the
same type and gauge as that to be used on the ‘real thing’. This means that,
for example, if the tool is used with a terminal size that is too big it is not able
to close properly and the ratchet will not release. This means that the cable will
have to be cut to remove the tool (and crimp) from the aircraft for special
attention to operate the release. The cable may now be too short for further
work to proceed and a new length of cable will have to be used.

1) Check the wire is the correct specification and not damaged; has the
correct coding imprinted (can be carried out by a machine automatically
or by hand) and has been insulation and continuity tested.
2) Ensure correct size of wire. Strip so that stripped conductor extends to
0.8mm (1/32”) (AMP) beyond the correct size terminal.
3) Ensure correct tool, check:
a) Calibration date.
b) Ratchet handle operation.
c) Inspection of dies for cracks, dents etc.
d) Use GO, NO-GO gauges to ensure die closure is correct.
4) Ensure correct position of insulation grip adjustment pins (AMP) as
follows:
a) Insert insulation adjustment pins into the number 3 position.
b) Locate terminal in crimping jaws.
c) Insert a test length of un-stripped wire into the insulation grip
portion of the terminal.
d) Close handles slowly and fully until crimp ratchet releases.
e) Open handles, remove terminal and check insulation support as
follows: Bend wire back and forth once, terminal sleeve should
retain grip on wire insulation. Check that end of the conductor
element is level with the end of the barrel and gripped firmly.
f) If wire pulls out set insulation adjustment pins in next tighter
position, (No 2) and re-crimp. Repeat test until desired insulation
grip is obtained. Ensure that both adjustment pins are in the
same position.

-9-
The Crimping Process

1. Insert correct terminal into the jaws of the tool ensuring the termination
barrel butts flush against the locator.
2. Squeeze handles until terminal is held firmly in place, do not deform
terminal. Once ratchet is engaged, the handles cannot be opened.
3. Insert stripped cable into terminal.
4. Hold wire in position and close handles until ratchet is free to release.
5. Inspect crimp and check:
a) Barrel insulation is in firm contact with wire insulation.
b) Correct dot code/colour combination.
c) Crimp is centred in barrel.
d) Conductor is protruding 0.8mm (1/32”) from end of barrel
of crimp.
e) Joint for correct formation, freedom from fracture, rough
edges or excessive flash or damage to insulation.

Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding the use of the crimping tool.

Fig. 4 CRIMP LOCATION – RING TONGUE TERMINAL

Fig. 5 CRIMPED END DETAILS

- 10 -
Note. Only aluminium or bimetal (AlCu) terminations should be used to terminate
aluminium cored cables and the cable should be stripped immediately prior to
making the joint. An inhibiting compound must be applied before crimping
takes place.

Inline Crimping

Sometimes called Inline Splicing and used when a new electrical cable is to be spliced
into an existing cable run. The inline crimp is crimped to the end of the existing cable
and to the end of the new insert cable – this is done at both ends so a new section of
cable is spliced in. Splicing sections of cable into an existing cable run is to be
avoided – it is better to replace the complete length of cable. Where inline crimps are
used this should only be carried out if the AMM chapter 20/Wiring
Diagram/Modification document gives authority.

The following are general guidelines:

a) No splices under clamps or supports.

b) No splices installed inside connector backshells.
c) No splices installed inside a conduit.
d) No splices allowed in areas where the wire bundle flexes, eg
instrument panels (on anti-vibration mountings) and hinged doors.
e) Stagger splices on cables in looms to avoid an increase in wire bundle
diameter.
f) Cables should be replaced if the number of repair splices exceeds three.
g) Splices shall not be installed in critical circuits, ie stabiliser trim, fire
detection and extinguishing and fuel control valves.

Crimping In-Line Splices (figure 6)

1) Select the required in-line splice and a tool of the same colour coding.
2) Adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins as detailed above and
carry out a pre-trial test splice.
3) Insert in-line splice into crimping jaws until properly located.
4) Squeeze handles until splice is lightly gripped.
5) Insert prepared stripped wire into terminal barrel. When inserted the
conductors should be visible in the inspection window.
6) Hold wire in position and complete the handle squeeze operation.
7) Release ratchet and remove tool.
8) Inspect for correct formation of completed crimp.
9) Place any necessary sleeving onto cable and push out of the way.
10) Insert other end of in-line splice into jaws until properly located.
11) Complete crimping operation by repeating items 4 to 8 above.
12) Pull sleeving into place over crimp and heat shrink.
13) Carry out any appropriate tests, re-loom, complete paperwork and sign.

- 11 -
 Fig. 6 IN-LINE CRIMPING

Crimping in High Vibration Areas

Special precautions are needed when crimping cables in high vibration areas such as
wheel wells, engine bays etc. Besides the problems associated with vibration, chaffing,
loosening of connections etc, there is also the attendant problems associated with
debris damage (wheel wells), heat damage (wheel wells [brakes] and engine bays), fuel
and lubricant contamination (engine bays) and moisture ingress (wheel wells). In
general when splicing/crimping in these areas the following applies:

1. Consult chapter 20 of the AMM for any special procedures.

2. Use special moisture proof (low temperature) splices.
3. Protect the splice with special insulation, eg tape wrap the splice 3 times
followed by 2 spiral wrapped tapes in opposite directions, with 50%
overlap over the entire splice.
4. Observing the necessary safety precautions heat shrink a sleeve over the
entire covering and if necessary fit an abrasion protection sleeve.
5. Tie cable/cable loom using the correct spacing (chapter 20). Ties should
normally be made every 6 inches (152mm) and tied using a clove hitch
and square knot. Plastic ties should not be used.
6. Check routing of cable – ensure clearance from hydraulic, fuel and other
system pipelines. Also check clearance from heat sources and any
moving parts (landing gear).
7. Check that there is sufficient slack to allow for structure flexing,
temperature changes and any movement between components.
8. Where clamps are used only Ribbon Cushion type clamps should be
used – but not on coaxially cables.
9. Consideration must be given as to whether a drip loop is required (to
allow any collected moisture to drip thus preventing moisture ingress
into moisture sensitive areas).
10. Check all systems for correct operation, clearance etc – the electrical
system, landing gear retraction mechanism, steering mechanism etc.

Note. The general guidelines for ordinary in-line crimping also apply.

- 12 -
POWERED CRIMPING MACHINES

When crimping large size cables the force required to squeeze the terminal is too high
for manual operation so various machines are available that are power operated. The
following is a description of the hydraulic ERMA type.

ERMA HYDRAULIC CRIMPING MACHINE

This machine (figure 7) is supplied as a kit containing eight sets of dies for cable size
from AWG 6 to AWG 0000. An Allen key is supplied for fitting the dies to the machine.

The crimp formed is a regular hexagon shape and has two code letters impressed on it
by the dies during crimping. These code letters are HG and HH and are the same as
those marked on the cable lugs by the manufacturer.

Preparation of the Machine

Check the calibration date. Check that there are no leakages, damage and that the
control valve closes and releases and the pump works correctly.

Fig. 7 ERMA CRIMPING MACHINE

The machine operating handles should be screwed firmly into position and the code
letters stamped on the dies checked for correct size.

- 13 -
If the dies are to be changed:

a) Select the two matched dies bearing the correct code letters for the size
of cable in use (check machine manufacturer’s instruction manual).
Check that the lugs to be used have the same code letters marked on the
terminal palm. Inspect dies for cracks, corrosion, dents, burrs etc. If
damaged in any way do not use.
b) Remove the upper die adapter by sliding it from the dovetailed head of
the tool. This leaves the slotted head of the tool open to allow the lower
die to be fitted against the ram. Insert the spigot on the upper die into
the hole in the die adapter until it is held in position by the spring-
loaded steel ball.
c) Close the hydraulic valve. Pump the handle to move the ram forwards to
show the hexagon socket screws which hold the lower die. Slacken these
screws using the Allen key provided with the kit. Fit the lower die into
the ram so that the screws fit into the recesses on either side of the die.
Tighten the screws to hold the die, ensuring that they are below the
surface of the ram body. Open the hydraulic valve to retract the ram.
d) Slide the upper die adapter, complete with die, into the dovetailed
grooves until it is located centrally by the spring-loaded steel ball.

Crimping Operation

In general carry out pre-crimp checks on the cable as described earlier with the
hand operated tool.

Check that the two-letter code on the cable lugs and on both dies is correct for the
size of the cable to be terminated.

a) Close the hydraulic valve. Place the terminal lug centrally between the
dies and pump the handle until the lug is lightly gripped.
b) Strip the cable insulation so that when the cable is inserted into the lug
the insulation lies flush against the end of the barrel and the conductor
projects slightly from the other end. Place any insulation sleeving
required over the cable and push out of the way.
c) Insert the conductor into the barrel of the lug and pump the handle
until the dies are fully closed. When fully closed a safety valve will
operate with an audible click and pressure on the pump handle is
reduced.
d) Open the hydraulic valve to allow the ram to retract. The crimped
termination can then be removed from the machine.
e) Inspect crimp for correct formation, dents, cracks, flashes and
codification, pull insulation sleeving down over the joint and shrink fit
as necessary.

TESTING OF CRIMPED JOINTS

Local regulations will determine the inspection periods required for crimping tools.
AMP recommends 3 months or at intervals of 1000 crimps whichever is the smaller.
This test will include checks on ratchet operation, dies for dimensions and damage,
security of handles, dies and adjuster pins.

- 14 -
In order to ascertain that the crimping tool is functioning correctly a test crimp must
be made and this is subjected to a mechanical tensile test and millivolts drop test as
laid down by the manufacturer. If the test specimen fails, then all the crimps carried
out using the tool would have to be inspected and the crimping tool would be
withdrawn from service.

Figure 8 shows the principle of carrying out a millivolts drop test on a crimped
terminal. A normal rated current is passed through the cable and crimp and a
millivolt meter is placed as shown. The manufacturer will give the maximum millivolts
drop that can be allowed, but a general figure is 5mV/10amps flowing. Note that the
amount of exposed conductor is shown exaggerated.

Fig. 8 CRIMPED JOINT MILLIVOLT DROP TEST

PLUGS & SOCKETS

Each wire in most cable looms have the ends crimped to a pin and that pin fitted into
a plug which will normally have many pins fitted. The plug fits into a socket
receptacle. These two connecting devices may be fixed or free, that is, may be in a
component or the socket fitted externally to equipment/bulkhead. Typically the
connection method is by a screw-thread but a bayonet coupling may be used.

To ensure that each wire in the plug is aligned to its correct wire in the socket the
following precautions/design features are incorporated:

* Each wire will have a unique aircraft ident code printed on (or fitted with a
sleeve with the code on - old) and the pin crimped to it will be fitted into a
specified hole in the plug (these are numbered, normally clockwise out from
the centre).
* The wiring manual/AMM/modification leaflet will specify the wiring code
and the plug location number to be used.
* When assembling the plug (together with all the fitted pins) to the socket
there is an alignment lug on the plug shell that aligns with a corresponding
grove in the socket shell to ensure correct orientation.

Note the detail in figure 9 including colour and alpha/numeric coding for each wire.
The connector is of the square type.

Pins for insertion into plugs and sockets are attached to cables by soldering (rare) or
(usually) crimping. Once the pin is crimped into position on the cable, it is then
inserted into its respective hole in the plug/socket.

- 15 -
Fig. 9 EXAMPLE – TAKEN FROM AN AIRCRAFT WIRING MANUAL

Fig. 10 TYPICAL PLUG & SOCKET

Fig. 11 PIN/HOLE LOCATION IDENTIFICATION

- 16 -
Unwired contacts are usually fitted with a sealing plug and if appropriate any unused
holes in the moulding should be fitted with an approved filler plug. If the contact is
not installed then a sealing rod is installed in its place.

Figure 10 shows the ‘front’ view of a typical mating pair plug and socket. Note the
terms used and the shell locator lug and grove. Figure 11 shows the ‘rear’ view of a
plug/socket indicating the pins/holes identification system.

There are many types of plugs and sockets in use and figures 12 and 13 show two
examples of LRU socket connectors. Square and rectangular plugs and sockets will
have some form of orientation lug/corner to prevent incorrect assembly. The ARINC
600 family of connectors have a high pin density (many pins per square inch) with
index pins to ensure correct orientation.

Fig. 12 SQUARE TYPE PLUG/SOCKET CONNECTORS

Fig. 13 ARINC RACK MOUNTED CONNECTORS

CONNECTOR PIN REMOVAL/INSERTION

There are two basic types of contact retention used in plug and socket connectors on
aircraft, one with the contacts being released for removal from the rear of the contact
insert and the other from the front. Each system requires the use of different types of
insertion/extraction tools. It is essential that the correct procedures and tools are
used for a particular type of plug or socket.

Remember, always ensure power is off and the circuits, C/Bs, fuses etc tagged before
removal/fitment of plugs, sockets and contact pins.

- 17 -
Rear Release Connectors

The insertion/removal tool is usually plastic and may be of the type shown in figure
14. This tool is expendable and is failsafe in that mishandling will result in damage to
the tool rather then to the connector or termination. The insertion end is coloured
(according to wire/connector size), eg Canon size 20 contact Red/White, size 16
contact Blue/White, size 12 contact Yellow/White. The white end being the removal
end.

Fig. 14 INSERTION/REMOVAL TOOL

Figure 15 shows a connector with a rear release. Note the construction of the pin and
the retention clip. The removal tool is inserted from the rear of the plug (the left hand
side in figure 17) to spring the retention clips out and release the pin rearwards (to
the left in the drawing).

Fig. 15 PIN RETENTION – REAR RELEASE

Contact/Pin Removal

1. Hold plug/socket connector with the rear end facing you.

2. The extraction tool (white end) is positioned over the cable connected to
the contact pin to be removed.
3. Slowly slide the tool along the wire into the connector until a positive
resistance is felt. The retention clip will now unlock.
4. With the cable held against the extraction tool the contact should be
removed by pulling the cable and tool together from the connector. Do
not twist or tilt the removal tool as damage can occur to the pin.

Contact/Pin Insertion

1. Remove the backshell or other accessory from the rear of the

plug/socket connector and move up the cable loom out of the way.

- 18 -
2. Ensure that the correct hole in the connector has been selected to insert
the pin – check the hole numbering system on the front face of the
plug/socket and the cable ident code and the wiring diagram.
3. Snap the coloured end of the appropriate insertion/removal tool onto the
wire. When inserting the wire into the tool use the thumb and not the
thumb nail as this could damage the insulation. Position the tool
forward onto the contact shoulder, except in the case of size 22 contacts,
in which case the tool should be positioned on the back of the crimp
bucket.
4. Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, slowly push the
contact straight into the connector. A positive stop will be felt when the
retention clip locks in the contact.

Fig. 16 USE OF INSERTION/REMOVAL TOOL

Fig. 17 INSERTION/REMOVAL TOOL ALIGNMENT

- 19 -
 5. The cable should then be released from the tool and the tool removed by
pulling it back out of the plug mould.
6. If the contacts are to be inserted into holes near the edge of the insert,
the open side of the tool should always face the edge of the insert, this
avoids excessive strain on the insert.
7. The proper size contacts and sealing plug should be fitted into any
vacant contact hole.

Front Release Connectors

Figure 18 shows a front release connector and its retention clip, note the construction
of the pin and retention clip.

Fig. 18 PIN RETENTION – FRONT RELEASE

Contact/Pin Removal

1. The extraction tool should be positioned over the contact to be removed

from the front of the connector.
2. The central plunger of the tool should be held back.
3. Push the tool into the connector to release the retention clip from the
front shoulder.
4. Pushing forward the tool will eject the contact rearwards out of the
connector.

Contact insertion is similar to the insertion of rear release connectors.

Testing of Connectors

Test probes used should be of such a size that the contacts are not damaged or
bent and small enough to allow for contact on one pin only.

On socket contacts test probes should be of the same size as (or less than) the
mating plug contact.

Any bent pins must be replaced. Trying to straighten them is likely to cause a
fracture and possible failure at a later date.

- 20 -
 CO-AXIAL CABLE INSTALLATION

Co-axial cable is used for the transmission of low power data signals which might
get corrupted from external electromagnetic activities. They consist of an inner
copper conductor; a dielectric insulator; an outer copper braid (to shield the inner
conductor from any interference) and an outer plastic protective covering. Any
work carried out on the cable must be in accordance with the AMM as it is
important that any connections made do not interfere with signal transmission
causing signal attenuation. End fittings are attached to allow the cable to be fitted
to various items of equipment.

The sequence adopted for attaching an end fitting is as follows (figure 19):

a) The outer protective cable covering is cut back to expose the braided
outer conductor, ensure cut is square and at right angles to the cable
and the braid is not nicked or cut.
b) If the cable is fixed at the other end, thread the coupling ring and
adapter onto the cable.
c) The braid is ‘fanned’ or ‘teased’ out as shown in figure 19 and folded
back to fit closely over the adapter.
d) The dielectric insulation is cut back to expose the inner copper
conductor. Ensure cut is square and conductor is not nicked or cut.
Ensure cutting tool does not crush or deform cable.
e) Screw the sub-assembly to the adapter, this clamps the outer conductor
firmly between the two components.
f) Conductors must be visible in the inspection hole of the contact before
soldering.
g) Screw the coupling ring on to the sub-assembly by hand.

When routing co-axial cables ensure they are clamped firmly along their entire length.
Special cushioned clamps of the correct size may be used as it essential that the cable
is not crushed or deformed in anyway.

As these cables are used as transmission lines for aircraft antenna (low signal power)
they should not be routed or tied to other cable bundles, the minimum bend radius
should be observed (six times the outside diameter – for flexible cables). The length of
the cable is also important.

When disconnecting connectors, protect using metal caps which mate with the
connector-coupling device. If the correct size cap is not available use snug fitting
plastic caps or secure a polythene bag over the connector.

- 21 -
 Fig. 19 FITTING AN END CONNECTOR TO A CO-AXIAL CABLE

Testing

The cables should be checked for continuity and absence of short circuits and
insulation resistance on completed connector assemblies. Minimum value for
insulation resistance is typically 100MΩ.

To determine whether there is an open or short circuit on a transmission line Voltage

Standing Wave Radio (VSWR) checks are carried out. This compares the standing
voltage maximum to the standing voltage minimum.

Vmax is the sum of the incident (VI and reflected VR voltages and Vmin is the
difference between VI and VR thus VSWR = VI + VR/VI – VR and in theory should be 1,
in practice the lowest VSWR is sought.

- 22 -
If there is zero attenuation along a line the VSWR will be infinite when the line is
terminated in an open or short circuit. Measurement of VSWR will indicate the
existence of reflected waves on the line, which, in turn will indicate the degree of
mismatch between the transmitter and the load.

Another test set used to test co-axial cables is the Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR).
This uses pulses to test the cable and gives a visual display of cable failures. The test
pulses are transmitted along the cable by the test set which receives back the
reflections and shows them on a CRT.

The test set has calibrated controls and can examine up to 100ft (30.5m) of cable and
down to 1ft (0.3m) in length.

Low loss cables can be examined up to 2000ft (609m) long at 100 or 200ft for each
scale division.

A three number display shows the distance-to-cable failure when the

equipment is set to display horizontally the failures reflected on the CRT
reference line.

The vertical (Y-axis) deflection of the CRT beam is in proportion to the reflected signal
plus the incident step.

To test, remove the receiver transmitter from the aircraft rack then, using a locally
made test cable, connect the TDR equipment to the antenna cable.

Figure 20 shows an example display of faults that might be found. Figure 21 shows
the test of a 350ft (107m) cable and the displays shown on the CRT. It shows a frayed
cable at A, impedance rise from B to C, continuity drop at C and an open circuit at D.

Fig. 20 CABLE PROBLEM SIGNATURES

- 23 -
 Fig. 21 CABLE PROBLEMS

FIBRE OPTIC CABLES & CONNECTORS

Used in the transmission of data using light as the transmission medium.

Care must be taken when working with fibre optic cables as the optic core is easily
damaged. Take the same precautions with these cables as with the cables mentioned
previously plus those listed below. Fibre optic strands can be damaged by:

a) Excessive pulling - as when trying to pull it through a bulkhead.

b) Pinching or crimping - such as stepping on the cable.
c) Bending too sharply.
d) Twisting.

Before examining the connector face or glass contacts ensure system is switched off
and circuit breaker is tagged. The light from the fibre optic network, although low
power, can be intense enough to cause damage to the eyes. Use only approved
material to clean the connectors and use protective caps when the connectors are
disconnected. Only tighten connectors by hand.

- 24 -
The same visual checks are carried out on these cables as with any other type of
cable, but the testing equipment is different.

Testing for Continuity

A simple check is to use a commercially available torch at one end and see if the light
can be seen at the other. For a more comprehensive check a test meter is used
injecting a calibrated low power signal at one end and picking it up at the other using
an optical receiver.

An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is used for a more comprehensive test
and it functions in a similar way to a TDR except that light is used.

WIRING PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

This part of the book gives general guidelines with regards to wiring protection
techniques and it is essential that you follow the procedures laid down in the AMM
chapter 20 (Standard Practices – Airframe) and the Wiring Practices Manual for your
aircraft.

This part of the book deals with the physical protection of the cables and not the
protection of the circuit, which is associated with fuses, C/Bs etc. It is associated with
EWIS (see later text).

When using sleeving, tubing, tape or tying materials it is necessary to consider the
following: (a) The temperature of the area the material is going to be used in and (b)
Whether the material is being used in an area where it is necessary for it to be
resistance to fluids chemicals etc.

Cable Looming and Loom Support

Cable looms are of three principle types:

a) Open loom.
b) Ducted loom.
c) Conduit.

The composition of the cable loom is dictated by such factors as:

a) Overall diameter.
b) Temperature.
c) Type of current (ac or dc).
d) Interference due to inductive or magnetic effects.
e) Types of cables – essential circuit cables must be protected in the event
of short circuits developing in adjoining cables.

Open Loom. Cables are bundled and bound together with cord or with nylon
strapping.

- 25 -
Ducted Loom. The bundles of cable are supported in ducts routed through the
aircraft structure. The ducts may be made of aluminium alloy or fibreglass
reinforced plastic.

Conduit. Used where cables have to pass through areas which may cause
contamination to the cabling due to oil, hydraulic fluids etc. They may be made of
plastic
or metal and maybe flexible.

Each loom in the duct is bound with a coloured cord/strap or ident strap to identify
the system to which it relates. Figure 22 shows an older method of single cord lacing
and the procedure used.

Fig. 22 SINGLE CORD LACING

In high vibration areas special attention must be paid to the support of looms. This
again will be laid down in the wiring practices manual but typically on engines tie
spacing is every 2” (51mm) and in other high vibration areas 6 to 8” (152mm to
203mm). Plastic ties may be used optionally to lacing tape in pressurised areas only.

Cable Clamps

Cable bundles are secured to the structure by clamps, close enough together to
ensure the bundles will not sag or vibrate between supports. The basic clamp is the
cushioned clamp as shown in figure 23. It is made up of a metal ‘P’ clip fitted around
and within a rubber ‘0’ ring. It is secured to the structure by a nut and bolt (or
similar).

If a bundle is slightly undersize then layers of tape may be used to increase the
bundle diameter. If necessary filler rods may be used to build up undersized bundles
for a proper fit in the clamp. In high vibration areas ribbed cushion clamps are used,
but not for co-axial cables. These have three holes in the clamp with a resilient
bushing giving a choice of sizes. Where cable clamps are fitted with resilient bushings,
care must be taken to ensure the bushings used are of such a size that the cables are
firmly held in place but do not crush or deform the cable insulation when the clamp is
tightened.

- 26 -
 Fig. 23 CUSHIONED ‘P’ CLAMP

PROTECTIVE SLEEVING TECHNIQUES

These techniques may be used to provide secondary protection of cables with

continuous sleeving, or in some cases wrapping with tape. When sleeving up to a
connector, secure the sleeving under the connector clamp.

Heat Shrinkable Sleeving

This involves applying a high temperature to a length of sleeving which shrinks onto
the cable assembly. Points to note are:

1) Heat guns are not considered to be explosion proof.

2) Heater elements in the gun get very hot and may operate in excess of
vapour flashpoint (450°F/232°C).
3) Safety regulations apply which may include non-use of heat guns:
a) In fuel tanks.
b) Within 100ft (30m) of aircraft when refuelling/de-fuelling of fuel
vents, fuel spills and flammable liquid.

A heat gun may be rated at a specific temperature or a selection of temperatures may

be available. When using these guns the following procedure provides a general
guideline:

a) Allow 10% extra length of sleeving over the area to be covered.

b) Protect any wiring insulation or adjacent cables from heat.
c) Pre-heat gun for 15 seconds. Manufacturers usually give minimum
shrink temperature, but higher temperatures can be used – consult data
on heat shrink tubing for maximum temperature to be used.
d) Hold gun 3” (76mm) from the sleeving and direct hot air at the centre of
the area.
e) Apply heat to sleeving until it shrinks into place, usually 5 to 10 seconds
is adequate, do not exceed 20 seconds.

- 27 -
 Fig. 24 INSULATION METHOD 1 – TAPE WRAP

The following provides details of two methods of insulating a splice assembly:

Method 1

1) Strip splice for at least 1½” (38mm) of outer insulation. Carry out splice.
2) Build up voids between splice and insulation to prevent abrupt changes
using Type B film. Three layers of film are required, each with 50%
overlap and extending 1¼” (32mm) + ¼” (6mm) over the outer
insulation.
3) Spiral wrap splice with Polymide Tape over the Type B film. Wrap each
layer spirally with 50% overlap. Reverse direction of spiral with each
layer. Extend tape ¼” to ⅜” (6 to 9mm) beyond Type B film.

Fig. 25 INSULATION METHOD 2 – TAPE & SLEEVE WRAP

- 28 -
Method 2 – Tape and Sleeve Method (figure 25)

1) Select two heat shrinkable sleeves large enough to fit over taped wire
areas that will fit tightly over cables when shrunk into place. Cut sleeves
long enough to extend 1” (25mm) + ¼” (6mm) beyond taped areas.
2) Select third heat shrinkable sleeve that is large enough to fit over taped
splice. Cut sleeves to length that will extend to within ¼” (6mm) + ⅛”
(3mm) of ends of the two sleeves.
3) Slide sleeves over the cable out of the way.
4) Complete the cable splice.
5) Clean and insulate and tape wrap as per method 1, steps 1, 2 and 3.
6) Slide small sleeves over tape until they are butted against ends of splice,
heat shrink into place.
7) Centre large sleeve over assembly. Heat shrink into place.

SHIELDING

To prevent interference from external fields originating from electrical equipment such
as dc generators, motors, time switches, ignition systems etc affecting other systems,
particularly interference on radio equipment, some form of shielding must be used.

For generators, motors and time switches, capacitors can be connected across the
output. These are in parallel with the output and usually form part of a unit called a
suppressor. For prevention of interference to other circuits, cables are enclosed in
metal braided sheaths typically made of tinned copper or silver-plated copper, the
braid being connected to the earth of the aircraft.

Interference can be due to capacitive and inductive pick-up and crosstalk between
adjacent cables. The term ‘pick-up’ means the interfering source is ac power.
‘Crosstalk’ is interference from an adjacent cable.

When two cables are close together, mutual inductance and mutual capacitance
exists. To overcome this problem, shielding can be used. Using ‘twisted pair’ cables, ie
a pair of wires twisted together reduces interference as the pick-up and crosstalk on
adjacent loops cancel each another out.

Radio system cables may be twisted and shielded and in some cases double screened.

As mentioned before the screening around a cable must be earthed, but only at one
end. If both ends are earthed an ‘earth loop’ is formed and interfering fields may
cause a potential difference between the ends of the screen, causing a current flow
producing another interfering field.

On newer aircraft, because of a change in regulatory requirements on protection of

aircraft systems from the effects of High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) and lightning
strikes, both critical and essential systems are required to be protected to levels
greater than on previous aircraft. Protection methods include:

a) Using the metal airframe as a screen against radiated interference

including internal structure such as aluminated honeycomb walls, floor
and ceiling panels around the flight deck/electrical equipment bays.

- 29 -
 b) Using the gold film heater elements of windscreens.
c) LRU’s (Line Replacement Units) containing built-in filters and filter pins,
which act to discriminate against certain frequencies and only allow the
relevant frequencies to pass.
d) Extensive use of single/double screened cables.

Figures 26 to 29 show details of cable and plug shielding as used on the B777.

Fig. 26 B777 FLIGHT DECK SCREENING

Note the screening of the flight deck, the electronic bay and the electronic racks. Not
also the attention to detail on screening methods such as the use of twisted pairs;
twisted triplets; tinned copper braiding on individual wires; double layer braiding on
bundles. Notice the bonding details of the connectors.

Fig. 27 TYPICAL BUNDLE CONSTRUCTION – B777

- 30 -
 Fig. 28 BUNDLE CONNECTOR – BACKSHELL & SHIELD
TERMINATION – PRESSURE HULL – B777

Fig. 29 BUNDLE CONNECTOR – BACKSHELL & SHIELD

TERMINATION – WINGS & EMPENNAGE – B777

CABLE CHANGING

The following is a general guide on the procedure to change a cable.

1. If the cable being changed is due to some un-serviceability then the

reason for the cause of the damage has to be ascertained and rectified.
For example: Fluid contamination – find source of fluid and rectify leak,
cable chaffing – check on proximity of moving parts, or if vibration
induced, check cable support and/or investigate possible out-of-balance
components like propellers, engines etc.

- 31 -
2. Locate cable, using the AMM, Wiring Manual etc and check its
specification. Check that type and size of cable is available from stores
or its alternative.
3. Remove power from aircraft, trip C/Bs and tag – checking the AMM for
the correct procedure, equipment, test etc.
4. Unscrew the connectors at both ends of the cable, inspect for damage
and contamination of the male and female parts of both connectors.
Check the general condition of the LRUs to which the cables are
connected.
5. Untie, un-cleat, slacken/remove P clips/clamps along the cable/bundle
route.
6. The ends of the cable are removed from their respective plugs either by:
* Pin connector removal, using the pin connector removal tools
after first unscrewing the backshell – for most electrical cables.
* Removing the end fittings of the co-axial cable/fibre optic cable.

Note. For some cable lengths a new cable may be pulled through by first
crimping in-line crimp) the new cable onto the old cable, so as the old
cable is pulled out it is replaced by the new. This may not work for long
lengths as the pulling stress in the cable is too high. This is particularly
important for fibre optic cables as they are easily damaged by pulling.

7. Check the specification of the existing cable against that in the wiring
diagram. If it is different find out the reasons why.
8. Check the cable specification on the new cable drum. Calculate the
length of the replacement cable and cut the amount required plus an
allowance for errors.

Note. The new cable may be made-up in a cable loom shop and laid out on full
size layouts on benches. This may require the whole cable loom to be
removed from the aircraft to allow the single wire replacement.

9. Check the new cable for damage and contamination. Check that the
manufacturer’s codes are imprinted at intervals along its length.
10. From the wiring manual ascertain the aircraft wiring code to be stamped
on the new cable (there are some machines that will do this
automatically). The code is to be placed at intervals along the entire
length of the cable. When doing this manually it is important that the
insulation is not damaged in any way.
11. Carry out a continuity and insulation test for electrical cables. A
continuity test for co-axial cables and light transmission tests for fibre
optic cables.
12. Lay up the cable in the aircraft, either by ‘pulling through’ using the
existing cable or by manually fitting the cable in. Remember to ensure
that its route is that as laid down in the AMM/Wiring Manual.
13. Make sure the cable is free of kinks; not stretched; does not run close to
moving objects such as retractable landing gear; does not run close to
any heat source and lays correctly in its ties, conduits etc. If it is in a
bundle remember to check that it is permissible for the cable to be
bundled and that there are the correct number of cables in the bundle.
14. Once in position fit the end connections such as pin connectors, end
fittings etc. Fit pin connectors into the plugs using the insertion tool.
15. Carry out a continuity check (light source check for fibre optics).

- 32 -
 16. Assemble the plugs. (Remember if any of the pins are bent they must be
replaced – do not try to straighten them – they will almost certainly
fracture). Ensure lenses on fibre optic cable connectors are clean.
17. Fit plugs to LRUs.
18. Reinstate electrical power and carry out tests on the system as laid
down in the AMM. These might include duplicate inspections.
19. Go back over the length of the cable and tie-up/re-clamp the cable
making sure not to over tighten and damage the cable.
20. Carry out any paperwork required which would include such things as
recording details in the aircraft logbook/record card; recording details
from the stores release certificate/EASA form 1 for new cable details;
specifying tests carried out; clearing the aircraft for flight/signing the
CRS etc.

ELECTRICAL WIRING INTERCONNECTION SYSTEM (EWIS)

Recent amendments to Certificate Specification CS25 (large aircraft) includes the

addition of sub part H dealing specifically with EWIS. EWIS contains special
maintenance considerations for aircraft electrical wiring systems and has been
instigated to overcome shortcomings in present wiring systems and maintenance
procedures the failure of which has resulted in aircraft accidents (some fatal). The
requirements have been harmonised between EASA and the FAA.

It applies to any wiring/connector/system in the aircraft used to transmit electrical

energy or data signals and includes:

* Wires and cables and their insulation.

* Splices, conduits, shielding, braiding.
* Termination points on devices such as relays, switches, contactors,
terminal blocks, circuit breakers and other circuit protection devices.
* Connectors including feed-through connectors.
* Power supply wires, instrument wiring, fire detection wiring etc.
* Bus bars.
* Clamps, ties, wiring support, pressure seals and labels/identification
systems.

It includes all the above that might be fitted to equipment racks, shelving, distribution
panels, junction boxes, circuit board back-planes etc.

EWIS does not apply to:

* Electrical or electronic equipment already qualified to

environmental and testing standards acceptable to the CAA.
* Portable electrical devices not part of the aircraft type design, eg laptops
and personal entertainment systems.
* Fibre optics.

- 33 -
Each EWIS component installed must meet the following:

* Be appropriate to its intended function and installed according to its

limitations specified for the EWIS component without adversely affecting
the aircraft or its systems.
* Cables must:
- Be fitted such that there is no strain on any wiring, support etc.
- Take into account any deformation of the structure during flight
and its possible effect on the cable run.
- Be of the correct type and size appropriate to the task.
- Be routed away from moving parts and such that the possibility of
fluid contamination is minimised.
- Have minimum bend radiuses, for example:
^ For electrical cables 10 times the diameter of the
cable (the largest cable if considering a bundle of
cables) (standard SAE EN 3197).
^ For coaxial cables 6 times the diameter for flexible
cables. For semi rigid cable 10 times (SAE AS
550881).
- Be identified by label sleeving or tags against drawings/manuals,
eg WPM (Wiring Practices Manual). The use of hot stamping is
discouraged (this has sometimes lead to insulation failure as the
hot stamping process burns the code into the insulation and
sometimes burns through to the conductor).
* Electrical drawings should comprehensively describe wire routings for
the whole aircraft to include: any incompatibilities between
wires/bundles; minimum distances between routes; absolute ban on
combining bundles. Identification of routes/bundles must be adequate
and may include: labels, tags, placards, coloured ties and bar-codes.
Wires and cables should be identified at intervals of not more than 18”
(46cm). Wire manufacturers’ idents should not be at the same spacing
as the aircraft manufacturers’ idents to avoid the possibility of one ident
obscuring all the other idents along the run.
* EWIS components must be separated from other components (or have a
barrier) so that any failure will not create a hazard.
* Each EWIS component must be labelled and its function identified.
* Any interference produced will not affect personnel/aircraft systems.
* The failure of one independent power source will not affect another.
* Independent power sources must not share a common ground.
* All EWIS components must have adequate separation (except where they
have to be close due to electrical connections etc) from:
- Fuel systems.
- Oxygen systems.
- Water/waste systems. Any leaks onto EWIS components must not
create a hazard.
- Fly-by-wire systems – using a 2” (51mm) gap for example.
* Any hydraulic leaks/anti-icing fluid leaks etc onto EWIS components
should not create a hazard.

- 34 -
Requirements

These apply to electrical systems and to Supplemental Type Certification installation

(modifications) on a Type Certified aircraft with a maximum passenger capacity of 30
or more, or a maximum payload of 7500lbs (3402kg) or more.

Part 21 requires that an EZAP (Enhanced Zonal Analysis Procedure) be carried out by
a Type Certificate holder on existing aircraft. This is wire focussed and entails a
procedure to identify each aircraft zone. These are based, generally, on ATA100 (now
called ATA iSpec 2200) zones and are physically based (eg; cabin floor, main spar area
etc). Each zone identification must include details of:

1. Any EWIS in the zone.

2. Any zone that contain EWIS and combustible materials.
3. Proximity of EWIS to hydraulic systems and mechanical and electrical
control systems. (Author’s note. Special Condition CS25 H-01 does not
list oxygen, fuel and water/waste here but does include these systems in
EWIS Component Installation Requirements in the same document.)

Action

Equipment must be designed as to minimise possible contamination, damage and

wire degradation. Procedures must be instigated to provide regular detailed
inspections and cleaning (to be incorporated into the maintenance programme) of the
EWIS:

1. For any contamination (particularly combustible material) and

deterioration of systems and equipment.
2. To keep all EWIS equipment clean and free from debris and any
combustible material. In the past wire bundles have been prone to
become very dirty and contaminated with swarf, liquids and debris.
3. It has been found that wiring is more susceptible to damage and
degradation where it is exposed to pedestrian (maintenance personnel)
traffic and special attention must be paid to these areas including cargo
bays.

Inspections

The manufacturer is required to provide an inspection schedule and maintenance

programme to included detailed inspections of all EWIS equipment in the form of an
ICA to meet the requirements of EWIS. The inspections are to be detailed and may be
in the form of a:

* DET (Detailed inspection). An intensive examination of a specific item, or

assembly to include, as necessary: comprehensive cleaning of the
wiring/ equipment; the use of artificial lighting; magnification aids;
mirrors etc. It may require tactile examination and the use of extensive
de-paneling/elaborate access procedures etc for access purposes.
* GVI (General visual inspection). An examination of a specific item or
assembly to check for obvious damage, failure or any irregularity. Not
too unlike a DET but the procedure is not so detailed.

- 35 -
 * ZI (Zonal Inspection). A term that includes visual checks and GVIs
applied to a zone or area. Unlike a GVI it is not directed to one specific
component or assembly but to a zone and all the equipment in the zone.

Inspected items to include:

* Wiring, wiring bundles, lacing tape, sheathing, insulation.

* Wiring support, grommets, lacing, clamps, brackets.
* Connectors.
* Switches, circuit breakers, contactors, relays.
* Ground points.
* Bonding leads, bonding connections.

Besides inspecting for overheating, signs of burning and corrosion, items in the
system should be inspected for:

* Contaminated (moisture or debris) wire/wire bundles/switches/

contactors/splices etc. Moisture will accelerate corrosion.
* Damaged or poor insulation.
* Wire/structure contact/chafing.
* Broken strands/open circuits/kinked wiring/damaged splices/damaged
wires.
* Damaged supports/poor attachments/damaged conduits/blocked drain
holes (in conduits)/poorly fitted or missing grommets.
* Wire bundles sagging/poor support.
* Poor repairs.
* Plugs, sockets corroded/poorly fitted/insecure wiring/damage.
* Switches, contactors, circuit breakers, relays etc inspected for
contamination/corrosion/poor fitting/damage/insecure wiring/signs of
overheating.
* Bonding leads security, corrosion and damage.
* Correct separation from other systems/fluid pipelines/moving parts.
* Signs of vibration damage. Likely to occur in high vibration areas.

Failure Classification

To meet CS25 sub part H requirements failures of EWIS equipment must be classified
according to the effect its failure will have on the aircraft and crew (table 1).

EWIS will be included in Part M and Part 145.

You should note that EWIS formalises wiring design and maintenance procedures
that already existed but were not necessarily followed as closely as they should have
been. It also ‘beefs-up’ some of the existing requirements. New aircraft will have
designs and maintenance schedules (ICAs) to EWIS standards and existing aircraft
will comply by carrying out an EZAP.

- 36 -
 CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION

NO SAFETY Has no effect on safety, operational capability or crew workload.

EFFECT

Failure that would not significantly reduce aircraft safety.

MINOR Might increase flight-crew workload slightly.
Some slight discomfort to passengers/crew.

Failure that would reduce aircraft/flight-crew capability.

Significant reduction in safety.
MAJOR Significant increase in flight-crew workload.
Discomfort to flight-crew/distress or injury to passengers.

Significant reduction in safety.

HAZARDOUS Heavy workload for flight crew so they may not be able to perform tasks correctly.
Fatal or serious injury to others.

CATASTROPHIC Conditions that would result in multiple fatalities usually with the lose of the
aircraft.

TABLE 1 EWIS FAULT CLASSIFICATION

Some terms and abbreviations used in the EWIS document include:

Arc tracking. A condition where a carbon path is formed across an insulating surface.
This provides a conducting path and allows current to flow causing a short circuit.
May also be called Carbon Arc Tracking, Wet Arc Tracking or Dry Arc Tracking.

AMC. Acceptable Means of Compliance. A method or procedure that can be used to

fulfil a requirement of part of a Certificate Specification (CS).

Combustible. Refers to a solid, liquid or gas that will remain burning after the removal
of the ignition source.

Contamination. The presence of a foreign body that will cause degradation of the
wiring or the presence of foreign material that will sustain combustion. In the passed
contamination has been found to include dust, dirt, metal shavings, tea, coffee,
napkins and toilet waste.

DET. Detailed inspection. A close inspection including, as necessary, comprehensive

cleaning of the wiring/equipment and visual inspections using artificial lighting;
magnification aids; mirrors etc.

DVI. Detailed Visual Inspection. By definition a DVI excludes any tactile examination
and therefore is usually used as part of a DET and the acronym DET used as opposed
to DVI.

ESWPM. Electrical Standard Wiring Practises Manual. See also WPM (Wiring Practices
Manual and SWPM (Standard Wiring Practices Manual).

- 37 -
EZAP. Enhanced Zonal Analysis Procedure.

FAA. Federal Aviation Administration.

FAR. Federal Aviation Regulation.

Functional failure. Failure of an item to perform its function within specific limits.

GVI. General Visual Inspection. An inspection made with normal available lighting.
Refer stand-alone GVI, DET and zonal inspection.

ICA. Instructions for Continued Airworthiness. Since the 1980s design approval
holders are required to provide ICAs for the aircraft they produce. The ICA provides:

* A description of the aircraft, its components and systems.

* Servicing information.
* Maintenance instructions.
* Servicing instructions.
* Frequency of servicing.

L/HIRF. Lightening/High Intensity Radiated Field protection. The protection of the

aircraft electrical systems and structure from induced voltages or currents by means
of shielded wires, raceways, bonding jumpers, connectors, composite fairings using
conductive mesh, static dischargers, airframe metal structure, thin film conducting
windscreens, RF (radio frequency) gaskets etc.

Maintenance. Defined by Commission Regulation 2042/2003 Article 2(h) as ‘the

inspection, overhaul, repair, preservation and the replacement of parts, but excludes
preventative maintenance’. For the purpose of EWIS it includes preventative
maintenance.

MSI. Maintenance Specific Item. Items identified my the manufacturer the failure of
which could lead to one or more of the following:

* Affect safety in the air of on the ground.

* Is un-detectable during operations.
* Could have significant operational impact.
* Could have significant economic impact.

Needling. Refers to a procedure carried out by some engineers. The cable outer sheath
(insulation) is pierced by a needle through to the conductor so voltage readings can be
obtained and the cable checked for continuity. Needling maybe the cause of some
cable faults.

NPA. Notice of Proposed Amendment.

Stand-alone GVI. A GVI which is not part of a zonal inspection. Even if the time
interval for the two inspections coincide then it must still be treated as a stand-alone
item on the work-card.

SSI. Structural Significant Item. Any item or assembly that contributes significantly
to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control loads and whose failure could affect the
structural integrity and safety of the aircraft.

- 38 -
Swarf. Metal particles generated by drilling, milling and machining operations in
general. Always a hazard in aircraft and in particular when it gets into wire bundles.

ZIP. Zonal Inspection Programme. A programme of zonal inspections to cover all zones
over a period of time.

Zonal inspection. An inspection of a designated zone on an aircraft which will include

DETs, GVIs and visual inspections to check structure, systems and power plant
installations for security and condition.

SOLDERING

Sometimes called soft soldering to distinguish it from hard soldering (usually called
brazing). It is the process of joining two metals together using a low melting point
alloy (the alloy having a lower melting point than the metals being joined which are,
themselves, not melted).

The joint is not as strong as a brazed joint (using brass) or a welded joint (which
actually melts both metals together and is the strongest joining method). Soldering is
the weakest method of joining metals but it strong enough for electrical work and has
good electrical properties. When carrying out a soldering process which is to be
repeated many times it is advisable to solder a sample and test it to destruction to
verify the strength of the soldering process used – normally done by pulling the joint
apart in a test machine.

Normally used to join two parts made from the same metal and not used on some
aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys, zinc based alloys and for attaching metal tags to
high tensile steel tubes (may cause intercrystalline corrosion). Special aluminium
solders and fluxes are available for the soldering of aluminium in certain radio and
instrument assemblies but aluminium soldering is generally not allowed on aircraft.

The equipment used includes a soldering iron; solder and a flux. The iron is used to
heat and melt the solder and heat the parts to be joined, the flux ensures a
chemically clean joint and the solder provides the ‘adhesion’ between the metals. The
strength of the joint depends on the solder layer not being too thick or too thin and
the parts to be joined being mechanically cleaned (no dirt etc) and chemically cleaned
– the correct flux.

The solder can be melted by:

* Hand-held electric soldering irons.

* Resistance heating. Passing a low voltage current through the work to be
soldered using an electrode. At the electrode connection the resistance
causes a local rise in temperature sufficient to melt the solder.
* Induction heating. Using an induction coil placed near the part to be
soldered. The high frequency ac supply in the coil will cause an induced
current into the parts to be soldered and heating in the work-pieces.
* Ultrasonic heating. The ultrasonic vibrations produced cause heating of
work pieces and solder which melts the solder.

- 39 -
 * Bath heating. The pre-fluxed parts to be soldered are dipped in a bath of
molten solder and after a period are withdrawn. The parts are kept
aligned with each other while cooling and solder solidification occurs.
Dross – a form of ‘scum’ – which forms on the top of the bath is swept to
one side by various means.

The Soldering Iron

Usually electrically heated (240Vac but may be powered using a transformer) and
comprises a connecting cable, insulated handle, heating element and a removable bit
(some have an indication lamp to show when the iron is on and also a light shining
forward to give illumination to the work in hand).

Fig. 30 TYPICAL SOLDERING IRON

Some are thermostatically controlled; others will require temperature control by

switching off when they get too hot, and switching back on again when it cools.

Irons should be kept to a temperature of 60°C above the melting temperature of the
solder, but not too hot so as to cause rapid oxidation. They are classified by their
wattage. The bit is made of copper for good heat conduction and can be changed by
removing the bit retention pin. The bit should be kept clean and care should be
exercised when the iron is on as the bit can get very hot and cause burns. For
soldering large items a blowtorch can be used.

Correct selection of a soldering iron appropriate to the mass of the joint to be soldered
is governed by two main considerations:

1. Wattage rating of the iron.

2. Size (ie diameter) of the bit (access).

Before connecting a soldering iron to a power supply:

1. Visually inspect the iron, cable and plug for damage and security.
2. Check that supply/iron voltage and wattage are correct for the
job in hand and there is a serviceability tag fitted.
3. Check that the power supply matches that stated on the iron.
4. Check that there are no sources of combustion present.

- 40 -
Solders

Supplied in stick and wire form to BS441 (resin cored), BS219 (soft solder), DTD (has
non-corrosive flux) and DEF34/1. Wire solder is usually flux cored and stick solder is
not. The flux may be active or non-active (passive). Several types of solder are
available.

ALLOY%
GRADE TIN ANTIMONY SILVER LEAD MELTING USES
RANGE °C

A 65 0.6 max none r 183 to 185 Items liable to damage by

K 60 0.5 max none r 183 to 188 heat.
B* 50 3 none r 185 to 204 General copper, tin
F 50 0.5 max none r 183 to 212 & machine work.
M* 45 2.6 none r 185 to 215
R 45 0.4 max none r 183 to 224
C* 40 2.2 none r 185 to 227 Blowpipe soldering.
G 40 0.4 max none r 183 to 234
H 35 0.3 max none r 183 to 224 Dipping baths.
L* 32 1.7 none r 185 to 243 Plumbing work.
D* 30 1.7 none r 185 to 248
J 30 0.3 max none r 183 to 255
V 20 0.2 max none r 183 to 276 Electric lamps.
N 18 1 none r 185 to 275

TABLE 2 GENERAL PURPOSE SOLDERS

General purpose solders are listed and other types may be specified for some
applications. Some solders are supplied which contain a small amount of copper for
use on electrical circuits.

ALLOY%
GRADE TIN ANTIMONY SILVER LEAD MELTING
RANGE °C

95A 95 5 none 0.7 max 236 to 243

5S 5 0.1 max 1.5 r 296 to 301
1S 1.3 0.1 max 1.5 r 309 to 310

TABLE 3 HIGH TEMPERATURE SOLDERS

ALLOY%
TIN LEAD MELTING USES
RANGE °C

65 max r 183 to 185 Items not likely to damage by heat

60 max r 183 to 188 & require free running solder.
50 max r 183 to 212 Higher temperatures & less penetration
permitted. General hand soldering.
40 max r 183 to 234 Items more likely to heat damage. Tin &
copper work.
20 max r 183 to 276 Electric light contacts.

TABLE 4 WIRE SOLDERS

- 41 -
Notes (tables 2 to 4) 1. r = remainder.
2. Those solders marked with an asterisk (*) are known as
antimonial solders. They have a high antimony content
which increases the strength but must not be used on zinc
or galvanised work.
3. The two temperatures quoted in the melting range
indicate the completely solid and completely liquid states.

High temperature solders are used in applications that are subject to heat such as
engine radiators, oil coolers etc.

Wire cored solders are supplied together with one or more continuous cores of
activated or non-activated flux running throughout their length. As the flux is applied
simultaneously with the solder they are generally considered to be a better method of
soldering than using stick solder.

It is important to remember that the correct solder specification must always be used
as per the AMM/SRM/drawing/modification leaflet.

Fluxes

The use of a flux is essential to ensure that the surfaces of the metals to be joined are
chemically clean. It also helps to prevent the formation of oxides and other impurities
and helps the molten solder to flow. Fluxes conform to DTD 599 and are supplied in
either resin, liquid or paste form. Applied to the mechanically cleaned surface prior to
soldering if not using cored solder. If using cored solder (normally resin cored)
application occurs at the same time as the solder is applied.

Active or Activated Flux. These are more effective than non-active fluxes but can only
be used where thorough cleaning of the joint can be carried out afterwards, as
corrosion will occur otherwise. These are wood or gum based with additives to
improve the joint strength.

Non-active or Passive Flux. Not so effective. Also wood or gum based and used where
complete removal of the flux after joint completion is not possible, eg on electrical
cables. Sometimes called safety flux.

The flux container should have details of the flux including manufacturer, flux
specification and whether it is active or passive, but if these details have been
obliterated a test can be carried to check on its active/non-active status. The test
entails putting the flux to be tested on a nickel plate and soldering the plate. If the
plate becomes wetted (the solder runs and sticks to it) then the flux is active.

Special fluxes are provided for certain metals, eg:

* Zinc chloride dissolved in hydrochloric acid for stainless steel (SS).

* Phosphoric acid based for SS.
* Phosphate based for SS.
* Resin fluxes for monel metal and nickel.
* Killed spirits of salts or lactic acid for inconel and nimonic alloys.

- 42 -
 * Safety flux complying with DTD 599 for all electrical cables, galvanised
wire rope, control cables, and any item that cannot be properly washed
after soldering.
* Flux complying with DEF 34/1 for soldering oxygen equipment.
Thorough washing is needed after using this flux.

Surface Cleaning

The surface should be mechanically cleaned prior to fluxing/soldering. The best

surface is one that is slightly rough so the use of a file or sand paper is suitable -but
not for stainless steel.

As soon as the part is cleaned it should be de-greased using trichloroethane or

trichloroethylene.

Stainless steel should then be pickled electrically in a bath containing sulphuric acid
and dichromate and washed in clean water.

Fluxing/soldering should commence as soon as possible after cleaning/degreasing.

Method of Soldering - General

1. Mechanically clean the parts to the joined (wire brush, filing etc), ideally
leaving the surfaces slightly roughened.
2. Degrease the surfaces using trichloroethylene. (This is being replaced by
substitute degreasing agents because of its toxicity). Stainless steel
should be further cleaned using a pickling process followed by washing.
3. For soldering aluminium alloy special flux cored solder is available.
4. Use the correct solder and flux.
5. Allow the iron to heat up and ‘tin’ using the solder. (Tinning means
melting some solder on the end of the bit, which allows for better heat
conduction between the bit and the parts to be soldered). If a non-
electrical soldering iron is used – called a Common Iron – it must be
heated in a blue colour blowlamp flame. Other colour flames will deposit
soot on the bit.
6. ‘Tin’ both parts to be joined separately, applying the hot iron to one side
of the part and the solder to the other side. The heat will conduct
through the part and the solder will melt over the area. When this
happens remove the iron and the solder. Allow the solder on the part to
cool and solidify. If the parts to be joined have a large mass it might be
necessary to preheat them in an oven (be careful not to overheat). When
applying the heat it is important to apply only enough heat to melt the
solder sufficiently to make it run. Heating too much will cause it to
sputter and also produce oxidation.
7. Bring both parts together and apply the soldering iron to re-melt the
solder on both parts.
8. As the solder melts, remove the iron and allow parts to cool without
disturbing. Any disturbance at this stage will crack the joint and it will
be have to re-done.

- 43 -
 9. When cool and the solder has solidified wipe the joint clean/wash if
active flux used and test for mechanical strength. Depending on the flux
used some joints will require washing in special solutions such as weak
hydrochloric acid. If necessary construct a second joint and test to
destruction.

Notes. 1. If the joint pulls apart it is said to be a ‘dry joint’. Probably

caused by the part/parts not being cleaned properly or tinned
correctly. The process will have to be repeated.
2. The above process may be known as ‘sweating’.

Soldering (Sweating) a Wire to a Terminal End

Most cable connections are made using crimped pins, sockets and terminal ends,
very few are soldered. In some cases is a requirement that the connections are
crimped – in particular this applies to essential circuits such as emergency
lighting, fire circuits etc, and to circuits that are subject to high ambient
temperatures.

Preparation of the Wire

1. Strip the insulation from the end of the wire to the required length and
inspect (there must not be any cut or broken copper strands).
2. Twist the strands slightly to re-impose a lay to the wire.
3. Lightly abrade the bare wire and clean with a solvent – making sure the
solvent is compatible with the insulation.
4. If the other end of the wire terminates at a heat sensitive component
such as a transistor and there is a possibility that the heat being applied
during the soldering process could conduct along the wire then a Heat
Sink must be attached to the wire between the soldering end and the
heat sensitive component to absorb some of the heat. Heat sinks
normally take the form of a pair of special pliers gripped to the wire,
without causing damage. They can also help prevent wicking.
5. Apply the already tinned and hot copper bit beneath the wire and the
flux cored solder to the top.
6. When the solder flows over the wire, remove the solder and the bit and
allow the tinned wire to cool.

Note. Do not allow solder to flow underneath the insulation (called ‘wicking’)– this
will cause a ‘stiff joint’. Also make sure there is no excessive insulation shrinkage
caused by overheating the wire. If heat from the iron is likely to affect other
wires/components close-by then use a locally produced heat shield.

- 44 -
 Fig. 31 TINNING THE WIRE

Preparation of the Terminal

1. Clean the terminal and immediate area with approved cleaning material.
Support the end in a suitable heat resistant support. Do not support in
a metal support, as this will conduct too much heat away from the
terminal.
2. Apply the soldering iron bit to one side of the terminal and the resin
cored solder to the other. Allow the heat from the soldering iron to pass
through the terminal end to melt the solder.
3. Tin the terminal with sufficient solder to form a good bond, appropriate
to the gauge of wire to be connected.
4. When fully tinned remove iron and solder and allow to cool.

Fig. 32 TINNING THE TERMINAL END

Making the Joint

1. Hold wire and terminal end together in a steady support and apply the
hot bit to one so as to allow the heat to flow into both.
2. When the solder on both parts melt, keep joint steady and remove bit
(apply additional solder if required). Important – joint must be held still
whilst it cools.
3. With the solidifying of the solder a good joint should be formed.

- 45 -
 4. Check joint for security, alignment of wire and terminal end. Make sure
that there is a good electrical contact area between wire and end. (The
joint can be checked for strength by trying to pull it apart using the
hands – if it fails it must be re-soldered – including re-tinning. A ‘dry’
joint is a sign of poor solder adhesion to one or other of the two items
being soldered – rectified by proper cleaning of both parts and correct
fluxing).
5. Clean joint using an approved solvent.
6. Carry out any electrical tests specified.

Note. The strength of the connection of the wire to the terminal end should not rely on
the soldered joint only. The wire should have a mechanical means of
connection in addition to the soldering process. This can include the wire being
bent round 90° into a hole (there for the purpose) or bent 180° around the end
fitting or any other approved method.

Multi-pin Connectors

The term ‘connector’ is used to cover a wide range of devices which provide semi-
permanent connection to avionic components and electrical equipment.

A complete plug and socket connector assembly is comprised of two mating parts:

1. The part directly attached to any structure or component is termed the

receptacle or socket.
2. The part attached to the free length of wire or loom is termed the plug.

To join one wiring loom to another a plug and socket is often used where each half is
attached to its own loom. A connector must have positive location for plug to socket
and be capable of quick connection and disconnection for ease of maintenance.

The various wires going into a plug/socket are connected to individual

pins/individual sockets. The connection to these pins/sockets is usually made by
crimping each wire to its respective pin, but in some cases soldering is used –
particularly with older systems.

Soldering Plug and Socket Pins

Not an easy process and requires an iron with a small bit and a steady hand. The
various wires are identified, stripped (by the appropriate amount) and tinned. Each
pin in the plug/socket usually comes with the wire receptacle end pre-soldered so it is
only necessary to tin the wires.

Because of access problems soldering starts at the middle pin (number 1) with each
pin thereafter being soldered in turn clockwise out from the centre. The pins may not
be removable from the plug/socket. If they are, solder them out of the plug/socket
and fit each one once cooled.

- 46 -
Soldering Process

1. Strip, clean, identify and tin each wire.

2. If pin receptacle requires extra solder apply the iron to the contact and
allow the solder to run inside.
3. Whilst keeping the solder molten in the pin receptacle insert the
prepared wire end.
4. When firmly in, maintain relative positions, remove iron and allow solder
to cool.
5. Inspect the completed joint:

a) The conductor should be ‘wetted’ to the contact to the full depth

of the receptacle hole.
b) The insulation should be almost flush with the top of the pin
contact and unburnt.

Fig. 33 TINNING THE PIN

Fig. 34 SOLDERING WIRE TO PIN

Note. If, during the soldering process a previously soldered pin/wire has been
touched by the hot iron, it may have become un-soldered and will require
re-doing. This will often require all the wires to be un-soldered back to this one for
access. Then they will all have to be re-soldered.

If there has been any shrinkage of the insulation (because of the heat) then the wires
will have to be cut and re-stripped and re-soldered. If there is insufficient slack in the
wire to allow this then replacement is the only answer. (It can be very frustrating).

- 47 -
Soldering Nipples

These vary in design and are fitted to lightly loaded control systems such as Teleflex
controls for the operation of parking brakes etc. They are fitted to the end of the
control cable to allow the cable to be fitted to a component. With most aircraft,
however, attachment of end fitting to cable is by swaging.

Fig. 35 SOLDERING A TRUNION TYPE NIPPLE TO A CONTROL CABLE

The procedure for soldering is:

1. Clean the hole and the countersink in the nipple. Clean the cable.
2. Pass the cable through the nipple as at (i) in figure 35 and splay out the
strands. Make sure they are clean.
3. After cleaning, pull the cable back so the strands are flush with the
nipple surface.
4. Hold nipple and cable securely in a clamp (vice) with the cable ends
leaving the nipple at right angles.
5. Heat nipple and cable with the soldering iron and apply safety flux and
solder to the countersunk end. Fill the countersink with solder and
ensure it melts into the cable sufficient to show at the other end. Clean
off any solder that runs down the cable.
6. When the solder is completely set snip off any proud cable strands and
file flush with nipple [(ii) in figure 35].
7. Inspect the joint, remove all traces of flux, apply a rust preventative and
proof test (if required).

Soldering Aluminium Alloy

The process is similar to that already described but a special cored wire solder is used
and a temperature of 280°C to 370°C is used. This is required because of the high
rate of heat conductivity of aluminium and its alloys.

The flux produces pungent fumes and extraction equipment should be used or the
process used in well-ventilated areas.

- 48 -
Jigging

For some larger parts the two items to be soldered are positioned next to each other
using a jig. Joint clearances are specified in the drawing and can range from 0.08mm
to 0.25mm (.003” to .010”) with gaps for aluminium being a little smaller.

””””””””””

- 49 -
Book 6 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
ENGINEERING DRAWING
AERONAUTICAL STANDARDS

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7A.5 ISSUE 07 1210

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
WITH SPECIAL THANKS TO

British Standards Institute (BSI) and the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)

for permission to reproduce drawings.

Notes BSI, ISO and EN standards may be obtained on-line from

www.standardsuk.com.

CAA publications may be obtained on-line from

www.caa.co.uk/publications.

Many official publications may be viewed free of charge on the net.

CONTENTS

Page

Engineering drawings 1
Drawing production 1
Validity 2
Types of orthographic drawing 5
Drawing layout 6
Drawing queries 8
Parts referencing systems 9
Types of drawing 10
Orthographic projection 10
Isometric drawing 12
Oblique drawing 13
Lines 14
Dimensioning 17
Sectioning and hatching 19
Abbreviations and symbols 19
Electrical symbols 26
Wiring codes 31
Wiring diagrams and schematics 32
Manufacturer’s manuals 34
The ATA100 (iSpec 2200) system 34
Standard manual topic referencing 34
AMTOSS codes 39
The FIN codes 43
Amendments/revisions to manuals 43
Engineering standard specifications 46
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The B1/B2 engineer should be able to ‘read’ an engineering drawing and

understand the symbols, lines, conventions and the types of drawings used.
You should be able to describe the process by which a drawing becomes an
‘approved’ drawing, how it is amended and what procedure to adopt if it is
found to be in error.

Technical drawings may be supplied as hard copy drawings; as part of the

hard copy manual (AMM, SRM etc); in fiche (a type of film) or roll film format,
or in soft copy form such as CDs.

Fiche and roll film drawings are viewed on special large screen viewers, some
with printer facilities so hard copies can be obtained. These types of viewers
are becoming old fashioned. Drawings on CDs are viewed using a computer.

It would be a good idea if you could look at drawings related to the aircraft you
are working on and take note of:

* The projection used.

* The layout.
* Any symbols used.
* Any conventions used.
* Any reference to standard specifications (BSI, SI etc).
* Authorisation and other qualifying signatures.
* The title, drawing number, and issue number.

You should have a general knowledge of standard specifications, globally these

range from additives in food-stuffs to technical drawing standards to
engineering standards, but you should know about those related to
engineering – aircraft engineering in particular.

When working on aircraft/with publications/drawings take note of any

reference to standard specifications. One or two of the more regularly used
ones you should commit to memory.

Note. Drawings from CAP562 may not be found in that publication due to
amendment action by the CAA.
 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

As a human being the most effective way of inputting information to the brain
is visually. This means that drawings are the best way of conveying an idea
from one engineer to another. The designer works on an idea and puts it down
on paper (or inputs it to a drawing programme on a computer), this is sent to
the drawing office where a more formal drawing is produced and sent to
workshops where the ‘idea’ is manufactured and turned into an artefact. The
company will produce drawings for manufacturing purposes and for
maintenance purposes.

The designer/draughts-person must include in the drawing all the information

to manufacture, assembly, install, inspect, modify or check the particular
piece of equipment. The drawings must convey all the information necessary to
manufacture and operate the equipment in a presentation that is easily
understood by a competent engineer.

If the item is just a single piece of equipment such as bolt then one designer
can do the work of designing and producing all the drawing/s. When it comes
to a complex item such as an aircraft, an engine, or a component then it will
take a team of designers and a team of draughtsmen/women to complete the
task – and this team (along with the thousands of drawings produced) will
need a complete design and drawing office and a separate organisation just to
control the design/drawing process.

Drawing Production

In general, a drawing is produced by an organisation and this is given a

unique drawing number and title. This is entered in a drawing register
together with details such as the designer, the draughts person, date etc. If the
drawing is subsequently changed (a change not affecting interchangeability)
then its issue number is changed. The register is than up-dated to include the
new issue number and brief details of the change. If the change affects
interchangeability then a new drawing is issued with a new drawing number.

The drawing may be produced by a draughts-person using the old fashioned

rule, pencil, drawing paper, T squares, drawing table etc – with the drawings
stored flat in large draws. Paper designations commonly used are AO, A1, A2
and less commonly A3 and A4. These paper sizes are to specification ISO ‘A’
series specified in ISO216. There is a ‘B’ series which provides intermediate
sizes.

The sizing starts at 4A0 with a size 1682mm x 2378mm and each subsequent
size is obtained by folding the paper in half. The following table shows some of
the more important sizes. Note the half value in each case for the next smaller
size.

-1-
 A SERIES B SERIES
CODE SIZE (mm) USES CODE SIZE (mm)
4AO 1682 x 2378
2AO 1189 X 1682
AO 841 x 1189 TECHNICAL DRAWINGS B0 1000 x 1414
A1 594 x 841 TECHNICAL DRAWINGS B1 707 x 1000
A2 420 x 594 FLIP CHARTS B2 500 x 707
A3 297 x 420 LARGE TABLES B3 353 x 500
A4 210 x 297 WRITING PAPER COPYING PAPER B4 250 x 353

TABLE 1 PAPER SIZES

Hard copy drawings are normally received by the maintenance engineer as

either separate sheets of paper (the larger sizes rolled up in cardboard tubes)
or as part of the usual range of aircraft manuals.

Most drawing/design offices now do all their work on computers using one of
several propriety brands of software packages. Each person may have his/her
own computer or may be connected to one central computer for the whole
office.

This means that drawings can be completed on the screen with registration of
each drawing in the drawing register being done automatically.

Drawings are imported electronically into the manual and the manuals (AMM,
SRM, IPC, FIM etc) are issued to the aircraft operators as a hard copy or on a
CD (ROM). The CD is loaded into the computer and (sometimes) a code word
has to be inputted (company password and operator password) to gain access.
In some cases the same information can be down-loaded via the net using a
subscription service and pass-word system.

Drawings (and text) can be viewed on-screen and hard copy obtained via the
printer. Drawings, whether hard copy or soft copy, must be issued by an
approved organisation and certified as correct by the chief
draughtsman/woman.

Validity

All aircraft and parts manufactured in the UK must be made and assembled in
compliance with approved drawings and specifications. That is, drawings
issued by an approved company (Primary Company or Design Organisation).

It is the responsibility of the approved Inspection Organisation to ensure that

all parts are ‘correct to drawing unless an appropriate concession has been
issued.

-2-
Drawing practice in the UK should conform to BS8888 (was BS308). It covers
computer generated drawings as well as conventional hard copy drawings and
deals with drawing practices world-wide. It is a specification and not a
guidance document as was BS308 so tighter control can be exercised. Both
standards will run together as drawings to BS308 will be in circulation for
many years.

Design organisations amend both BS and SBAC systems to suit their own
design office standards, so non standard symbols may be found in some
aircraft drawings.

For current projects, the ISO system for dimensioning and tolerancing of
drawings is used (ISO 8015 – due to be replaced by ISO 14405), but at the
present time, imperial units, terms and tolerances may be found on many
drawings, particularly related to aircraft of American manufacture.

Drawing symbols may also be used that are specified in ATA100 (iSpec 2200)
but again the specification allows the use of local, national and manufacturer’s
symbols.

The most common form of drawing used in engineering is called an

Orthographic Projection.

blank

-3-
 DRAWING FROM CAP562
Fig. 1 TYPICAL ORTHOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL DRAWING

-4-
 TYPES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

Drawings are designed to perform specific functions and to that end will
contain different information depending on the intended actions of the
engineer.

Single Part (Detail) Drawing

Shows all the information necessary to completely define an item to be

manufactured or inspected, ie, shape, size, material, heat treatments, surface
finish, etc. There may even be notes on the drawing as to specific operations
such as casting details, machining details etc.

Collective Single Part (Tabular)

Similar to the above drawing but shows essentially similar items which have
slight differences, ie washers of differing sizes, finish and/or material, rivets of
differing lengths, special bolts etc.

Assembly Drawing (figure 1)

Shows the positioning of all the single parts necessary to make a component or
part of a component and gives all the information necessary for its correct
assembly.

An essential part of the drawing is a Schedule of Parts which may be

incorporated on the drawing or as a separate sheet. Items within the schedule
will be referenced by ‘ballooning’ on the drawing or by grid referencing. For
example, the items in the drawing above are referenced by ballooning and each
balloon refers to the specific item in the table of parts.

QUESTION With reference to figure 1. Why is the Parts List numbered from
the bottom up? (1 min)

ANSWER This allows the draughts person to add parts as he/she thinks fit.

QUESTION Can the list be numbered from the top down – and when? (2 mins)

ANSWER Yes – if the parts list starts at the top of the drawing.

-5-
Installation Drawing

Issued when-ever it is necessary to specify the exact installation of

components into an airframe engine or component (eg the aircraft fuel system
into the structure). May be handed Left Hand or Right Hand.

General Arrangement (GA) Drawing

Produced for main assemblies such as the fuselage, systems, etc, or

sometimes parts of main assemblies. They usually indicate profile and overall
dimensions and often internal details as well (sectioned).

DRAWING LAYOUT

All drawings must bear the following information:

* Descriptive title.
* Drawing number.
* Issue number.
* Alterations list.
* Name of approved issuing company.

Much of this is in the Title Block of the drawing - except for the alterations list
(bottom right hand side of the drawing in figure 1).

Descriptive Title

Kept reasonable short because of space limitations. May not mean too much
on its own, but the drawing is positively uniquely identified by its drawing
number and the name of the issuing firm.

Drawing Number

This positively identifies the drawing and appears at least once on the drawing.
Its composition is up to the individual company design/drawing office. When a
drawing comprises several sheets, each bears the same drawing number, but
is annotated “sheet 1 of 3, sheet 2 of 3” etc.

The drawing number may also be the Part Number of the item it describes.

QUESTION The drawing number often appears in the top left hand corner of
the drawing up-side-down (figure 1). What is the reason for this?
(2 mins)

-6-
ANSWER Drawings are stored flat in draws and when searching for a
particular drawing the whole sheet does not need to be disturbed
as all the numbers are on the bottom right hand corner – it is just
the corners of the sheets that need to be turned up to check the
numbers. This applies to all drawings including any drawing put in
the draw the wrong way round.

Issue Number and Alterations List

The first drawing drawn and issued is issue 1 – although it will not be
annotated as such. If the drawing is subsequently changed for any reason this
change is noted in the Alterations List with date of entry and the Issue Number
is added (issue 2). Thus it is important in that when referring to a drawing the
correct Drawing Number is used and it is the correct Issue Number.

Unaffected parts use the old issue number and new parts use the later issue
number.

If the change affects interchangeability then the drawing is re-issued with a

new drawing number (issue 1) and the part/component is made to the new
drawing specification and given a new part number.

When the first drawing is produced the drawing office will allocate a number
and title and record that number and title in the Drawing Master List. This will
be in the master register either in bound book form or, more commonly, on a
computer.

The drawing office will record the details of any subsequent change in the
Drawing Master List.

Scale

Rarely shown as all dimensions are indicated on the drawing and most
drawings are either scaled up or scaled down anyway.

A scale of 1:1 means that the drawing is full size. A scale of 1:2 indicates that
the drawing is half size etc.

Remember, you should not take dimensions straight off the drawing (using a
rule or dividers etc). Even if the drawing has a scale of 1:1 the drawing could
have shrunk or distorted due to the drawing manufacturing process. This
means that all dimensions must be read from the drawing and not scaled. As
the drawing says (figure 1) ‘DO NOT SCALE’.

-7-
Handed Parts

Refers to parts that are identical but are ‘handed. Just like the hands on the
human body - they are the same - but opposite when viewed palm down on a
flat surface.

On drawings, may be shown as RH, LH, Port or Left, Starboard or Right. The
convention on technical drawings is to have the left hand, upper, inner or
forward part, taking the odd number part number and the opposite hand item
to have the consecutive even numbers. This is not too unlike the FIN
numbering system (see later pages).

DRAWING QUERIES

If you find some discrepancy between a drawing and the part you are working
on then:

* Check the drawing title, who issued it, its number and issue
number - that it is the correct one and up-to date.

* Check you are working on the correct equipment – part number -

description – IPC – aircraft type/variant and registration – engine
type etc.

* Check the mod state of the part/component.

* Contact the issuing drawing office by telephone or email. State

drawing number, title and issue number and related equipment.

* If the problem is still not resolved then raise a ‘Drawing Query’

form.

Drawing Query Form

If your company has a Drawing Control Office or Publications and Documents

Control Office then the form is submitted to them – if not then you will have to
submit it to the manufacturer yourself. If the drawing is in electronic format
then an email should be sent to the manufacturer and/or their online drawing
query form completed and sent.

Details on the form should include a full description of the part being worked
on (with photographs, hand sketches/drawings etc) to include formal name,
part number, serial number and modification state.

Include any details if the problem affects other aircraft/equipment and, by-all-
means, make any suggestions as to what might be the cause – if you think you
know.

-8-
The Drawing Query Form should have a unique identity number with all
associated documents, photographs etc having connected reference numbers.
A copy of all documents being sent should be made and an entry made in the
Master List of Drawing Queries (held by the company).

The results of the query could be:

* An immediate provisional answer.

* Temporary fully approved answers in the form of a drawing office

instruction.

* Permanent answer by means of a new or re-issued drawing.

The Query Form and the Drawing Office Instruction should be identified on the
amended/re-issued drawing. Any other affected documents/drawings should
also be suitable cross referenced.

If speed is of the essence then a telephone call to the manufacturer followed by

faxed documents can get things started straight away. No doubt with some
companies this can all be done on-line using scanned-in document
evidence/photographs etc.

PARTS REFERENCING SYSTEMS

These are used to locate items on an orthographic drawing (and on other

drawings).

The most common systems used are the Grid Reference system and the
Balloon Reference system. The Grid Reference system uses a letter reference
column going up the right hand side of the drawing (figure 1) and a numbering
line along the bottom of the drawing from right to left.

QUESTION With reference to figure 1 identify the part grid reference D5.
(2 mins)

ANSWER A ‘U’ shaped channel.

The Balloon Reference system uses a ‘balloon with a leader line pointing to the
item concerned. It is usually numbered and referenced to the Parts List on the
drawing and possible to associated documents.

For example, in figure 1, item 6 is an ANGLE part number A2R 21 33 quantity

1 material L72 18SWG. This item was affected on the change of issue to issue
2 (check Drawing Changes top left hand side).

-9-
The Parts List may be called a Parts Schedule.

If any item does not have a Part Number then the material specification is
usually used (as with the brackets in figure 1) and sometimes the annotation
ND is put in the Ref No column (ND = No Drawing exists).

TYPES OF DRAWING

Besides free-hand sketches (which have their place in the scheme of things)
technical drawings can be produced in several formats.

They can be Orthographic – which is what we have been talking about so far or
they can be Axonometric. In general terms an orthographic drawing (or
orthographic projection) is one where the part is viewed one side at a time,
with several sides shown. An axonometric drawing is a pictorial drawing
showing just the one view of the part. Figure 2 shows how the two main types
can be broken down into several different systems.

TECHNICAL DRAWING

ORTHOGRAPHIC AXONOMETRIC

FIRST ANGLE THIRD ANGLE ISOMETRIC OBLIQUE DIMETRIC

CABINET CAVALIER

Fig. 2 DRAWING TYPES

Orthographic Projection

This form of drawing is predominant in engineering. It allows more precise

details to be given of a part and allows for many views to be projected –
including as many ancillary views as the draughtsman/woman requires.

The basis of the system relies on a four quadrant framework with planes
arranged at right angles to each other (ortho = at right angles to). This
produces four angles of projection – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th. To avoid confusion
only two angles are used 1st and 3rd. Both are approved internationally with
equal status.

Should the drawing warrant it a view can be projected for each side of the
object (6 sides) with as many auxiliary projections produced as necessary.

- 10 -
With First Angle projection the Front Elevation (FE) of the part is drawn in the
plane of the paper and any side that is viewed is drawn on the opposite side of
the FE. This means that the plan is shown at the bottom and the underneath
view would be shown on the top (figure 3).

With reference to figure 3. Consider the front elevation (B). Viewing B from the
side (C) (left hand side) projects that side elevation onto the opposite side (right
hand side) of the FE.

The plan (as viewed from the top) is projected underneath the FE.

DRAWING FROM CAP562

Fig. 3 FIRST ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

With Third Angle orthographic projection the Front Elevation is drawn in as

before but all side views are projected on to the same side. This means that the
plan is drawn on the top of the FE and side (C) is projected onto the same side
(figure 4).

Note that both drawings just show two views from the front view (FE) but could
show many more if required. Also note the symbol in both cases indicating the
angle of projection – also shown in figure 1.

Considering a box has 6 sides so an orthographic projection can have 6

elevations (views) – if necessary. To add to this it can have an infinite number
of auxiliary views.

It is usual for orthographic projections to have 2 or three views.

- 11 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP562
Fig. 4 THIRD ANGLE ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

Isometric Drawing

Iso means equal and refers to the equal angles subtended at the centre of an
isometric cube (figure 5). Typical of all axonometric drawings this projection
gives a good pictorial view of a part but can give problems when it comes to
dimensioning and when trying to project other views.

The angles at the centre are 120°. All vertical lines are drawn vertically and all
horizontal lines are drawn at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. Lengths of all
sides are drawn without changing the ratio. That is – with the cube shown in
figure 5 the lengths of the vertical lines are the same as the lengths of the 30°
lines.

Fig. 5 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A CUBE

- 12 -
Oblique Drawing

With this method of projection one side of the object is drawn in the plane of
the paper and the other sides are taken away at 45° ‘into’ the plane of the
paper. Figure 6 shows the sides going into the plane of the paper up and to the
right of the ‘front face’ but they can go to the left and down if necessary.

As with the isometric projection it is an axonometric drawing. It shows a good

‘picture’ of the object but is difficult to dimension more complex objects and
difficult to project other views.

Figure 6 shows a Cabinet Oblique Projection of a cube. This means that the
lengths going into the page are reduced by halve to make the object look more
in proportion. Figure 7 shows the same cube but in Cavalier Oblique
Projection with all sides having the ratio 1:1:1.

Any dimensions shown on the drawing would be those of the actual object.

Fig. 6 OBLIQUE CABINET PROJECTION OF A CUBE

Fig. 7 OBLIQUE CAVALIER PROJECTION OF A CUBE

- 13 -
 Fig. 8 DIMETRIC PROJECTION

Variations of axonometric projections are used to suit different requirements.

One such variation is called the Dimetric Projection (figure 8). Other drawings
may show perspective – which means that lines going into the page tend to
converge – just like when looking at the lines of a straight railway track from a
bridge. Over a long distance they will converge to a point.

LINES

Lines on a drawing can be continuous or dotted. Either sets of lines can be

thick or thin and the dotted lines can be short dots or long dots. To add to this
the lines on a drawing may be a combination of both.

What ever type of line is used will give that line a meaning and you as an
engineer will interpret that as a function.

The following figure 9 and table 2 should be studied in conjunction with each
other to the extent that you should have a reasonable knowledge of the more
commonly used lines. The line types in table 2 are balloon referenced in figure
9.

You should commit to memory the description and main application of the
lines A to K in table 2.

In very general terms all lines are thin lines (about 0.3mm thick) except for
outlines (about 0.7mm thick). This is a very general statement and does not
hold true all the time – check table 2.

blank

- 14 -
 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 9 TYPES OF LINES

blank

- 15 -
 TABLE FROM BS308
TABLE 2 TYPES OF LINE

- 16 -
Dimensioning

The following general rules apply:

* The whole drawing should be dimensioned in the same units, eg

mm or inches. They should not be mixed up on the same drawing.

* Dimensioning should be clear, unambiguous and not duplicated.

* The figures should be read from the bottom of the drawing or from
the right (see figures 1 and 10).

* The dimension figures should be placed on top of the dimension

line to which they refer or within a broken dimension line – but the
drawing must be all the same style.

* Dimension lines are thin continuous lines with narrow filled in

arrows.

* Projection lines are thin continuous.

* Ideally dimensions should be from a datum to help prevent

accumulation of errors (figure 11).

* Tolerancing can be shown as in figure 12 but the drawing must

have the same style throughout.

* Any symbols used must be in accordance with BS8888 and placed

in front of the value to which they refer.

* Screw threads should be dimensioned as per figure 13.

Fig. 10 DIMENSIONING

- 17 -
 Fig. 11 DIMENSIONING FROM A DATUM

Fig. 12 TOLERANCING

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 13 DIMENSIONING THREADED PARTS

- 18 -
Sectioning and Hatching

Where more detail is needed a view may be sectioned (figures 9, 13 and 15).
The section lines a thin continuous and are equally spaced across the
sectioned area (spacing depending on the size of the area). Their angle can be
any angle so long as it conveys to the engineer that it is a sectioned area
(figures 14 and 15).

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 14 HATCHING

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 15 HATCHING ADJACENT PARTS

It is convention not to hatch some items, these include:

* Nuts, bolts, rivets, taper pins etc, when fitted as part of an

assembly drawing.
* Webs – across their thick section.

ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

Used extensively in drawings, associated documents and aircraft manuals. The

range is vast and what follows in this book is just a sample of those in more
common use for the aircraft engineer. Many of these symbols are specified in
standard specifications – see later text.

- 19 -
 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 16 SCREW THREAD SYMBOLS

Screw Thread Drawing Symbols (figure 16)

External

(a) Stud side view.

(b) Stud end view.
(c) Stud sectioned side view.
(d) Stud sectioned end view.

Internal

(e) Hidden detail end view.

(f) Blind hole side view hidden detail.
(g) Sectioned end view.
(h) Blind hole side view (sectioned).
(i) Hidden detail side view – thread passes all the way through.
(j) End view.
(k) Sectioned side view – thread passes all the way through.

- 20 -
One way of remembering screw thread symbols is to imagine cutting the screw
thread. For an external (male) thread you start with a round rod and cut the
thread into the rod, so the symbol has an unbroken circle on the outside and a
broken circle on the inside. For an internal (female) thread you start with a
hole and cut the thread into the metal on the outside of the hole, so the
symbol has a continuous circle on the inside and a broken circle on the
outside.

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 17 SPLINES & SERRATED SHAFTS – SYMBOLS

Figure 18 shows the usual form for showing repeated parts. This can apply to
holes, rivets, bolts, brackets etc.

Figure 19 shows how long parts can be reduced for drawing purposes –
provided there is no change of any detail along the length. The top left picture
shows a tube and the picture beneath shows a round solid bar.

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 18 CONVENTION FOR REPEATED ITEMS

- 21 -
 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 19 CONVENTION FOR INTERRUPTED VIEWS

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 20 CONVENTION FOR BEARINGS

DRAWING FROM BS308

Fig. 21 FURTHER CONVENTIONS

Figure 20 shows the convention for showing bearings and figure 21 shows the
symbols for showing various machinings on round bars.

- 22 -
 DRAWING FROM BS308
Fig. 22 MACHINING SYMBOLS

Figure 22 shows machining symbols and conventions used in technical

drawings.
The symbol shows that the surface has to be machined and the numbers show
the surface texture values (how smooth the surface has to be).

Table 3 deals with commonly used abbreviations and symbols. Take a few
moments to make sure you know what they all mean. Table 4 shows symbols
used on drawings and associated documents used in overhaul facilities. You
would not normally come across these too often but you should have, at least,
some idea of their use.

blank

- 23 -
TERM ABBREVIATION TERM ABBREVIATION

ACROSS FLATS A/F PATTERN NUMBER PATT NO

ASSEMBLY ASSY PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER PCD
BRITISH STANDARD BS PNEUMATIC PNEU

CENTRES CRS POUND weight LB

CENTRE LINE CL or C RADIUS RAD or R
CHAMFERED CHAM REFERENCE REF

CHEESE HEAD CH HD REQUIRED REQD

COUNTERBORE C’BORE REVOLUTIONS PER MNUTE RPM or
COUNTERSUNK CSK REF/MIN

CYLINDER or CYLINDRICAL CYL RIGHT HAND RH

DEGREE (angle) ° ROUND HEAD RD HD
DIAMETER in text DIA BRITISH ASSOCIATION BA
with a dimension ∅
BRITISH STANDARD FINE BSF
FIGURE FIG BRITISH STANDARD PIPE BSP
FULL INDICATED MOVEMENT FIM BRITISH STANDARD
HARDNESS - Brinell HB WHITWORTH BSW
- Rockwell HR + letter scale
- Vickers HV UNIFIED COARSE UNC
UNIFIED FINE UNF
HEXAGON HEX UNIFIED SPECIAL UNS
HEXAGON HEAD HEX HD
HYDRAULIC HYD SCREWED SCR
SECOND of angle “
INCH IN or “ SHEET SH
INSULATED INSUL
INTERNAL DIAMETER I/D SKETCH SK
SPECIFICATION SPEC
LEFT HAND LH SPHERICAL DIAMETER SPHERE ∅
LONG LG
MACHINE M/C SPHERICAL RADIUS SPHERE R
SPOTFACE S’FACE
MACHINED M/CH SQUARE SQ
MATERIAL MATL
2
MAXIMUM MAX SQUARE INCH SQ IN or IN
STANDARD STD
MAXIMUM MATERIAL STANDARD WIRE GAUGE SWG
CONDITION MMC or M
MILLIMETER MM TAPER
THREADS PER INCH TPI
MINIMUM MIN UNDERCUT U’CUT
MINUTE of angle ‘
NOT TO SCALE NTS VOLUME VOL
WEIGHT WT
NUMBER NO
OUTSIDE DIAMETER O/D

TABLE 3 ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

- 24 -
 TABLE FROM CAP562
TABLE 4 SYMBOLS USED ON PROCESS TREATMENT
DRAWINGS & DOCUMENTS

Table 5 shows some of the symbols used on drawings to denote the geometry
of an item – its position, form, attitude etc. Not often come across in assemble
drawings but are used in drawings associated with machine work – single part
drawings, detail drawings etc.

- 25 -
 TABLE FROM CAP562
TABLE 5 GEOMETRIC SYMBOLS

Electrical Symbols

The symbols used in electrical drawings and aircraft manuals, and wire
identification codes, should conform to standards as laid down in ATA100
(iSpec 2200) standards or standards applicable to those specified in a
particular country, or to those that conform to standards laid down for a
particular manufacturer.

- 26 -
When looking a different manufacturer’s manuals various symbols will be
found representing a particular component. In some drawings/manuals a
legend is provided while in others a drawing standard is specified.

It is interesting to note that ATA100 (iSpec 2200) does not actually show any
drawing symbols but refers the reader to other standards – in some respects
like BS8888.

The following table (table 6) is split up into 6a, 6b, etc and shows the most
commonly used electrical symbols. You should study all the symbols and note
what they mean.

blank

- 27 -
TABLE 6a ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - 1

- 28 -
TABLE 6b ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - 2

- 29 -
TABLE 6c ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS - 3

- 30 -
 Fig. 23 EXAMPLE OF AIRCRAFT WIRING CODE

Wiring Codes

When a cable is manufactured by the cable manufacturer, data is printed on

at regular intervals giving information such as cable manufacture’s name,
cable size, cable ident codes etc. When the cable is fitted into the aircraft the
aircraft manufacturer will give the cable another code relating to the
circuit/system the cable is fitted into. Should also include a FIN code.

This aircraft manufacturer’s code is either printed onto sleeves that are stretch
fitted to both ends of the cable or, much more commonly, printed at regular
intervals along the entire length of the cable. This printing usually being
carried out automatically (once set up) by a machine using a heat printing
process (it may also carry out electrical checks such as insulation checks on
the cable at the same time).

Figure 23 shows an example of an aircraft manufacturer’s code. While you

should read and understand the details there should be no need to commit
them to memory. The explanation of each element of the code is:

(1) Used where components have identical circuits.

(2) Indicates the circuit (and associate circuit) function.
(3) Allocated to differentiate between cables that do not have a
common terminal in the same circuit. Beginning with the number
1 in the circuit with a different number being given to each cable.
(4) This identifies the segment of a cable between two terminals and
differentiates between segments of the circuit when the same cable
number is used throughout. Segments are given an alphabetical
letter starting with A and missing out I and O.
(5) Cable size.
(6) Indicates cable type and connection function.

- 31 -
 Fig. 24 AIRCRAFT WIRING CODE – EXAMPLE

Figure 24 shows an example of an aircraft manufacturers’ coding system on a

drawing. Some manufacturers might use standard schemes, others might use
their own. Most manufacturers include their name on the cable and also the
trade name of the cable. Note that only 1 wire is used from component to
component and most circuit drawings will have many wires. Note the similar
code structure for each cable along each run. Note also the third digit change
as the ‘cable run’ progresses from left to right.

WIRING DIAGRAMS & SCHEMATICS

Issued by the manufacturer of the equipment/aircraft/engine to show the

layout of a circuit or system without regard to the actual appearance of the
components or their location in the aircraft. It is a line drawing showing
components as squares or blocks and cables as lines. Each wiring
diagram/schematic will have a title block similar to a technical drawing. It will
show details such as:

* Title.
* Drawing number or code number.
* Issue number and/or date or amendment state or Change
Letter.
* ATA reference number.
* Number of sheets.
* Aircraft/equipment applicability.
* Names of designers, draughts-person, approval signature etc.

- 32 -
They may be available in paper form or on CD. Many are produced in book
form, for example the LAMM schematics for McDonnell Douglas. Should there
be any conflict between a wiring diagram/schematic and production drawings
then the production drawings are to be taken as the authority.

Fig. 25 EXAMPLE OF A WIRING DIAGRAM TITLE BLOCK

Wiring diagrams/schematics usually come with a location list, location

drawings, master index, symbols legend, abbreviations list etc. The master
index is the same as used for AMMs, IPCs, etc for cross referencing purposes.

Schematics are drawn to ATA100 (iSpec 2200) standard and come in three
levels.

First Level BLOCK DIAGRAM. System block diagrams with broad

scope and little depth.

Second Level SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC. Have a less broad scope but

more depth than the block diagram. Contain schematic
symbols but not individual wires. Are intermediate
between First Level and Third Level.

Third Level SYSTEM SCHEMATIC. A detailed drawing with limited

scope but great depth. Shows all LRUs, functional
wiring, and functional interfaces with other sub-systems.

A second level drawing is drawn if the complexity of the system is such that an
overview of its operation is not possible with the third level drawing.

A block drawing is produced if the system and sub-systems are of major

complexity and it is the only way that a proper understanding of the complete
system can be obtained.

First and second level drawings are identified by a code (usually 4 digits) with
the third level having an additional digit. On the schematic, all LRUs are
identified by an ATA number which directs the reader to the schematic where
the LRU is shown in detail. Wires will be coded using the ATA100 (iSpec 2200)
codes.

- 33 -
 MANUFACTURER’S MANUALS

Published by the manufacturers of aircraft and equipments. To be used during

the maintenance, overhaul, and repair of aircraft, engines, and equipment.
Manuals published by manufacturers include – Aircraft Maintenance Manual
(AMM), Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC), Overhaul Manual, Structural Repair
Manual (SRM), Wiring Manual, Fault Isolation Manual (FIM) etc.

Each must have a ‘Statement of Initial Certification’ - that it conforms to

BCARs (A5-3) - signed by the manufacturer. (BCARs are slowly being
superseded by JARs and EASA regulations, but are still current as aircraft are
still flying that have been certified under the BCAR standard.)

All manuals must conform to ATA*100 specification (ATA iSpec2200) as far as

layout is concerned. May also be issued as an IBM Word For Windows
compatible disc (on CD ROM – Read Only Memory).

* ATA = Air Transport Association – based in America.

THE ATA ISPEC 2200 SYSTEM

STANDARD MANUAL TOPIC REFERENCING

Prior to the introduction of the ATA100* standard presentation of technical

data in the manufacturer’s manuals was not laid out to any standardised
format. Consequently, for example, the subject of towing was found in chapter
9 of the Vicker’s manual, but in the De Haviland manual it was in a different
chapter. This meant confusion, time wasting, and inconvenience for operators
working with different types of aircraft.

With the introduction of the ATA100 (now iSpec 2200) standard a particular
subject could be found in the same chapter irrespective of the aircraft
manufacturer – Airbus, Boeing, Fokker etc.

Every chapter in each manual for all aircraft will have an unchanging chapter
number and title. The chapter numbers are grouped under headings, the order
of which is largely alphabetical.

The chapters listed below do not necessarily occur in all manuals – for
example, chapters 5 to 10 will be in the AMM only.

* ATA100 and ATA2100 (Digital Data Standards) have been combined into ATA
iSpec 2200.

- 34 -
Chapters

FOR OPERATOR USE ONLY

CHAPTER 1 to 4 Reserved for airline use

AIRCRAFT GENERAL

CHAPTER 5 Time limits/Maintenance checks

6 Dimensions & charts
7 Lifting & shoring
8 Levelling & weighing
9 Towing & taxiing
10 Parking & mooring
11 Required placards
12 Servicing
13 to 19 These chapters are left unassigned for any additional data
the manufacturer may wish to include at a later date.

AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 20 Standard practices - airframe

21 Air conditioning
22 Auto flight
23 Communications
24 Electrical power
25 Equipment/Furnishings
26 Fire protection
27 Flight controls
28 Fuel
29 Hydraulic power
30 Ice & rain protection
31 Instruments
32 Landing gear
33 Lights
34 Navigation
35 Oxygen
36 Pneumatics
37 Vacuum
38 Water/Waste
39 to 48 These chapters are unassigned for additional data that
may be required at a later date.
49 Airborne auxiliary power

continued

- 35 -
AIRFRAME STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 50 Unassigned
51 Structure
52 Doors
53 Fuselage
54 Nacelles/Pylons
55 Stabilisers
56 Windows
57 Wings
58 to 59 Unassigned

PROPELLERS

CHAPTER 60 Standard practices prop/rotor

61 Propellers
62 to 64 Unassigned
65 Rotors
66 to 69 Unassigned

POWER PLANT

CHAPTER 70 Standard practices engine

71 Power plant
72 Engine
73 Engine fuel & control
74 Ignition
75 Air
76 Engine controls
77 Engine indicating
78 Exhaust
79 Oil
80 Starting
81 Turbines
82 Water injection
83 Accessory gear boxes
84 to 89 Unassigned

GENERAL

CHAPTER 90 Unassigned
91 Charts

Sections

Each chapter is broken down into Sections. Each section deals with a subject
area within it’s chapter eg, section 10 of chapter 73 deals with ‘distribution’
and is written as 73 – 10.

- 36 -
Subjects

Each section is divided into Subjects eg, subject 41 of Section 10, Chapter 73
deals with ‘Fuel Pumps’ and is written 73 – 10 – 41.

Composition

The three elements – Chapter, Section, and Subject are each made up of 2
digits and go to make up the ATA100 (iSpec 2200) page numbering system, eg:

73 – 10 – 41

FIRST ELEMENT SECOND ELEMENT THIRD ELEMENT

73 - 10 - 41

CHAPTER SECTION SUBJECT

eg ENGINE FUEL eg DISTRIBUTION eg HP FUEL PUMP
& CONTROL

Page Numbering (topics)

In addition to the ‘three element’ system, the subjects are further broken down
in order to provide ‘topics’. This makes for easier referencing. The system uses
standard page numbering but the numbers are grouped in blocks.

TOPIC PAGE BLOCKS

Description & operation (D & O) 1 to 99

Fault isolation (FI) 101 to 199
Maintenance practices (M/P) 201 to 299

Each topic is made up of several sub-topics, ie, ‘Maintenance Practices’ is

made up of the following sub-topics: Servicing; Removal/installation;
Adjustments/ tests; Inspection/checks; Cleaning/painting; Approved repairs.
Where these sub-topics are brief they will all be dealt with under the topic
heading ‘Maintenance Practices’. Where the sub-topics are lengthy and their
combination would require many pages, then each sub-topic is treated as a
topic.

The standard page numbering would continue as follows (next page):

- 37 -
 TOPIC PAGE BLOCKS

Servicing (SRV) 301 – 399

Removal/installation (R/I) 401 – 499
Adjustment/test (A/T) 501 – 599
Inspection/check (I/C) 601 – 699
Cleaning/painting (C/P) 701 – 799
Approved repairs (AR) 801 – 899
Dispatch deviation 901 – 999

The ‘three element number’ together with the page number will appear on the
bottom right hand corner of each page (figure 26).

73-10-41
Page 203

Fig. 26 PAGE IDENTIFICATION

Overhaul Manual Page Numbering

TOPIC PAGE BLOCK

Description & operation 1 to 99

Disassembly 101 to 199
Cleaning 201 to 299
Inspection/check 301 to 399
Repair 401 to 499
Assembly 501 to 599
Fits & clearances 601 to 699
Testing 701 to 799
Trouble shooting 801 to 899
Storage instructions 901 to 999
Special tools fixtures & equipment 1001 to 1099
Illustrated parts list (where applicable) 1101 to 1199

- 38 -
AMTOSS CODES

The AMTOSS (Aircraft Maintenance Task Orientated Support System) code is a

two/three digit code for use when recording the actual tasks performed on
aircraft. The code is used on work cards/job cards/computer records etc so
when work done is recorded on automated data storage systems the
referencing/retrieval of the data is made easier.

This code is part of the ATA100 (iSpec 2200) system and can be found be in
some AMMs. Having said this Airbus (and presumably other manufacturers)
can supply manuals with or without the AMTOSS code. (With at least one
airline the code has lead to confusion and a near serious accident – an Airbus
aircraft taking off with the spoilers on one wing deployed [after maintenance
work], but the pilot managed, with some difficulty, to go-around and land the
aircraft safely.)

Procedures on aircraft are standardised into the following structure:

1. General
2. (TASK)
A. General
B. Equipment
C. Consumable Materials
D. Parts
E. References
F. Access
G. (TOPIC)
(1) (SUB-TASK)
(a) Sub-step
(b) Sub-step
(c) Sub-step
(2) (SUB-TASK)
(3) (SUB-TASK)
(a) Sub-step

Tasks are procedures for specific maintenance requirements. For example:

R/I page blocks normally contain two tasks:

1. Removal of the LRU.
2. Installation of the LRU.

A/T page blocks may contain three tasks:

1. Operational test of the system.
2. Functional test of the system.
3. System test of the system.

- 39 -
TOPICS are generic headings used in tasks to group sub-tasks. There are one
or more topics in each task.

SUB-TASKS are the major action steps in tasks. A sub-task refers to specific
equipment. For example, ‘Disconnect hydraulic lines’ is a sub-task. Separate
skill requirements are put in separate sub-tasks.

For example, a step involving hydraulic pipelines is never combined with an

action involving electrical wiring.

All tasks and sub-tasks are coded with an AMTOSS identification code in the
AMM unless specified by the operator.

A typical AMTOSS identification codes would include the task and the sub
task. For example:

Task:
ATA100/iSpec 2200 code Page Paragraph

Task 29-11-05-404-001-002 This code refers to the

installation of the engine
driven hydraulic pump.

Sub-Task:
AMTOSS Function Code

S874-001-002 The code 87 refers to the

bleeding of air from the
hydraulic system.

Listed below are the AMTOSS function codes. It should not be necessary to
commit them to memory, but you should have some knowledge of them.

00 REMOVAL

01 REMOVE/OPEN FOR ACCESS

02 REMOVE UNIT/COMPONENT
03 DISCONNECT/LOOSEN/REMOVE ITEM
04 DEACTIVATE
07 ERASE ELECTRONICALLY STORED DATE
08 REMOVE TEST EQUIPMENT
09 REMOVE SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

continued

- 40 -
10 CLEANING

11 CHEMICAL
12 ABRASIVE
13 ULTRASONIC
14 MECHANICAL
15 STRIPPING
16 MISCELLANEOUS CLEANING
17 FLUSHING

20 INSPECTION/CHECKS

21 GENERAL VISUAL
22 DETAILED DIMENSIONAL
23 PENETRANT
24 MAGNETIC
25 EDDY CURRENT
26 X-RAY/HOLOGRAPHIC
27 ULTRASONIC
28 SPECIFIC/SPECIAL
29 BOROSCOPE

30 REPAIR

31 WELDING/BRAZING
32 MACHINING/REAMING/BLENDING
33 COMPOSITE
34 FIBREGLASS/PLASTIC/HONEYCOMB/EPOXY
35 MISCELLANEOUS REPAIR
36 LEAKAGE REPAIR
37 PAINTING
38 PLATING
39 SEALING

40 INSTALLATION

41 INSTALL/CLOSE ITEMS REMOVED/OPENED FOR ACCESS

42 INSTALL UNIT/COMPONENT
43 INSTALL ITEM/RECONNECT/TIGHTEN/SAFETY
44 REACTIVATE
47 LOAD ELECTRONICALLY STORED DATA
48 INSTALL TEST EQUIPMENT
49 INSTALL SUPPORT EQUIPMENT

continued

- 41 -
50 MATERIAL HANDLING

51 SHIPPING
52 RECEIVING
53 PACKING
54 UNPACKING
55 STORAGE
56 MARSHALLING
57 ENGINE FERRY/POD MAINTENANCE
58 AIRCRAFT HANDLING

60 SERVICING/PRESERVING/LUBRICATING

61 SERVICING
62 PRESERVING
63 DEPRESERVING
64 LUBRICATING
65 FUELING/DEFUELING
66 DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING
67 DISINFECT/SANITISE
68 DRAIN FLUID

70 TESTING/CHECKING

71 OPERATIONAL
72 FUNCTIONAL
73 SYSTEM
74 BITE
75 SPECIAL
76 ELECTRICAL
78 PRESSURE
79 LEAK

80-99 MISCELLANEOUS

81 FAULT ISOLATION
82 ADJUSTING/ALIGNING/CALIBRATING
83 RIGGING
84 PREPARE FOR…/RESTORE…TO NORMAL
85 OPERATOR MODIFICATION INCORPORATION
86 AIRCRAFT/SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
87 BLEEDING
88 HEATING/COOLING
90 CHANGE = REMOVE + INSTALL
91 STANDARD PRACTICES
93 MARKING
94 JOB SET-UP/CLOSE-UP
95 MASKING
96 REPLACE
97 DATA RECORDING/CALCULATING
98 MANUAL OPERATION OR POSITIONING
99 ILLUSTRATIONS

- 42 -
THE FIN CODE

The equipment on the aircraft is identified by a unique identification number

called a Functional Item Number (FIN). The basic element of the FIN is a two
letter code indicating the system/circuit that the equipment belongs to. To this
code are added suffixes and/or prefixes which provide the unique
identification number for that item of equipment in that system/circuit.

For example:

2CA1

PREFIX. SECOND CIRCUIT LETTER SUFFIX. FIRST OF

COMPONENT CODE SEVERAL SIMILAR
IN CIRCUIT CA SYSTEMS

If components are handed, even suffixes indicates a component on the right-

hand side and odd numbers indicate a component on the left-hand side.

More details of the actual aircraft FINs can be found in the:

* Aircraft Schematic Manual (ASM)

* Aircraft Wiring Manual (AWM)
* Aircraft Wiring List (AWL)

AMENDMENTS/REVISIONS TO MANUALS

Manufacturer’s review their manuals frequently and change them as required.

Changes are brought about because of:

* Aircraft modifications.
* Correcting errors in the manuals - technical or typing errors.
* Modifying the manual in the light of experience.

This means that amendments are issued as required.

Holders of manuals are responsible for ensuring that their copies are kept up
to date and engineers that use the manuals are also responsible for ensuring
they are up-to-date before issuing any certification (CRS) (AN3 – now moved to
CAP 562).

- 43 -
Amendments for manuals are issued on:

Yellow paper – temporary.

White paper – permanent.

They are also accompanied by a ‘Letter of Transmittal’ on which the issuer

certifies the accuracy of the information and gives instructions as to what to
do. Manual holders should check the authenticity of these letters.

Cassette/CD Rom Systems

Used by many organisations instead of hard copy manuals to include AMMs,

IPCs, FIMs, manufacturer’s drawings etc. CDs are usually used with a PC, lap-
top, or similar computer incorporating a screen and printer. Cassettes use film
and a film projector/copier.

Cassette/CD systems reduce storage space (the CD/cassette can be put away
in a drawer whilst manuals for a large aircraft will take up a lot of shelf space)
and are more convenient to use – though if you have trouble with the
hardware (computer/cassette reader etc) this may not be the case.

Film Systems

Microfilm cassettes are used with a Cassette Reader using a lens and lamp
system to project the images (pictures and text) onto a built-in screen. The film
(simply pages of text and pictures in black and white) is wound forward or
backward (similar to a video) using a in-built electric motor. Some cassette
readers have a facility to print hard copy via a printer.

Microfiche is another method of storing technical information – drawings or

otherwise. Again it is a film system where photographs are taken of each page
of the manual (as for microfilm) and miniaturised. These are put onto a
negative microfiche film about 10cm by 15cm. Each microfiche film will
contain hundreds of pictures (pages) and the films are stored in indexed boxes.

To view a film it is placed on a glass platter within a lamp and lens system and
the pictures are projected onto a screen. The screen enlarges the pictures so
they are readable. The platter is moveable so it can be moved back and forth
as well as sideways to view the appropriate image. The platter is moved a very
small amount to move from one page to another.

An index of pages is provided to assist in location. They do not normally have

printer facilities attached and both film systems above are old and not used
much.

- 44 -
Computer Systems

These allow the user to view the pages of the manual (including drawings) on
the screen and print what-ever hard copies he/she wishes for use at the work
location.

Hard copies (from the printer) obtained by this system are usually used once
only, and therefore handling damage/deterioration is not a problem, as with
hard copy manuals.

If a subscription service is provided manuals and technical documents can be

viewed on-line via the web.

Computers used include desk-top computers, lap-tops (specially made –

toughened - for engineering purposes and body mounted voice commanded
computers with a miniature screen fitted to a head band and placed in front of
the eye of the operator.

Fig. 27 HANDS FREE BODY MOUNTED COMPUTER

Amendments are carried out by the issue of a new CD/cassette/fiche.

Each CD/cassette/fiche must be clearly marked as to its amendment state

and more recent amendments must be recorded and kept in a folder which
should be kept next to the viewer.

Engineers, using these systems, must ensure that they have checked both the
CD/cassette/fiche and the folder to ascertain the correct amendment state.
For computer systems, some manufacturers only allow access after inputting
the operator’s access code and a user code, for others, assess codes are not
required.

On-line systems are kept up to date by the manufacturer.

Check your company’s system.

NB. Aircraft constructors may produce their own systems which may require
that users are trained in their use.

- 45 -
 ENGINEERING STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

There is a vast array of engineering standards, some local to a particular

manufacturer, some national and others international.

The aim of standard specifications is to provide a documented system for the

economical production of artefacts (in this case components for aircraft) that
allow interchangeability and standard procedures (engineering or
administrative) and a common means of presenting information.

Examples:

Production – nuts and bolts to standard sizes and materials, PCBs to

standard layout, etc (PCB = Printed Circuit Board).

Procedures – stores procedure, quality control procedures etc.

Information – layout of maintenance manuals (ATA100/iSpec 2200),

drawing symbols and layout (BS8888) etc.

Local Standards

Most firms will have standard procedures (published or otherwise) associated

with sales, accountancy, procurement, manufacture etc. In many cases the
firm will adopt national or international standards for these areas.

Manufacturing parts for aircraft, for example, will require documentation

procedures, manufacturing procedures and quality control procedures as
required by the CAA and these will all meet national, European and
international standards.

National and international standards are agreed standards within the industry
they concern. They are not imposed on anyone and any organisation or
individual can ignore them if they/he/she wishes. If the standard is generally
recognised throughout the industry it would be folly to ignore it.

If, for example, when designing an aircraft all the rivets where to be made to
non standard sizes and materials, the rivet manufacturer would have to put
his prices up – putting the price of the aircraft up and possible putting
prospective customers off because of the difficulty of getting spares.

Not to mention the fact that the CAA might not give it a C of A because the
rivets do not conform to the required standards. You can still build the aircraft
– but it may not fly.

Governments, of course, can make standards compulsory.

- 46 -
History (should not be examinable but does give perspective to the issue of
standards)

‘Standards’ are not new. Possible the first attempt at standardisation was in
the area of speech and the writing of music. Later in 1215 the Magna Carta
(signed at Runnymede in the UK) famous for declaring that men can only be
tried by their equals also stated that there should be a standard measure
throughout the realm for ale, wine, corn and cloth.

Engineering standards go back nearly as long, with a flourish in the number of

standards produced coming with the industrial revolution. In 1880 Sir Joseph
Whitworth (of Whitworth screw thread fame) complained about the non
standardisation of candles and candle holders. Initially standards were local to
an area (the Newall system for example, was associated mostly with the North
of England).

Electrical engineers where one of the first to recognise the need for
international standards and in 1906 the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) was founded. Today it is composed of over 40 national
committees with the UK BSI acting for the British IEC committee.

In 1926 the ISA was formed, to be replaced in 1947 (after the war), by the ISO
(International Organisation for Standardisation). ISO is the international
standards agency for all areas except those covered by the IEC.

The ISO promotes the development of international standards from over 90

different national standards authorities with BSI (for the UK) being a leading
member. All authorities have the right of representation on the various
committees.

The European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) was founded in 1961 and
comprises the national bodies of the EU and other European countries. When
CEN publishes European standards they are adopted as national standards by
the countries approving them.

CENELECT is the electrotechnical equivalent of CEN.

National Standards/International Standards

All parts used on aircraft have to conform to either national or international

standards. In some cases a local standard has, because of usage, become a
national standard and sometimes developed later into an international
standard.

- 47 -
The range of standard specifications is vast and growing all the time. Older
(national) standards are being replaced by EN (European) standards and
international (ISO) standards. Listed below are just some that are related to
aircraft engineering (to keep fully abreast of all the changes you are advised to
use the internet):

* AC. Air Corp standard. An older American standard.

* AN. An American Army/Navy standard that is used for many small

parts on aircraft. Tends to be found on older aircraft.

* BSI. British Standards Institute. Used widely in the UK for all

aspects of aircraft engineering including manufacture (eg
aluminium alloy made to BSL86 specification), information (eg
drawings drawn to BS8888 standard).

The BSI has 14 classifications from Commercial to Health and

Safety including Materials, Manufactured Components, Quality
Control etc.

Some further examples:

BS 8888 Engineering drawing practice (was BS308). This

standard is a standard in its own right but also
acts as a reference to other standards, eg:
ISO 128 International standard for the production of
technical drawings.
ISO 7573 Technical drawings – item lists.
ISO Tolerancing.
BS 5070 Drawings – symbols.
ISO 7200 Title blocks and data fields.
BS EN ISO standards cover many areas including
software drawing systems, dimensioning,
tolerancing etc (EN = European Norm).
BS EN 22553 Welding, brazing and soldering symbols.
BS 2917 Symbols for fluid power systems.
BS 3939 Electrical and electronic symbols. Now
withdrawn and replaced with BS EN 60617.
BS EN 60617 Electrical/electronic symbols.
BS EN 20286 Limits and fits.

* DTD. Directorate of Technical Development. An (older) UK based

standard, eg DTD585 – hydraulic fluid.

- 48 -
* MIL. (Military) A US military standard common to all the US
services and used widely for the specification of oils, fuels,
equipments etc on civil aircraft. May be written as MIL-SPEC, MIL-
STD etc.

* MS. Military Standard. American. Example: MS20470 AD 5-12

denotes a rivet (size, shape of head and material).

* NAS. National Aerospace Standard. UK based.

* SBAC. Society of British Aerospace Companies. Specifications

relating to aircraft parts.

* ISO. International Organisation for Standardisation. Has 40 ‘fields’

of interest from Sociology to Domestic Equipment. Of interest to
the aircraft engineer is field 49 (the 40 fields are not numbered
consecutively). This has sub fields on:

Materials
Fasteners
Components
Structure
Engines
Electrical equipment
Instruments
Cabin equipment
Cargo equipment etc.

* ATA. The ATA100/iSpec 2200 system is well known throughout

civil aviation, but less well known are the other standards ATA
produce. ATA is a voluntary US industry agreement association
covering many areas in aviation. Just a few are:

100 Technical data presentation

101 Ground equipment
103 Jet fuel quality
104 Training
105 Training for NDT
106 Approved parts
107 Visual inspection
111 Airworthiness co-ordination
113 Human factors
117 Wiring
2100 Digital standards (now incorporated into ATA iSpec
2200)

- 49 -
Additional standards organisations include (national & international):

AECMA Association Europeene des Constructeurs de Material

Aerospatial
AFNOR French Standards
CEC Canadian Electrical Code
CECC Electronics Components Committee
CGSB Canadian General Standards Board
CSA Canadian Standards Association
DIN German/English Standards
EUROCAE European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
JIS Japanese Standards
SA Standards Australia
VDE Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker
VDI Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure
AN Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Standard Drawings
AND Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Design Standards
DODISS Department of Defence Index of Specifications & Standards
FAA Federal Aviation Administration Standards
FIPS Federal Information Processing Standards
AIA Aerospace Industries Association
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Inc
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

”””””””

- 50 -
Book 7 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1
SHEET METAL-WORK
RIVETING PIPELINES

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1 EASA 66 7.8 7.9 7.14.1 ISSUE 05 0510

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Sheet metal work 1

Bending 1
Riveting 11
The solid riveting process 14
Blind riveting systems 22
Tucker pop rivets 23
Chobert rivets 24
Avdel rivets 25
Cherry rivets 27
Riveting tools 29
Hand operated 29
Power operated 29
Rigid pipelines 33
Pipe installation 42
Local manufacture of pipelines 45
Heat treatments 46
Pipe bending 46
Flexible hose assemblies 50
Testing pipes – general 53
Storage 54
Pipe identification 54
System identification 54
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book only applies to the mechanical person (level 2 for the B1 engineer and level
1 for the A line mechanic – except that the A line mechanic need not know anything
about sheet metal bending – and anyway, he/she should read our module set
specifically written for the A line mechanic.

Most of this book is fairly straightforward and it would help your studies if you could
get to workshops and view the equipment being used. If you can, try and observe the
following processes (you might be involved in them already of-course):

* Sheet metalwork.
* Riveting – any form of riveting, including heat treatments if possible.
* The fitting, testing and manufacturer of pipelines. You might be
lucky on the manufacturer and testing of pipelines as this is not done
much these days at user unit level.

There is a certain amount of overlap in the syllabus between module 6 and this
module (module 7). In general this module deals with the process of riveting and the
making up and maintenance of pipelines and module 6 deals with:

* Rivet heat treatments, types and identification.

* Pipes and unions, types and identification.

In both cases we have kept the information in this book sufficient to be ‘self-standing’
but if you feel you need more details of the above subjects then please refer to the
appropriate book in module 6. For completeness a general description of heat
treatments is included in this book.

Drawings from CAP 562 may no longer be in that publication due to amendment
action by the CAA.
 SHEET METAL-WORK

Any sheet metal-work the aircraft engineer gets involved with is likely to be for
airframe repairs using thin gauge aluminium alloy and sometimes titanium alloy.

The process is normally carried out using the aircraft Structure Repair Manual (SRM)
and the cutting of the sheet material using a guillotine (sometimes pneumatically
powered shears or nibblers) and finishing off to the correct size using a file. It is
important to verify the material specification – with reference to its markings/stores
release certificate. Its gauge is verified using a gap gauge or Standard Wire Gauge.

The material is marked out using a soft pencil, holes are centre-popped (not titanium)
and drilled for rivets etc. On some occasions the metal has to be bent – to a specific
bend radius and to meet specific finished dimensions.

BENDING

This is carried out using bending bars which are supplied as a set with up to 8
different bend radii available. Bending machines are also available but the radius of
bend may not be so accurately controlled.

If the fabricated part involves just one bend then this can be formed with the two
straight sides longer than required. After bending to the correct radius the two
straight sides are then cut and filed to an accurate length. However, if the part needs
two or more bends then careful bend allowance calculations are required together
with careful calculations for the lengths of all the straight sides.

Fig. 1 OVERALL LENGTH

Where sheet metal has to be bent (with more than one bend) to a particular angle and
has to meet a particular size then the overall length of the metal must be calculated
prior to the bending operation being started. To calculate the overall length of the
metal the lengths of the straight sections and the bent sections are calculated
separately and then added together. So there are fundamentally two calculations to
do – one for the bends and one for the straight sections.

-1-
Calculation of Straight Sections

This is not really a calculation as such, it is more a deduction. The process involves
making a good size drawing of the end of the item that is to be fabricated. Put all the
dimensions in accurately (but using freehand will do), and then, by a logical process,
work out the length of each straight section in turn.

Fig. 2 BRACKET - EXAMPLE 1

Example 1 (Bracket figure 2)

The actual drawing (from the SRM for example) you will be working to will show the
length of the two sides and indicate the radius and metal thickness, for example:

Thickness (t) = 2mm

Radius (r) = 5mm (usually always given to the inside of the
bend – but check the drawing).

The Method

1. Make a clear free-hand drawing of the bend showing a large radius the
metal thickness (figure 3).
2. Divide the bracket into straight and curved portions and mark these on
the drawing (as shown A, B and C).
3. Work the straight sections out as follows:
Straight Section A = 30 – (r + t)
= 30 – (5 + 2) = 23mm
Straight Section C = 25 – r
= 25 – 5 = 20mm

Fig. 3 BRACKET - FREE-HAND DRAWING - EXAMPLE 1

-2-
Example 2 (U channel figure 4)

Figure 4 shows the end elevation drawing of a U section channel with the straight (A,
C, E) and curved (B, D) portions marked in. Remember, at this stage we do not know
exactly where they are but they can be marked in as approximations. The drawing will
give values of t and r and all dimensions are in inches.

t = 0.064in
r = 0.25in

Fig. 4 U CHANNEL - DRAWING - EXAMPLE 2

Deducing the straight sections gives:

Straight section A = 2.5 – r

= 2.5 – 0.25 = 2.25in
Straight section C = 3 – (2r + 2t)
= 3 – (0.25 +0.25 + 0.064 + 0.064)
= 3 – 0.628
= 2.372in
Straight section E = section A, which equals 2.25in.

So we now know the length of all the straight sections. The above process can be
applied to a fixture with any number of bends such as Z sections (2 bends and 3
straight sections) top hat sections (four bends and five straight sections) etc. The
length of the bends is calculated using a formula.

Calculation of the Length of Bend Material

To calculate the circumference of a circle of radius r the formula 2πr is used.

To calculate the length of the circumference to go round a part of a circle the formula:
2πr times the angle is used.
360

= 2πrθ
360 where θ = the angle of the bend in degrees.

-3-
Because the radius is always given to the inside of the bend and because the inside
part of the metal contracts during the bending operation we have to calculate our
material length to the centre of the metal, so we have to add on half the thickness (½t)
to the radius in the formula. The formula now becomes:

2π(r + ½t) θ
360

This will calculate the amount of material to go round any bend given that:

π = 3.142
r = inside bend radius
t = metal thickness
θ = the amount in degrees that the metal is bent through.

Should the bend radius be given to the outside of the bend (rare) then ½t has to be
taken away from the radius.

Figure 5 shows the Mean Bend Line or Neutral Line or Neutral Axis of the metal.

Note that when the metal is bent the metal on the inside of the bend is compressed
(put under a compressive force) and the metal on the outside of the bend is stretched
(put under a tensile force).

The Mean Bend Line is a line that neither stretches nor compresses during the
bending process. It is taken as the centre of the metal, which may not be strictly true
depending on how the metal behaves in tension and compression – but it is more
than accurate enough for bending calculations. For many metals it is in fact 0.455t
from the inside of the bend.

Fig. 5 MEAN BEND LINE

Example 3 (figure 6)

Calculate the amount of material required to form the bend shown in figure 6.
Note. Where an angle of bend is not given it is assumed to be 90°.

-4-
 Fig. 6 EXAMPLE 3

Formula 2π(r + ½t)θ

360

= 2 x 3.142 (0.25 + 0.032) 90°

360°

= 2 x 3.142 x 0.282 (the 90° and the 360° cancel out

4 to 4 on the bottom line – and the
2 and 4 will now cancel to 2 on
the bottom line, and the 2 will
cancel with the 3.142 to give
1.571 x 0.282 on the top line)
= 0.443in

This means that the amount of metal we need to complete the bend is 0.443in from
the beginning to the end of the bend.

To Find the Complete Length of the Metal

1. Deduce all the straight sections.

2. Calculate the amount of bend material for each bend using the formula.
3. Add all the straight section lengths to all the bend section lengths to find
the total length of metal before bending.

Example 4 (figure 7)

Calculate the total length of material required to construct the bracket shown in
figure 7 (t = 2mm and r = 5mm). All dimensions are in mm and note that the drawing
is not to scale or proportion. Note also the ‘generous’ bend radii shown – to give a
clearer picture of what is happening.

-5-
 Fig. 7 BRACKET - EXAMPLE 4

Straight section A = 80 – (r + t)
= 80 – (2 + 5)
= 80 – 7
= 73mm

Bend section B (= D = F) = 2π(r + ½t)θ

360

= 2 x 3.142 (5 + 1)90
360
= 9.42mm

Straight section C = 50 – (2t + 2r)

= 50 – (2 x 2 + 2 x 5)
= 36mm

Straight section E = 30 – (2t + 2r)

= 30 – (2 x 2 + 2 x 5)
= 16mm

Straight section G = 30 – (t + r)
= 30 – (5 + 2)
= 23mm

Adding the lengths = 73.00 Straight section A

9.42 Bend section B
36.00 Straight section C
9.42 Bend section D
16.00 Straight section E
9.42 Bend section F
23.00 Straight section G
Total length = 176.26mm

-6-
So now we can go ahead and mark out the metal (with a pencil in the case of Al Alloy)
to show the beginning and end of each section, and cut the metal to it’s correct total
length (176.26mm).

Figure 8 shows the individual lengths marked on the metal. Note that the lengths
must be marked as accurately as possible using a rule and fine pencil and for clarity
it is best to mark the beginning and ends of bends as a short line near the edge of the
metal. When the Sighting Lines are drawn in these are taken right across the metal.

After marking all the lengths the metal can be cut to size and squared using a file if
necessary.

To bend the metal around the correct radius, Bend Bars are used. These are square
bars of solid steel with a different radius of bend on each edge. The metal to be bent is
clamped between two of these bars and hammered with a hammer and block of wood
to bend it over the correct bend radius.

The question now is how do we place the metal in the bending machine/bend bars so
that when it is bent we know that each bend starts and finishes exactly where drawn?
The answer lies in the use of a sighting line.

The Sighting Line

This is taken as 1 radius (the radius specified in the drawing – in this case 5mm)
measured from the beginning or the end of the bend – but whichever end it is
measured from that part of the metal goes into the bend bars.

The metal is positioned in the bend bars so that the sighting line aligns with the top of
the bend bar (figure 9).

Correct sighting line position can be checked by sighting across the top of the bend
bars or using a locally made-up pointer that rests on the bend bar and the metal
moved to align the sighting line with the pointer. Accurate alignment is essential. The
bend bars can now be clamped and the metal bent knowing that the beginning and
end bend lines are exactly at the beginning and end of the bend as calculated and
drawn.

blank

-7-
Fig. 8 EXAMPLE 4 - MARKED LENGTHS

Fig. 9 THE SIGHTING LINE

-8-
The Sighting Line is also known in some American books as the Brake Line.

QUESTION Why is all marking-out carried out in pencil (except for cut lines on Al
alloys? (2 mins)

ANSWER Aluminium alloys are notch sensitive, which means that a scratch,
notch, or scribe line will quickly develop into a crack when under
load, which will lead to failure. So scribers are not to be used.

Heat Treatments

Some metals may be heat treatable to make them more malleable so that the bending
operation can be made easier.

Steels can be annealed to soften them prior to bending and then further heat treated
afterwards to suit the final required condition.

Aluminium alloys may be annealed (checked the specification document for actual
temperatures, soaking times etc) prior to bending. Annealing makes the metal soft
and malleable to be worked on but the metal must not be left in this state as it is
prone to corrosion and is weak. Annealed Al Alloys are usually Solution treated after
final working (but check their specification document).

Solution treated Al Alloys are not as soft as when annealed and can be bent within 2
hours of treatment.

Minimum Bend Radii

The minimum bend radius that a metal may be bent around will depend on its:

* Thickness.
* Specification.
* Heat treatment.

The minimum bend radius can range from one times the metal thickness (standard O
temper) to three times (standard T3 temper) to 10 times the metal thickness. (The
standard temper is a heat treatment designation.)

Comprehensive tables are listed in various publications and produced as workshop

charts or standard tables and the reader is directed to these for more detailed
information.

It is important to note that the metal must never be bent over a radius smaller than
the minimum bend radius specified.

After any bending operation it is important to inspect the bend for any signs of
cracking – if found the part should be scrapped.

-9-
Spring-back

When bending it is often necessary to ‘lift’ the metal slightly in the bend bars after
forming it to the original shape of the bend bars, to counteract the tendency for it to
‘spring-back’ – ie not bent down to exactly 90°. When using a bending machine it is
usual to bend the metal slightly passed the required angle to allow for spring back.

When using bend bars the clamping bolts are loosened and the metal raised slightly.
The bolts are re-tightened and the metal bent slightly past the 90° position – so that it
springs back to 90°.

Some Technical Considerations

A Mould Line (American spelling - Mold) is an imaginary line formed by taking a flat
plane extension from the flat surfaces either side of the bend. Where these planes
meet is called a Mould Line. On an orthographic drawing this shows as a point (Mould
Point) (figure 10).

BEGINNING & END

OF BEND LINES
(TANGENT LINES)

SETBACK
(R + T)

MOULD
LINE

SETBACK (R + T)
MOULD POINT

Fig. 10 SHEET METAL BENDING

Mould points or lines are positions where measurements can be taken from.

Setback is a term used to indicate the distance from a tangent line (the start or end of
a bend) to the mould line measured from the outside of the bend.

When considering bends that are not at 90° then taking actual measurements of
straight and curved sections (tangent lines) is difficult.

Standard bend allowance charts are published which gives the values for bend
allowance for various metal thickneses and bend radii.

Before commencing any bend draw a clear drawing on a piece of paper and draw in
the tangent lines (beginning and end of bends) and the sighting lines. Do the same on
the metal but, for clarity, only draw the sighting lines right across the metal. The
beginning and end of bend lines are only drawn a short distance at either edge of the
metal.

- 10 -
 RIVETING

Riveting is a semi permanent form of joining material together and may be divided
into three categories:

1. Solid rivets.
2. Blind rivets.
3. Special rivets/fasteners/blind bolting.

Rivets are used extensively on aircraft to secure the various items or components
built up from sheet metal or metal tubes. Rivets are less expensive, lighter in weight
and more rapidly fastened than bolts, but have the disadvantage of not being suitable
for tensile loads, ie loads which tend to pull off the heads. They are supplied with one
head already formed; the other head being formed by hand operated or machine tools.

While the rivets can be identified by their colour, markings or magnetic properties, the
only positive identification is by reference to the specification number or the
stores/reference number on the packet containing them. Remember, they must come
from an approved supplier, in labelled packets and accompanied by suitable
documentation (EASA form 1 etc).

Solid Rivets

These need access to both sides of the material being joined during the forming
process. They have a good strength/weight ratio but require skill to form. They are
water and airtight and are less expensive than other rivet types. They are strong in
shear but not so strong in tension. Both British and American rivets are identified by
head or shank end markings except where a material is easily identified by its weight
or natural colour. Certain British rivets are coloured all over for ease of identification
(see module 6).

Blind Rivets

These require access to one side of the material only. They are more expensive and
require special equipment to form. Some are not water or airtight and some are
weaker than solid rivets. They require less skill to form.

Special Rivets/Fasteners/Blind Bolting

There is a wide range of special fasteners and many are a cross between a rivet and a
nut and bolt assembly. Most can be used in the ‘blind mode’. Usually more expensive
than blind rivets. Generally stronger in tension and shear and most require special
tools to form.

Selection of Rivets

When carrying out a repair it is important to select the correct rivet. It must be the
correct size, shape of head and material. Check the specific repair drawing in the
repair manual or check the repair specification for the type of rivet to use.

- 11 -
When ordering the rivets from stores it is important to check the correct rivet
specification be reference to the stores specification label on the packet of rivets or the
EASA form 1.

The shear strength of rivets used is not the only factor which determines the strength
of a riveted joint. Generally, if the thickness of the sheets is less than half the
diameter of the rivets used, failure of the joint will depend on the bearing stress rather
than on the shear stress of the rivets.

In the absence of specific instructions 3/32” (2.4mm) rivets should be used for 24 and
22 swg (Standard Wire Gauge) material, 1/8” (3.2mm) rivets for 20 and 18 swg and
5/32” (4mm) for 16 swg. If rivets of reduced diameter have to be substituted during
repair work, the total number of rivets must be increased to provide an equivalent
cross-sectional area.

Where 22 swg and thinner material is used and there are no specific instructions
regarding repair after a rivet failure, the substitution of mushroom headed rivets for
snap head rivets should be considered.

When British rivets have to be used in American-built aircraft, rivets of the material
with the nearest equivalent shear strength to the material of the original American
rivets should be used. If the available British rivets have lower shear strengths than
the American rivets either the total number of rivets should be increased or rivets of a
larger diameter should be used to make the strength of the joint not less than it was
originally. However, an increase in the size of the rivets does not necessarily increase
the strength of the join. If the rivet sizes are increased beyond a certain amount, a
reduction in strength will result due to the amount of material removed from the
metals to be joined.

Note: Where the Structure Repair Manual (SRM) cannot be adhered to, permission will
be required from the chief engineer of the company, or the manufacturer of the
aircraft to carry out any ‘non-standard’ work.

Countersinking

When countersunk rivets are to be used, there are two methods of accommodating
the rivet head to ensure a flush fit. Cut-countersinking is employed where sheet
thickness is greater than the depth of the rivet head, but for thinner sheets dimpling
is used. Where sheets of different thicknesses are joined together it may be found that
both methods are used, the thin sheet being dimpled into the cut-countersunk
thicker sheet.

Cut-Countersinking

The table shows the minimum sheet thickness which may be countersunk for
particular rivet diameters and is applicable where 100° and 120° countersunk head
rivets are used.

Where special rivets are used the aircraft manufacturer may specify a different
minimum sheet thickness and when oversize rivets are being fitted it may be
recommended that the rivet heads are milled in preference to further countersinking –
but check the SRM.

- 12 -
 Rivet Diameter (in) 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4

Minimum Sheet Thickness (swg) 18 16 14 12

TABLE 1 MINIMUM SHEET THICKNESS FOR COUNTERSINKING

Special countersinking tools should be used for cut-countersinking. The tools should
have a centralising spigot and an adjustable depth stop which will limit the depth of
cut. The rivet head should be very slightly proud of the work before riveting and end
up flush with the surrounding metal. This can be set by trial drilling scrap material,
riveting up and checking the results.

Aircraft manufacturers usually specify a tolerance on head protrusion after riveting

and this is usually of the order of 0.005” (0.13mm) maximum above the skin surface.
The rivet head should not be below the skin surface.

Milling

For countersunk rivets the level of the head should be sufficiently flat with the
surrounding metal once formed that no milling is required. However some training
publications suggest that this be done. In some American publications the process is
called Shaving. The author has only seen the process of milling used to machine off
the protruding shank of blind rivets such as Avdel rivets and countersunk rivets are
always fitted correctly so that milling is not required.

Dimpling

This is a process for indenting thin sheet material (not normally thicker than 16 swg)
around a drilled hole to accommodate a countersunk rivet. If correctly formed,
dimpling has a beneficial effect on the strength of a joint, but the method of dimpling
must be related to the ductility of the material to prevent over stressing and cracking.

Fig. 11 DIMPLING DIES

- 13 -
A pilot hole is drilled to accept the pilot of the male dimpling tool. The female die is
supported in a vice or by a large block and the male die pilot is passed through the
pilot and into the female die. The male die is pressed or hammered into the female die
and the plates are formed into a countersink. Once the plates are formed to the
correct angle (angle of the dies) the correct size drill is used for the hole.

The plates are separated, cleaned, jointing compound applied, and are re-assembled
and riveted in the usual way.

Some metals are dimpled using heated dies.

To ensure correct seating, countersunk head rivets should always be installed in

dimples or countersunk holes of the same angle as the rivet head. Rivets with
countersunk heads of 70° or 82° included angle are often used in positions where
sealing is of primary importance, such as in integral fuel tanks.

With these rivets care is necessary to ensure that the correct rivets are used.

Fig. 12 DIMPLED PLATES

THE SOLID RIVETING PROCESS

Usually carried out by two people; one person putting the rivet in the hole and using a
pneumatic hammer and dolly or block on the manufacturer’s head and the other
person on the other side of the plates to be joined using a reaction block/snap to form
the other head.

Rivet Allowance

The allowance is the length of the shank of the rivet protruding through the plates
which is to be formed into the rivet head; it is stated as a multiple of the rivet
diameter (D). The allowance varies according to the shape of the head to be formed
and the material from which the rivet is made (the softer the metal, the greater the
allowance). In general allowances are:

Snaphead 1.5D
Re-action head 1D to 1.5D
Countersunk head 0.75D
Tubular rivet 0.5D
Blind rivets Consult rivet manufacturer’s tables for the
‘grip range’ for a particular rivet.

- 14 -
In general, the more plates a rivet has to go through, the larger the allowance. Before
doing any repair work on an aircraft it is a good idea to assemble the correct number
of sheets (the same as those on the aircraft) out of scrap pieces, clamp them in a vice,
drill a few holes and try some practice riveting. Experiments can be carried out to
ascertain the best allowance.

Tables of allowances are also provided for different types of head and material
thickness.

Rivet Clearance

This is the difference between the size of the hole and the rivet diameter; rivet holes
are normally drilled about 0.003in (0.08mm) to 0.012in (0.3mm) oversize using a
clearance drill. Clearance is necessary, particularly with light alloys, to prevent
puckering of the sheets owing to the metal spreading when the rivet head is formed.
Without clearance it would also be difficult to place the rivet in the hole. Table 2 gives
the drill sizes which are used for solid rivets.

Diameter of rivet 3/32” 1/8” 5/32” 3/16” 1/4”

Size of drill (mm) 2.5 3.25 4.05 4.85 6.4
Size of drill (in) 0.098 0.128 0.159 0.189 0.256
Drill size number 40 30 21 11 6.4mm

TABLE 2 CLEARANCE DRILL SIZES

The sizes of some (smaller) drills are indicated on the shank by a number and on the
larger drill by a letter.

The numbering system ranges from the smallest (number 80) at 0.0135” diameter to
number 1 at 0.228” diameter. Lettering ranges from A at 0.234” to Z at 0.413” (E for
example is a ¼” drill). After that they are size designated.

Drilling the Hole/s

* Mark out the plates using a rule and pencil.

* Centre pop at the intersection of the marking out lines using a centre-
punch. Do not centre-punch titanium as this can locally enbrittle the
metal.
* For large rivets use a pilot drill first.
* Use normal (relatively high) drill speeds and feeds for aluminium alloys
and slower speeds and feeds for titanium and stainless steels. For
stainless steel use a suitable cutting oil as a lubricant/coolant.
* Drill point angles should be: general work 118°; stainless steel, hard
steels, titanium alloys 135° and hard plastics 90°.
* Remember to use the holes in the first plate as a template to drill the
second plate, or drill through both plates together.
* Hold the plates together using gripping pins or panel pins.
* On completion dismantle the plates, de-burr and clean.
* Reassemble using jointing compound.

- 15 -
Forming a Snap-head Rivet

The riveter must obtain the assistance of another person to support the rivet in the
dolly while the actual riveting is being done. To close a snaphead rivet to join two
plates proceed as follows:

1. Drill the correct size clearance holes (see above).

2. Dismantle the plates and with a large drill fitted with a wooden
handle remove the burrs from the holes (or use a de-burring tool).
3. After ensuring all swarf is removed, re-assemble the plates using jointing
compound and grip together using gripping pins. (Instead of gripping
pins some firms use a small spring loaded clamp called a Cleco. These
are inserted using special pliers).
4. Insert a rivet of the correct length. (Do not cut and file long rivets to
length if the correct length rivet is available; it is time consuming and
almost certain that the size of the rivet heads formed will vary – and the
end may not be exactly square which makes riveting very difficult).

Fig. 13 HAND FORMING A SNAP-HEAD RIVET

5. Check the dolly and snap for correct size and condition. One person
supports the rivet head in the dolly with the dolly held in a dolly holder
(a heavy steel bar that absorbs the hammer blows). The riveter places
the Set-up over the shank of the rivet and gives it a light tap with a
hammer to bring the plates close together and to ensure the rivet head
in the dolly is tight up against the face of the plate. Remove the set-up
and check the allowance.

- 16 -
 6. The riveter gives the end of the rivet one or two heavy blows with the
hammer/pneumatic hammer to swell the shank in the hole. Using the
snap and hammer the riveter forms the rivet head to the correct shape
(see figure 13). (Try to use fewer heavier hammer blows rather than
many lighter ones as the latter method tends to work harden the rivet.)

Note. The drawing shows a hammer being used but a pneumatic hammer is
usually used fitted with the correct size snap.

7. Remove snap and dolly and inspect the rivet head to see that the
manufacturer’s head has seated correctly and the manufactured head
has a small flat around the base. Check that the plates are not marked
and there are no faults (see below). If there are the rivet will have to be
replaced.

Riveting Faults

The chief causes of faulty riveting are (refer figure 14):

(a) Too much allowance producing a deformed head.

(b) Too little allowance producing a small head and damaged plates.
(c) Dolly not straight causing damage to bottom plate.
(d) Snap not straight causing damage to top plate.
(e) Hole drilled too large. Too much clearance producing a small head.
(f) Incorrect dolly or snap causing damage to plates/head.
(g) Plates not closed properly causing small head and weak joint.
(h) Head in shear causing weak rivet.
(i) Shank of rivet not perpendicular to plate prior to riveting, due to hole
not being drilled at right angles to the surface of the plates (not in
the figure).
(j) Holes out of line due to insufficient grippers (gripping pins) (not in the
figure).

blank

- 17 -
 Fig. 14 RIVETING FAULTS

Removal of Solid Rivets

When removing rivets, care must be taken to avoid damage to the plates, particularly
if it is thin sheet. To remove a solid rivet proceed as follows:

1. If the manufacturer’s head is a snap head, file a small flat the head (it is
more likely to be central than the formed head).
2. Support the rivet in a dolly and centre-pop the centre of the flat with
a centre punch.
3. Drill the head off using a drill the same size as the rivet shank (eg 1/8”
drill for a one eighth rivet). The normal drill size for a hole for a 1/8”
rivet would be a clearance drill – 3.25mm). CAAIPs also states this but
some American publications state the drill size to be that used to drill
the hole – in this example 3.25mm.
4. Drill the head to a depth slightly greater than the thickness of the
rivet head. The head will come off the shank at this point and stay on
the drill bit (figure 15).
5. Support the work locally to prevent buckling of the plates (a piece of
hardwood drilled with a hole larger in diameter than the rivet head will
do).

- 18 -
 Fig. 15 REMOVING A SOLID RIVET - 1

6. Normal practice is to lightly tap the shank out with a hammer and
parallel pin punch (figure 16). The diameter of the pin punch should be
slightly smaller than the diameter of the rivet. CAIPs (now old and out of
date) state that the head is to be chiselled off and the drill size is to be
slightly smaller that the rivet shank diameter. (Chiselling the head off
will almost certainly cause damage to the aircraft skin and never used
on my aircraft [author]).

If you get a question on a CAA examination on this subject do read it

carefully – and if it is ambiguous let the CAA know. (Note. CAAIPs are
published by the CAA and CAIPs were published by the CAA but have
long since been withdrawn.)

Fig. 16 REMOVING A SOLID RIVET - 2

Blind rivets are removed in much the same way except that they have a tendency to
spin in the hole when being drilled. Careful holding from the rear with pliers or an
ice-pick held on an exposed portion of the head by a second person might do the
trick.

Removing rivets successively is not an easy task and can lead to an enlarged rivet
hole. This makes fitting a replacement rivet of the same size almost impossible. Ideally
the hole should be drilled to the next size up and an oversize rivet fitted – if allowed in
the SRM.

Joints

The position of rivets relative to one another and the edge of the sheet is important.
The rivets must not be too close together or the excessive number of holes will weaken
the joint.

- 19 -
They must not be too far apart or there will be too few to take the load. Rivets must
not be too near the edge of the sheet or they will tear through the metal when the
joint is under load. The distance from the centre of the rivet to the edge of the sheet is
termed ‘rivet landing’.

The usual minimum distances are as follows:

* Pitch. Distance between rivets in the same row - 4D.

* Land. Distance from centre of rivet to edge of sheet. Sometimes called
Edge Distance - 2D.
* Spacing. Distance between centre lines of rivet rows - 3 to 4D.

‘D’ = rivet shank diameter.

Figure 17 shows three typical methods of lap joint riveting. The first shows a single
chain lap joint used on lightly loaded members. The second method gives greater
strength for more heavily loaded members. The third method is strong and is used
where strength and water tightness are required.

Note: The distance the rivets are spaced is related to the Sphere of Influence (S of I)
of the rivet and the SRM will specify all dimensions. Note also the joggled joint in
figure 17 – this provides for a more aerodynamic finish where the plates join.

Fig. 17 RIVETED JOINTS

- 20 -
Reaction Riveting

Solid rivets may be closed by the reaction method.

In reaction riveting, the pre-formed head (manufacturer’s head) of the rivet receives
the blows. The snap (for a snap-head rivet) or flat punch (for a countersunk rivet) is
held against the manufacturer’s head and struck with the hammer/pneumatic
hammer) while a flat metal Reaction Block (Bucking Bar) is held lightly against the
end of the shank of the rivet (figure 18).

Fig. 18 REACTION RIVETING

The block can be any convenient size or shape (in general the heavier the better), but
the face held against the rivet must be smooth and flat.

The action of hammering the snap causes the reaction block to react against the rivet
shank, thus swelling the shank and forming a barrel shaped head on the shank end
of the rivet. The depth of the finished head should not be less than 0.5D and its
diameter should be about 1.5D.

This is a common form of riveting using one person with the pneumatic hammer and
another person on the bucking bar. On the production line two people can place rivets
at a rate of up to about 12 a minute (in sheets already drilled and ready for riveting)
with one person inside the fuselage and the other outside.

Rivet Squeezers

These may be pneumatically powered, hand operated, fixed or portable. They squeeze
the rivet into its final shape and hence have a strong frame and anvil to go around the
edge of the metal to support the other side of the rivet. Can only be used near a free
edge of the metal to be joined (within a few inches) so have limited use.

Heat Treatment of Rivets

Rivets can only be heat treated when specified in the rivet specification and there is
only one heat treatment available – that is Solution Treatment. The temperatures and
methods of cooling are specified in the rivet specification (see module 6).

- 21 -
QUESTION Where would you find the rivet specification? (2 mins)

ANSWER Any good technical (or sometimes non-technical) library.

The best way of heating the rivets is in a thermostatically controlled electrically

heated oven, though a salt bath can be used.

The following is an example of the solution treatment of a heat treatable rivet. For a
specific case you must consult the specification for that rivet material.

Heat the rivets (in a wire basket) to a temperature of 495 + 5°C for a period (soaking
time) of 15 minutes.

Remove the rivets and quench in cool water. Wash thoroughly if heated in a salt bath.
The rivet will commence to ‘age harden’ (get stronger and harder) but can be used
within 2 hours of treatment. Some rivets must be used within 20 minutes (consult the
specification).

Age hardening may be delayed by refrigeration (ice-box rivets), eg if the rivets are
placed in a fridge at -20°C immediately after treatment and washing they can be kept
for up to 150 hours before they must be used – or re-heat treated.

Use within 2 hours of removal from cold storage. Never put rivets back into cold storage
once removed.

If the rivets are not used within the prescribed time they can be re-treated to a
maximum of 3 times.

Note. A container with dry ice (-105°F) can be used in place of a freezer (some
workshops the author has visited use a domestic top loading freezer set at the coldest
temperature).

BLIND RIVETING SYSTEMS

These are rivets that need access to one side of the metal only and are sometimes
called pull-through rivets.

There is a wide range of blind riveting systems used in the aircraft industry – each
has its own special advantages and disadvantages. They all require special tools and
procedures to fit but the general procedure is as follows:

1. Drill the correct size hole (clearance drill) (see above).

2. Check total thickness (grip length) of the materials to be joined.
3. Select correct size of rivet. The length is related to the ‘grip range’ of
the rivet as stated in the rivet manufacturer’s literature.
4. Select correct forming tool and load rivet/rivet mandrel.
5. Operate tool – which may be hand operated or power operated. Form
rivet in hole and inspect.

- 22 -
Grip Length

This is ascertained using a special tool placed in the hole in the plates to be riveted.
Normally supplied by the rivet manufacture and applies to a specific type of rivet
(figure 19). It is placed in the hole of the plates to be riveted and pulled back to hold
the lip on the metal. The grip length is then read off the scale.

Fig. 19 GRIP RANGE TOOL

Most rivets have a grip range – that is a rivet will have a range of grip lengths that it
will be suitable for.

TUCKER POP RIVETS

Each rivet is supplied complete with a mandrel (which looks like a nail) and can be
formed by hand using Lazy Tongs or Cranked Pliers or may be formed using power
tools. They are a hollow, pull through, non plug-able rivet but may be sealed against
the weather. The procedure to form the rivet is:

1. Select the correct tool with the correct size collet (nose) and correct size
jaws for the size of the rivet.
2. Check rivet specification, diameter and grip range and insert the
mandrel into the jaws of the tool.
3. Place the rivet into the (previously drilled) hole.
4. Hold the tool firmly against the material and square to the surface being
riveted. Operate the tool. The head of the mandrel will try to pull
through the rivet so closing the rivet and breaking off.

The mandrel can be of two types; Break-head or Break-stem. The break-head type
allows the broken head to fall out of the formed rivet. The break-stem type has a
waisted shank and breaks below the head, thus the broken head portion is trapped in
the rivet. This type is used where it is impossible to retrieve the broken off head of the
mandrel.

A sealed type tucker pop rivet is supplied for use in pressure cabin construction.

Note. Broken mandrel stems, swarf, rivet heads and shanks etc, which are discarded
during the repair operation, must be cleaned up using a vacuum cleaner.

The rivet will not be as strong as a solid rivet or the more sophisticated blind riveting
systems available, but it is cheap and easy to use. Sealants may be used for
weatherproofing.

- 23 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 20 FORMING A TUCKER POP RIVET

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 21 FORMING A SEALED TUCKER POP RIVET

CHOBERT RIVETS

Supplied in snaphead or countersunk form. These rivets have a tapered inner hole for
the mandrel to pass through, the mandrel does not break but is re-used many times.
The rivets are supplied without the mandrel with the steel mandrel being supplied
separately. The rivet is a hollow pull through plug-able type rivet.

The mandrel may be designed to form rivets singly, but more often it is long (nearly
12” – 305mm) and can be loaded with many rivets.

The mandrel is pulled through the rivet by a special riveting tool. A magazine type
riveting tool is available which carries a number of rivets end-to-end on the long
mandrel, thus avoiding time in threading rivets individually after each closing. This
tool can close many rivets with just the one loading. (See the book in this series on
hand powered tools).

- 24 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 22 FORMING A CHOBERT RIVET

Chobert rivets can have the same strength as solid rivets (by using a sealing pin) and
the general forming process is as follows:

1. Check grip range and size of rivet.

2. Check the steel mandrel that it has not worn beyond limits. Go and Not-
Go gauges are supplied for this – if not available use a micrometer
checking with the manufacturer’s instructions.
3. Thread rivet/s onto mandrel – tail first (rivets are often supplied already
pre-packed head-to-tail in long sealed wrappers – once threaded onto
the mandrel, the wrapper is removed).
4. Insert mandrel into jaws of forming tool (opening the front jaws and
locking the end of the mandrel in the rear jaws).
5. Place rivet in hole and operate tool. The front jaws are powered forward
and will push the first rivet over the tapered end of the mandrel, forming
the rivet. On its return the front jaws will open to pass over the head of
the next rivet and spring closed behind the head – ready for forming the
next rivet.
6. To seal the rivet and/or to increase the shear strength, lightly tap a
sealing pin into the hole using a hammer. These sealing pins are
supplied (figure 22).

AVDEL RIVETS

These rivets are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem
(mandrel). The mandrel is pulled into the body to close the rivet and, at a
predetermined tensile load, breaks proud of the manufactured head, leaving part of
the stem inside the body in the form of a plug. They are a hollow self-plugging rivet
with some types having friction lock stems and others having self-locking stems.

Excess stem material is nipped off with end cutters and then milled (shaved) flush
with an end miller (stainless steel and titanium rivet stems break flush with the rivet
head and milling is not necessary). The action of closing an Avdel rivet is shown in
figure 23.

- 25 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 23 FORMING AN AVDEL FRICTION LOCK RIVET

Avdel rivet mandrels are lubricated by the manufacturer and on no account should
the rivets be cleaned or lubricated before use.

The shear strength of Avdel rivets (as with most self-plugging rivets) is similar to that
of solid rivets.

To check that the mandrel of the friction lock stem is a firm fit in the rivet after
milling a spring-loaded pin tester is used (the spring provides about a 15lb force). If
the mandrel pushes out the rivet must be drilled out and a new one fitted.

An improved version of the original Avdel rivet is available called the MBC Avdel rivet
(figures 24 and 25). It:

(a) Locks itself into the hole using a locking ring or collar, and
(b) Breaks flush with the surface so no milling is required.

Fig. 24 MBC AVDEL RIVET

- 26 -
 Fig. 25 FORMING AN MBC AVDEL RIVET

CHERRY RIVETS

These are similar to the MBC Avdel rivet. They are a pull-through self-locking stem
type rivets and several different types are available. During the final stages of forming
a locking collar, located in a recess in the rivet head, is forced into a groove in the
stem and prevents the stem from further movement.

After forming the stem protrudes slightly above the rivet head and this excess, plus
part of the locking collar, may be milled off to provide a flush finish.

Fig. 26 CHERRYMAX RIVET

- 27 -
 Fig. 27 FORMING A CHERRYMAX RIVET

Fig. 28 FORMING A CHERRYLOCK RIVET

Figure 27 shows the forming of a Cherrymax rivet. The main differences from the
original Cherry rivet are that a driving anvil (fitted to the stem) causes the locking
collar to be forced into a recess in the stem and the rivet thereby locking the stem in
place, and there is not a requirement to mill the stem flush.

Cherry rivets are identified by a four figure number followed by a figure indicting the
diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch and a further figure indicating the maximum
grip length in sixteenths of an inch. For example, CR 2162-3-6 refers to a Cherry rivet
in aluminium alloy, with a countersunk head and standard stem, 3/32” (2.4mm)
diameter and a maximum grip length of 3/8” (9.5mm).

Blind rivets are installed using hand or power-operated tools and it is important that
the tools are fitted with the correct type of head for the particular size and type of
rivet. Details are normally supplied by either the rivet or tool manufacturer.

- 28 -
 RIVETING TOOLS

HAND OPERATED

For forming solid rivets these include hammers, set-ups, dollies, dolly holders,
bucking bars, snaps etc. There are some tools available for use with blind rivets but
these are normally confined to tucker pop rivets and include lazy tongs, riveting pliers
etc.

Fig. 29 HAND RIVETING PLIERS

POWER OPERATED

These are almost all air operated, which is safer as there is no possibility of sparks
which could occur if electrically powered tools were used.

Pneumatic Riveting Hammers

Used for closing (forming) solid rivets and come in a variety of shapes and sizes. In
general air pressure (adjusted to about 60psi – but check with instructions supplied
with the tool) causes a steel plunger to move up and down inside a barrel. As it does
so it strikes a rivet snap secured in the end by a retaining spring.

As the plunger moves backwards and forwards so it causes a slid valve to move in the
appropriate direction reversing the air supply to the barrel and causing the plunger to
move in the opposite direction, so a reciprocating action takes place.

Fig. 30 PNEUMATIC HAMMER

- 29 -
The kinetic energy in the plunger is transferred to the snap, which in turn transfers it
to the rivet. The rivet converts this energy into strain energy by deforming – hopefully
into the correct shape (skill is required).

Do not operate the gun without the snap being restrained by pushing it onto a surface
(a supported block of wood or the actual rivet to be worked on). This would prevent
the possibility of the snap from flying through the air in the unlikely event of the
retaining spring becoming loose.

It is always advisable to do some test riveting with the hammer on some scrap
material before actual use on the aircraft. This allows for improvement in technique,
adjustment of air pressure and the checking of rivet allowance etc.

Maintenance includes checking the retaining spring for security and serviceability,
operation of the unit and the application of a few drops of thin oil in the air inlet
before use each day.

Riveting Guns

There are many different types of riveting guns available and it would not be possible
to try and cover them all in this book. Two have been chosen as examples to give you
some idea as to the range available.

The Avdel Riveter and Intensifier (Figure 31)

This equipment can be used to form rivets such as Avdel, Chobert etc, depending on
the type of front assembly fitted to the gun. The intensifier is supplied with air
pressure up to 80psi and this pressure is increased considerably by a hydraulic
intensifier.

When the button on the gun is operated air is allowed out from one side of the
intensifier piston. The piston moves across forcing the oil piston into the oil cylinder.
This creates hydraulic pressure to the gun to cause the piston to move rearwards,
locking the jaws and pulling the rivet mandrel rearwards – thus forming the rivet.

Maintenance includes regular checks on the hydraulic fluid reservoir, and checks for
leaks and correct operation.

blank

- 30 -
 Fig. 31 AVDEL RIVETER & INTENSIFIER

The Chobert Repetition Riveter (Figure 32)

This operates at air pressures between 60 to 80psi and because it is multi-pistoned it

does not require an intensifier (the 3 pistons give it 3 times the force than just one).

It is a repetition riveter and will form up to 50 rivets on one loading.

The long (12.5” [317mm]) steel mandrel is loaded with the rivets (supplied packeted
in-line ready to load). The loaded mandrel is fed through the front jaw assembly
(which is opened by hand) and locked at the rear by the rear jaw assembly. The front
jaw assembly is allowed to snap shut behind the head of the first rivet.

Note. It is important to check that the rivets are threaded onto the mandrel the
correct way (tails towards the mandrel head) before removing the wrapping from
around the rivets. If the rivets are found to be fitted the wrong way round and the
wrapping removed they have to be re-threaded onto the mandrel individually.

When the riveter is operated air pressure pushes the barrel forward forcing the end
rivet over the tapered head of the mandrel so forming the rivet.

When the trigger is released the barrel moves back; the line of rivets are prevented
from moving back by a ‘one-way’ device called a cursor and the front jaw assembly is
forced over the head of the next rivet to snap shut behind it ready for it to be formed.

Maintenance includes checking the head of the mandrel for wear. This is done using a
GO NOT-GO gauge supplied with the tool, or a micrometer with reference to the
manufacturer’s literature. Worn mandrels are scrapped.

- 31 -
 Fig. 32 CHOBERT REPETITION RIVETER

Millers

These are similar in principle to the pneumatically operated windy drill except that
they are fitted with an adjustable milling head instead of a chuck.

Two steadying legs allow accurate milling and the head is adjustable. Several ‘test-
mills’ should be carried out on a test piece prior to milling the ‘real thing’ and
adjustments carried out to obtain the correct depth of mill.

Used for milling (shaving) rivet heads – where permitted – and (more usually) for
milling mandrels to form a flush fit.

Warning. These give off a fine swarf and goggles should be worn.

Maintenance includes checking operation, checking sharpness of milling cutters and

placing a few drops of thin oil into the air inlet each day.

Fig. 33 RIVET MILLER

- 32 -
Nibblers and Shears

These both have a motor similar to the windy drill but the drive is used to operate
either a nibbling head or a power shearing head.

Used for cutting thin sheet metal to shape.

The cut edge produced is poor and will need to be finished off by hand using a file.

RIGID PIPES

Pipelines may be made of:

* Al alloy
* Steel
* Stainless Steel
* Copper
* Tungum – a copper alloy
* Brass

When replacing a pipe it is important to replace it with a pipe made of the same
material, diameter, length, shape and gauge. It is also important, of course, that the
end fittings are identical with the old ones (check the IPC – Illustrated Parts
Catalogue).

Some pipes can be ‘made-up’ on site while others have to be obtained from stores
using the stores part number and reference number (and EASA form1 and the IPC).

The designer of the aircraft and its systems should organise the pipes in such a way
that mis-connection is not possible, either by having different length pipes in the
same run so that unions, or connections, of one pipe do not occur at the same place
as a pipeline next to it; or by having pipelines (and unions) of different diameters so
mis-connection is impossible. This is not always done, however, and it is important
that all systems are put through a complete functional test after any pipeline
replacement/disconnection/reconnection.

Pipe Couplings

These can be flared or un-flared.

Flared Couplings. Consists of a flared pipe, adapter nipple, collar, outer and inner
sleeve. The nipple now in use has a parallel extension (called a skirt) and this should
always be inserted into the flared pipe, which has the collar and outer sleeve fitted.
Older nipples did not have a skirt and it has happened that the union has been
assembled with the nipple twisted around in the union causing it to leak and causing
a blockage.

- 33 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 34 AGS HIGH PRESSURE FLARED COUPLINGS

Figure 34 shows some AGS unions. They are not too unlike those of American
manufacture – the most important difference being the flare angle – for pipes made to
the (old) American AC standard the angle is 35°, for AN unions the angle is 37° and
for AGS unions the angle is 32°. These angles are close enough so that visually they
look the same, so it is important that when making up/connecting these unions that
a positive check is made (union ident codes, AMM, IPC etc) to ensure that the flared
end is fitted into the correct union.

Flareless Couplings. A ‘preset’ of the correct size is placed over the un-flared pipe end.
The pipe is pushed fully home into its union adapter and the union nut is tightened
to a specific torque value or by a specified number of turns (the union manufacturer
will specify). This causes the ‘preset’ to bend inwards and form a leak proof
compression joint with the pipe.

Figure 35 shows a typical flareless coupling not too unlike those meeting MS
specifications.

blank

- 34 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 35 FLARELESS COUPLING

The following is a typical pipe/union system for a commercial aircraft and based on
the Airbus aircraft hydraulic system.

Pipelines are placarded with Skydrol-resistant identification bands or metal rings, on

which are indicated the system colour code; a brief description of the line function,
and the direction of fluid flow. A number is marked on each line.

Materials

High pressure
Stainless steel
Rigid pipelines

Low pressure rigid Grey painted aluminium alloy except fire

pipelines zones which are stainless steel

Flexible hoses Braided, Teflon lined

Hydraulic components are identified by means of self-adhesive placards showing the

component number as given on the hydraulic system general drawing (AMM). As a
rule, numbers beginning with 1, 2 or 3 are used for Green, Blue and Yellow system
components respectively.

- 35 -
 Fig. 36 COMPONENT & PIPELINE IDENTIFICATION

Fig. 37 DEUTCH PERMANENT UNION

Hydraulic Pipeline Connections

These include:

* Pipe-to-pipe (Harrison or Deutch type permanent union).

* Pipe-to-pipe pressure bulkhead (Harrison and Deutch type).
* Pipe-to-component.

The Harrison fittings are used where maintenance work has to be performed so the
union can be dismantled and re-assembled. The Deutch permanent unions are used
in areas where no dismantling has to be performed.

Both unions rely on the swaging of a ferrule onto the pipeline using a special swaging
machine. The swaging process causes the ferrule to be pressed into the pipe causing
some deformation and forming a fluid tight metal-to-metal joint between ferrule and
pipe together with PTFE seals.

- 36 -
 Fig. 38 HARRISON LINE TO LINE CONNECTION

Fig. 39 DEUTCH LINE TO LINE BULKHEAD CONNECTION

Fig. 40 HARRISON COMPONENT TO LINE CONNECTION

- 37 -
Compressed Rubber Couplings. Used with low pressure air (and liquid) systems such
as Pitot static systems and fuel systems. The pipe end is held against the shoulder of
the recess in the union adapter with a rubber seal held in place by a union nut.

Prior to fitting the pipe, the pipe ends should be suitably protected against the
corrosive action of the rubber. Copper pipes should be tinned, whilst stainless steel
and aluminium alloy pipes should be protected with a varnish such as BSX17. The
pipe ends should be square with all sharp edges removed.

The union nut must be tightened just sufficient to compress the rubber seal and
provide an efficient seal.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 41 COMPRESSED RUBBER COUPLING

Brazed Nipple Couplings. A conical nipple is brazed or silver soldered to the end of the
pipe and is held in position by a union nut, which butts against a shoulder on the
nipple.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 42 BRAZED NIPPLE COUPLING

Self-Sealing Couplings. May be of the screw or bayonet type and allow quick release
and assembly of the joint without fluid loss or air ingress.

When making or breaking the joint of a self-sealing coupling, care must be taken to
avoid turning between the two halves, otherwise the seating for the valve in the union
half-coupling may damage the seal in the fixed half-coupling.

Note. This does not apply to Avimo type self-sealing couplings, which are connected
by a bayonet pin and socket arrangement. It is therefore necessary to rotate this
coupling to make or break the joint.

- 38 -
Figure 43 shows a coupling connected to a hose with a hose clip (Jubilee clip). The
normal method of connection is carried out by special compression couplings either at
the manufacturer or at user unit level (if permitted) and Jubilee clips are not used.
See later text on Hose Connections. The drawing is shown to indicate the operation of
the self-sealing male and female threaded items.

When a self-sealing coupling is disconnected, blanks should be fitted to both halves.

A leaking half-coupling should be replaced.

Fig. 43 TYPICAL SELF-SEALING COUPLING

Banjo Unions. Used to connect a pipeline – often a flexible pipeline to a component,

though the union itself provides a rigid connection.

The union consists of an inlet union screw, inlet union and two bonded seals or
bonded washers. Designed to allow a pipe connection to be made to a component at
right angles to the component. The inlet union screw is drilled internally to allow for
fluid passage as is the inlet union.

Fig. 44 BANJO UNION

- 39 -
The bonded washers are made up of a metal plain washer to which is bonded an
elastomeric seal. This is usually bonded to the inside circumference of the washer and
is designed to be thicker than the metal washer. As the union screw is tightened down
into the female thread of the component so the elastomeric seal will be squeezed and
provide a seal. The union screw is usually torque loaded.

Fuel/Air Conditioning Systems Pipe-work

Fuel pipes are not normally required to handle pressures over 50psi (345kPa) with air
conditioning ducts experiencing considerably less pressure. They are usually made
from aluminium alloy (air conditioning ducts downstream of the mixing chamber
where temperatures are lower) with the diameter being large enough to cope with the
flow rates. Diameters are typically about 2½” (64mm).

They may be joined using Vee flange couplings or elastomeric (rubber seals)
compression couplings.

Vee Flange Couplings. Used on larger diameter pipes where the ends of the pipes to
be joined have a Vee section brazed onto them. The pipes and the two Vee sections
are butted together and retained by a Vee Flange Coupling. It is important that the
abutment faces of the two Vee flange sections are clean, absolutely flat, undamaged
and not strained.

Couplings for ducting/larger diameter pipes are supplied in a variety of designs so it

is important that the AMM be consulted prior to any work being carried out.

Figures 45 and 46 show, respectively, a single bolt and a double bolt Vee flange
coupling.

Fig. 45 SINGLE BOLTED VEE CLAMP

- 40 -
 Fig. 46 DOUBLE BOLTED VEE CLAMP

The torque loading of these clamp bolt(s) is critical and the clamp halves need to be
tightened a little at a time then tapped with a soft-faced mallet, then tightened again,
then tapped again. This is repeated until the final torque value is achieved. This
process helps relieve the static friction tension that would otherwise build up between
the clamps and the pipe flanges.

Fig. 47 TYPICAL LP RIGID FUEL PIPE COUPLING

- 41 -
 Fig. 48 TYPICAL LP FLEXIBLE FUEL PIPE COUPLINGS

Pipes are thin walled and need care when handling. Also all pipe-work and couplings
must be electrically bonded because of the flow inducing static build-up.

Figure 47 shows an example of a rigid fuel pipe coupling and figure 47 shows
examples of flexible fuel pipe couplings. There are many types in use and reference
should always be made to the AMM for type and fitting instructions. In general:

* Ensure the correct seals are fitted and in the correct way.
* Ensure pipes are un-damaged particularly around the seal mating
surfaces.
* Torque load correctly.
* Ensure correct electrical bonding.
* Carry out leak and functional check after assembly. May need an engine
run.
* Some airlines require a duplicate inspection on fuel feed leak checks.

PIPE INSTALLATION

Before pipes are fitted to the aircraft, they should be inspected for any damage. If
damage to the pipe is suspected, the pipes should be pressure tested and the
roundness of the bore checked.

Checks should be made that the pipes are of the specified type and should have EASA
form 1s to identify the pipe. All pipes should be clean and supplied fitted with
approved blanking caps.

Prior to assembly, all pipes must be blown through with clean dry air and, where
applicable, flushed out with clean filtered fluid of the type to be used in the particular
system in which the pipe is to be installed.

For oxygen systems, a final approved degreasing process must be used to ensure
cleanliness, since oil or grease in contact with oxygen under pressure would cause an
explosion.

- 42 -
If the pipe is not to be installed immediately, the ends must be blanked with the
correct blanking caps. In instances where standard blanks cannot be fitted, it must
be ensured that the blank is so made that it is impossible for it to be left in position
when the pipe is connected.

Note. The use of rage, tape or paper for blanking is not allowed.

When installing pipes, they should not be allowed to come into contact with materials
which might cause galvanic corrosion. Some Al alloy pipes are treated internally and
externally with varnish. Pipes so treated must not be used in fuel, oil, pneumatic and
oxygen systems, or in any system where peeling varnish may cause a malfunction.

Supporting Pipes

Pipes must be supported in accordance with the AMM.

Pipe clamps are used to support pipes. These clamps may be made of fibre,
aluminium, moulded rubber or other materials. The two halves of the clamps are
usually joined together by bolts, which also secure the clamp to the aircraft structure.
Ensure that the clamps are of the correct size to prevent damage to the pipe.

Where packing is required between the pipes and the clamps, the material used
should be in accordance with the AMM. Typical materials are cork sheet, tinned
copper gauze and various types of tape, but leather must never be used, since this
will cause corrosion. Rubber may be used for pipes subject to vibration and Teflon is
used where the clamp is likely to be contaminated with Skydrol and fuels etc.

Some pipe clamps are self-bonding, but if not, metal gauze (bonding strips) or a cork-
based material having copper strands interwoven, can be used.

Where single pipes require support, standard clips such as ‘P’ clips can be used.

Clearance between pipes and structure should be at least 0.1” (2.5mm) and adequate
clearance should be provided between pipes and moving parts, eg landing gear bays
(tyres may ‘grow’ when rotating by as much as 2in (51mm) in diameter and 1in in
width).

Distances between pipe supports are laid down in the AMM, but in the unlikely event
of there being no distances specified then in general terms the larger the diameter of
the pipe the greater the distance between the supports and the stronger the pipe
material the greater the distance apart – eg:

OUTSIDE DIAMETER (IN) MAX DISTANCE BETWEEN SUPPORTS (IN)

Al ALLOY STEEL

3/16 12 14
1/4 13.5 16
3/8 16.5 20
1/2 19 23

TABLE 3 PIPE SUPPORTS

- 43 -
Connecting Pipes

Before connecting the pipe union nuts, a check should be made to ensure that the
pipe end is of the correct type and size, that it is clean and undamaged.

Use two spanners when tightening (or disconnecting) a pipe coupling; one to hold the
sleeve or adapter and one to turn the union nut. Do not over-tightening couplings.
Special tightening techniques and torque’s, where specified, must be used.

Torque values are specified in the AMM chapter 20 (Standard Maintenance Practices)
and tables are provided for both flared, flare-less and other types of couplings. Tables
also take into account the pipe material specification. Tolerances are also specified.

If lubrication of the threads is specified, use only the correct lubricant and ensure it
does not enter the bore of the pipe. Some AMMs give correction factors to dry torque
values if a lubricant is used. With some systems the lubricant to use is the same as
the system fluid. For oxygen systems use either (a) DTD 900/4042, which provides a
dry self-lubricating film of graphite and which should be applied to a degreased
surface and allowed to air dry before being put into service, or (b) DTD 900/4286,
which acts as a sealant as well as a lubricant and has a grease-like consistency, or (c)
PTFE tape.

Pipes with Standard Couplings

When connecting pipes having standard types of threaded couplings the following
points should be checked:

a) That flared pipe ends are free from cracks, distortion or other damage.
b) That union nuts are free to be withdrawn over their entire length, that
they are not impeded by bends or other obstructions and that they
rotate freely.
c) That all loose parts such as adapter nipples, rubber glands, washers, etc
are fitted to the coupling, are of the correct type and are correctly
located.
d) That the pipe end aligns correctly with its mating part. Pipe ends must
never be forced into position, since this may induce stress into the pipe
and the coupling.
e) That the pipes are never drawn together by their union nuts, since this
puts a strain on the flaring which may cause deformation and damage.
f) That the adapter and pipe flare are both compatible – that is – AC flares
for AC adapters, AN flares for AN adapters and AGS flares for AGS
adapters.

Once a standard coupling has been bedded in initially, less torque will be required on
subsequent reassembly to make a leak proof joint.

However, should a leak occur, the coupling must not be over tightened in an attempt
to stop the leak, but must be disconnected and the cause of the leakage ascertained.

Adapter nipples with skirts have replaced those without skirts but it is important to
check that the nipple sits correctly before assembly of the union. (It has been known
for unskirted nipples to rotate in the assembly prior to tightening thus causing a poor
joint and one that is not pressure proof).

- 44 -
Couplings are affected be expansion, contraction, vibration and heat and should be
inspected regularly for deterioration and freedom leaks. When connectors are to be
removed from pipe ends, it is essential that levering with a screwdriver or similar tool
be avoided, since this will damage the pipe.

After assembly the system should be purged/bled depending on the system and
pressure tested. After the system has been pressurised and tested and the union and
pipes checked for leaks the union can be locked/wire locked.

LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF PIPELINES

Damaged pipelines must be replaced by an approved spare from stores where-ever

possible but where allowed and if a spare is not available then manufacture of some
rigid pipelines is permissible at user unit level.

In general the pipeline must not be damaged in anyway and all appropriate tests
must be carried out after manufacture and prior to assembly. The pipeline must also
be thoroughly cleaned prior to assembly.

Minor damage to the pipe such as small scratches and light corrosion may be classed
as negligible (refer to the SRM) and may be blended out using aluminium wool.
Damage such as cracks, dents, buckling and leakage will require pipeline
replacement.

Stock pipe with the correct EASA form 1 is used and this must be of the correct
specification, gauge and diameter. It is cut to length, and if more than one bend is to
be carried out a calculated ‘bend allowance’ procedure is used.

The free end lengths of pipe-work should be cut about 10% longer than that
calculated to allow for any slight variations in manufacture.

Cutting is carried out using a fine toothed (32tpi) hacksaw or a tube cutter machine (a
roller cutter similar to that used by plumbers).

The pipe ends are then filed flat and de-burred. It is most important to ensure that
this operation is carried out very carefully as any minute nicks or burrs left can start
a crack when carrying out the flaring procedure.

The procedure in general is:

1. Selection of correct pipe from stock.

2. Cutting to correct length.
3. Carry out any heat treatments.
4. Fabrication of any bends.
5. Fit end unions over pipe.
6. Flaring.
7. Inspection.
8. Testing.
9. Fitting to aircraft and function testing of system.

- 45 -
HEAT TREATMENTS

Some materials require heat treatments prior to fabrication, others can be fabricated
and fitted ‘as supplied’. The material specification should be provided in the stores
release documents (data from the manufacturers) (EASA form 1) and heat treatment
details will be found in the specification (obtained on the internet or from any good
library). In general the following heat treatments are used:

* Al alloy. Depending on specification may be annealed (to soften) prior to

working (heat to 360-420°C depending on specification and cool in still
air, and then should be solution treated – to restore its strength - (heat
to 460-540°C and quench).
* Steel. May be softened for working by annealing (heating to a
temperature depending on the carbon content and slow cooling in a
heated oven). After working, the strength is restored by hardening and
tempering (heating to a temperature depending on the carbon content
and quenching in water then re-heating to 200-300°C and quenching).
* Stainless Steel. Can be annealed (to refine and soften) by heating to
about 1000°C (depending on material specification and type of
annealing) and quenching or slow cooling. Hardening and tempering is
similar to that performed on steel. Stress relief heat treatment may also
be carried out.
* Copper and copper alloys. May be supplied in the softened or half-hard
condition. If supplied in the half-hard condition or if the bending is to be
severe then the pipe is to be annealed by heating to 600-700°C and
quenching in water or cooled in still air.
* Tungum – a copper alloy containing aluminium, nickel and silicon.
Worked in the ‘as supplied’ condition and if work hardening occurs then
stress relieving is carried out by heating to 400°C and cooling in still air.

PIPE BENDING

The pipe to be made up must be of the same specification, diameter and gauge as the
one that it is replacing. The bend radii and angles must be the same as that on the
replacement pipe and the pattern must be identical.

To lessen the possibility of kinking pipework over 0.5in (13mm) in diameter - or pipes
that have to be bent through an acute angle, or thin walled pipes, are usually filled
with a fusible alloy for the bending process. This lead based alloy melts at below
100°C so boiling water is sufficient to heat and melt the alloy prior to pouring into the
pipe; and to remove it from the pipe after bending.

Loading the Alloy

1. Thoroughly clean the pipe bore and dry.

2. Lightly lubricate the bore as prescribed by the manufacturer of the
fusible alloy. This helps alloy removal after the operation.
3. Plug one end (bottom plug) and immerse in boiling water to within a few
inches of the open end.
4. Melt the alloy in a container in the boiling water.
5. Pour the alloy into the pipe taking care not to destroy the oil film or
create air pockets.

- 46 -
 6. Cool the pipe in cold water working from the plugged end to prevent the
formation of cavities.
7. Allow the pipe to attain room temperature (when the alloy will have
solidified), and the pipe is ready for bending.

Unloading the Alloy (after bending)

1. Remove the top and bottom plugs and immerse the complete pipe in
boiling (or near boiling) water.
2. Support the pipe so that the molten alloy runs out.
3. Remove pipe when completely drained of alloy.
4. Allow water to cool and retrieve alloy – now solid- to be used again.
5. Thoroughly clean/degrease the bore of the pipe.
6. Inspect the bend for signs of local wasting and buckling.

The Bending Machine

Several different bending machines are available - for example, the type A2 for pipes
up to 7/8” (22mm) diameter and the type C for pipes from 1 – 2” (25 to 51mm)
diameter.

Usually supplied with a set of formers and guides to suit a range of pipe diameters
with
each former allowing for a mean bend radius approximately four times the diameter of
the corresponding pipe. This is the safe minimum for the pipe concerned.

Always use the correct former and guide and bend the pipe with a continuous, steady,
slow pull on the bending machine handle.

Fig. 49 PIPE BENDING MACHINE

Always inspect the pipe after bending for:

* Kinking
* Flattening
* Damage

- 47 -
Some flattening is allowed (maximum of 25% reduction of diameter), anything more
than this will require the scrapping of the pipe and another one made. The other
defects above will also warrant scrapping the pipe.

Carry out a pressure test (see later text) of the pipe and carry out a ball test (a ball of
80% of the internal diameter of the pipe should pass through the pipe freely assisted
only by gravity).

End Fitting Manufacture

For all fittings the ends of the pipe should be finished square and be free from burrs
and debris.

Flared End Fittings (figure 34).Before flaring commences fit the union adapter and
collar the correct way round and in that order (failure to fit them now will mean that –
if it is the second end on the pipe that is being completed - you cannot fit them at all
because they will not go over the flared ends).

The pipe is clamped in a flaring tool (with the correct flaring cone fitted) and this cone
is rotated and pushed forward by a screw-thread into the bore of the pipe (slowly) to
force it out to the flared angle of the cone.

The process must be carried out slowly so as to minimise the possibility of the flare
splitting or cracking.

The flaring process is continued until the flare is a specific size in relation to the
collar.

In general when the collar is pulled up under the flare, the flare should protrude in
front of the collar by a small amount – check flaring tool instructions.

Check for local splitting, thinning and cracks. Assemble the union and carry out a
pressure test.

With some aluminium alloy pipes a double flare may be required. This is similar to a
single flare (as described above) but the wall of the flare is doubled back on itself –
using a special tool.

Flare-less Fittings (figure 35). This process obviates the need for flaring – which is
always a tricky operation often leading to cracking of the flared end and subsequent
restart of the pipe manufacturing process from the beginning.

New flare-less fittings must be preset. To preset a fitting proceed as follows:

* Cut, square and deburr pipe. Check condition and that it is the
correct specification/part number with the correct stores release
documents.
* Place union nut and sleeve on the pipe in that order. Check union/
sleeve as above.
* Lubricate threads of union nut and union.
* Hold the union in a vice and ensure pipe is fully pushed home into the
union.

- 48 -
 * Screw the union nut down by hand onto the union until the pilot of the
sleeve starts to dig in and grip the pipe. This can be determined by slow
hand turning of the pipe until it is held.
* Finally tighten the union nut, using a spanner, by another one to one
and a sixth turns (Al alloy pipes up to ½” diameter) or from one and one
sixth turns to one and a half turns (for all steel pipes and Al alloy pipes
over ½” diameter). Some union manufactures specify torque values to
set the pre-set so check their literature before starting.
* Undo the union nut and inspect preset. The pipe should extend beyond
the sleeve pilot by 3/32” to 1/8”. The pilot should contact the pipe or
have a maximum clearance of 0.005” (Al alloy) 0.015” (steel) and the
pipe should be slightly deformed. The sleeve may rotate on the pipe.

* Re-assemble and pressure test.

When fitting a replacement pipe always:

* Check that the end fittings attach to the rest of the system without any
strain.
* Check that the lay of the pipe is the same as the original.
* Attach at the same support points and note that it has clearance
between it and other pipes; moving items; hot items, etc.
* Carry out a full functional test of the system and if no leaks are
apparent the unions are wire locked.

Pressure Testing Pipes

Always check with the AMM.

Hydraulic, Fuel, Oil and Coolant Pipes. All pipes and complete systems after
manufacture should be proof tested to 1½ times normal maximum system pressure
or 250psi whichever is the greater. The ideal fluid to use is the system fluid, but fuel
pipes may use water. Test pipes in a safety cage and the pressure should be
maintained for at least 30 seconds.

Flow test systems where valves, particularly non-return valves, are fitted. Carefully
release pressure after a pressure test taking greater care if accumulators are fitted.

Always flow test completed fuel systems.

Compressed Gas Pipes. When testing compressed gas systems/lines, dry air or
nitrogen is used with purging of 02 systems with oxygen afterwards. The gas is
introduced into a suitably blanked system using a Schrader type valve.

Leaks may be checked for by noting the pressure drop over a period of time and/or
applying a leak detecting fluid around joints, etc. This fluid may be a proprietary
brand or distilled water and a non-acid soapy solution.

After pressure testing, pipelines should be inspected to ensure that they have not
been displaced by the pressure and that the correct clearance is maintained. The pipe
supports should also be checked for security of attachment and local distortion of the
pipe at its clamping points.

- 49 -
Locking

When all tests have been completed, the connections should be locked in accordance
with the AMM.

Maintenance of Pipelines

Check all pipelines for corrosion, particularly aluminium alloy pipes. Special attention
should be given to areas under clips and supports.

Copper and brass pipes will age harden in service and should be removed for
annealing at the periods stated in the Maintenance Schedule. These pipes should be
protected with an organic compound.

Pipelines should be checked for damage, chafing, kinking, denting and leaks. Also
check for correct clearance and security of attachment.

FLEXIBLE HOSE ASSEMBLIES

From a designer’s point of view, the following points should be borne in mind when
selecting a hose assembly for a particular purpose:

a) Maximum system pressure.

b) Maximum system fluid temperature, particularly soak temperatures
after system shut-down when fluid temperatures could increase by as
much as 20°C.
c) Compatibility of hose material (external material and hose liners) and its
end fittings with the system fluid and external environmental conditions.
This includes fluids to be used in other systems where they may come
into external contact with a particular hose installation.

Hose assemblies for high-pressure fluid systems are usually supplied by the
manufacturers complete with end fittings which, in most cases, cannot be dismantled
or altered in any way. However, there are some types of hose assemblies that may be
made up at user unit level.

The hose lining is made of a material to withstand the pressure, temperature and to
be compatible with the fluid in the system.

The hose is strengthened by high tensile steel wire braiding or fabric reinforcement.

Only use hose as specified in the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC).

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is used widely as it is chemically inert, is unaffected by

synthetic oils and fluids and operates at high temperatures and normally has an
unlimited shelf life. PTFE hose is, however, more susceptible to damage from careless
handling than rubber hose and care is required during removal, installation and
inspection.

Hose assemblies fitted in high temperature areas (eg near engines) may be protected
by fire protective coverings.

- 50 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 50 HIGH PRESSURE MANUFACTURER’S END FITTING

Hose assemblies often go through a great deal of flexing. They will also ‘age’ and
therefore important that any lives stated in the AMM are not exceeded.

The end fittings on a hose assembly are made from steel or light alloy and are
designed to exert a grip on both the tube and wire braids so as to resist high
pressure, twisting and vibrational loads. They also provide an electrical bonded joint.

Length

The length of a hose assembly with straight end fittings is taken as the distance
between the extremities of the two nipples. In the case of an elbowed end fitting, the
length is taken from the centre of the elbow bore.

Construction of High-Pressure Hose Assemblies (figure 50)

A typical high-pressure hose assembly consists of an inner lining covered by one or

two closely woven wire braids, either moulded or sandwiched between the synthetic
rubber of the lining or woven on the surface of the tube.

The whole assembly may be enclosed by an outer cover, the purpose of which is to
provide protection for the other parts of the hose, to resist abrasion and the effects of
weather and environmental fluids and chemicals and in some cases to provide a
degree of fire resistance.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 51 HIGH PRESSURE LOCALLY MANUFACTURED HOSE ASSEMBLY

- 51 -
Low-Pressure Hose Assemblies

These are thin-walled and textile-reinforced. They are used for Pitot static instrument
lines and especially for instruments mounted on panels equipped with anti-vibration
mountings. A rubber or canvas spirally-corrugated hose with a spiral steel spring
embedded in the corrugations is often used for systems where there are negative
pressures.

Ensure that bends are not too acute, since this may result in kinking of the hose.
Where a sharp bend cannot be avoided an internal support coil may be fitted.

Installation

Ensure adequate clearance between the hose and other parts of the aircraft structure,
so as to prevent chafing or galvanic corrosion. The hose may flex when internal
pressure is applied, and ‘whip’ may occur under surge pressure conditions – causing
possible damage to hose and surrounding structure and systems.

The serviceability and life of a hose is affected by the degree of bending of the hose.
There may be some variation in the connecting angle and distance between fittings for
a particular hose assembly in similar installations, and a check should be carried out
to ensure that the bend radius is not less than the minimum specified by the
manufacturer.

Straight hose runs should be at least 3% longer than the maximum distance between
the fittings to which they are connected. The hose must never be fitted under tension.

Where a hose assembly is connected to a moving part it is important to ensure that

the hose can only move in the plane intended by the designer. The hose should be
installed without any twists and this will be seen by the marker line down its length –
which should remain straight.

Any hose clips used must be of an approved type and must fit correctly in relation to
the pipe ends or beading. A clearance of between 0.25” and 0.50” (6mm to 13mm)
should be allowed between the ends of the pipes so that the ends will not make
contact should flexure of the pipe occur.

If a new hose to pipe connection proves difficult to fit, it may be lubricated with the
fluid used in the particular system, but for some types of pipe, hot water immersion
(softens the rubber) in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions can be used.

Re-usable End Fittings (figure 51)

Usually consists of a socket, nipple and a union nut. When the socket (fitted with the
hose) is screwed onto the nipple, hose expands and is clamped firmly against the
socket. This is known as a compression seal but other methods of assembly may be
used.

When cutting a replacement length of hose for the re-useable end fitting it is
important to cut it to the correct length using a fine toothed hacksaw blade -
removing any debris.

- 52 -
As with stock pipe, stock hose most be made to the correct specification and be of the
correct diameter and wall thickness with the lining compatible with the system fluid –
and have a stores release document.

Assembly of the hose and socket is carried out by holding the socket in a vice and
screwing the hose into the socket until it bottoms (cannot be screwed in any further).

Note. Some manufacturers recommend that, after screwing the hose fully into the
socket, it should be unscrewed a quarter turn to allow for expansion when the
nipple is inserted.

After assembly of the hose to the socket it is recommended that the hose is marked
with a grease pencil, paint or tape, at the point where it enters the socket, in order to
provide a means of checking that the hose is not forced out of the socket during
subsequent insertion of the nipple.

The nipple must be screwed into the previously assembled hose and socket. This
operation must be carried out with care, as misalignment of the nipple could result in
its tapered end cutting into the hose wall. Slices of rubber dislodged in this way have
been known to cause malfunction of the system.

Nipples are usually tapered over approximately half their length and are often
provided with a plain pilot extension to guide the nipple accurately into the hose.

When the nipple does not have a pilot extension an assembly mandrel should be used
and should extend at least 6mm beyond the end of the nipple. The assembly mandrel
also acts as a means of turning a nipple which does not have an integral hexagon or
flats. After assembly the hose must be pressure tested.

TESTING PIPES – GENERAL

The Ball Test. With the hose or pipe suspended from one end, a ball should pass
freely through the assembly under its own weight and without lubrication. The check
should be repeated from the opposite end and if the ball fails to pass through in either
direction the hose/pipe must be rejected.

The diameter and material of the ball may be specified by the manufacturer, but in
general, a steel ball bearing is used having a diameter slightly smaller than the
specified internal diameter of the hose/pipe. The diameter should be:

* 90% of the internal diameter for hose assemblies.

* 80% of the internal diameter for pipes.

Flow Test. In some cases a ball test may be inadequate and a flow test will show that
the assembly is capable of passing a given quantity of fluid per unit time and under
the conditions specified. Normally a special test rig is used, but if fuel pipes are used
a flow test can be carried out in-situ.

Pressure Test. These are carried out as stated on the drawing or in the relevant
manual or to 1.5 times the normal maximum working pressure. When testing fuel
pipes paraffin may be used as the test fluid. For pneumatic and oxygen pipes water is
used. After testing, the pipes must be cleaned and dried.

- 53 -
Bonding Test. If the hose has metal in its construction a bonding test will be specified.
A bonding tester is used (see the book in this series entitled Aircraft Electrics).

Inspection. The assembly is inspected at periods specified in the maintenance

schedule and in accordance with the AMM. The end fittings are checked for tightness,
corrosion, damage and correct locking. Pipes are checked for leaks, damage,
corrosion, security of attachment and correct clearance. The hose is checked for
alignment (the length-wise marked strip is not twisted), that there are no signs of
leaks or fluid contamination. There should be no damage or signs of rubbing.

Bend the hose to see if there are any cracks in the surface of the rubber – these are
acceptable provided there are not too many and depth and length do not exceed the
limits laid down by the manufacturer.

STORAGE OF PIPES

PTFE hose does not normally have a specific storage life, but rubber or synthetic
rubber hose has. The life, depending on the material, is between three and five years.

Check storage conditions from the manufacturer’s manual but generally the following
applies:

a) Keep in original wrapping and issue in order of acceptance (1st in, 1st
out).
b) Keep in a dry storeroom away from sunlight and running electrical
equipment. (Ozone is the principle-ageing agent of rubber and is
generated by running electrical motors/generators, etc.)
c) Check periodically and test before issue in accordance with
manufacturer’s manual.
d) Keep all documentation (EASA form 1s etc). Check for validity and check
against hose identification.

PIPE-LINE IDENTIFICATION (BS M23)

All pipes are marked with date of manufacturer, drawing or part number, inspection
stamp, test stamp and name of manufacturer. These markings can be stencilled on
the external surface or stamped on a metal tag or band (soldered/brazed to the pipe).

The date can be a colour code woven into the cotton brand.

Flexible hose assemblies are marked along their length with one or more continuous
thin lines to indicate any twist on installation.

SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION

Systems/system pipes may be identified by tape or identification labels attached to

each section of pipe. The two systems in use include:

* The colour/symbol system. This uses words, colours and symbols to

indicate the contents/system of the pipe.

- 54 -
 * The code system based on the ATA100 (ATA iSpec 2200) chapter
numbering system and will indicate:
(a) The system (symbol).
(b) The component to which the pipe is fitted.
(c) The subsystem to which the pipe is fitted.
(d) Whether it is suction – pressure, etc.

The Code System

The numbering system, starting from the end of the pipe, may take the following form:

1st Part ……………………. Pipe end identification number.

2nd Part ……………………. System symbol.
3rd Part ……………………. ATA chapter number.
4th Part ……………………. Component key number.
5th Part ……………………. Component connection code.
6th Part ……………………. Pipe function and subsystem code.
7th Part ……………………. Flow direction – if applicable.

”””””””””

- 55 -
Book 8 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1
STRUCTURE REPAIRS
AGEING FATIGUE & CORROSION
CONTROL

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1 EASA 66 7A.14.2 7A.18(b) ISSUE 07 0412

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Repairs to aircraft structure 1

Principles of repair 1
Structure classification 1
Sources of repair information 1
Damage classification 2
Classification of repair 2
Repair report 3
Examination of damage 3
Damage repairable by patching 5
Damage repairable by insertion 6
Damage repairable by replacement 7
Repair practices 7
Metal repair procedure – general 11
Composite structures 12
Inspection of composite structures 14
Visual inspection 15
Coin tapping 15
Moisture meter 15
Infra-red thermography 15
Ultra-sonic testing 17
Radiography 18
X-rays 19
Gamma rays 20
Composite repairs 21
Preparation and mixing of resins 22
Pot life 23
Curing 23
Film adhesives 24
General repair considerations 25
Carbon fibre composites 26
Materials 26
Damage 27
Repair 27
Equipment 27
Repair methods 28
General repair procedure 28
Repair to sandwich structure 30
Delamination Debonding 30
Metal patching 30
Void filler – honeycomb section 32
Electrical bonding 34
Ageing, fatigue and corrosion control programmes 35
Geriatric aircraft 36
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Written for the B1 mechanical engineer the book covers 7.14.2 and 7.18(b) of
the EASA Part 66 syllabus.

You should have a reasonable knowledge of repair techniques, corrosion

control programmes and maintenance programmes for aircraft ageing.

For more information on anti-corrosive processes, and materials (including

composites) you should refer to the books on those subjects in our book series
in module 6.

For more information on the following subjects refer to the following books in
this module:

* Tools book 2
* Riveting and sheet metal book 7
* NDT and corrosion control book 13

Structures as a subject is covered in module 11 (fixed wing aircraft) and 12

(helicopters).

Notes:

1. In general the BI licensed engineer is only allowed to repair non

primary aircraft structure.

2. Operators will normally employ qualified personnel to carry out

composite repairs (these having attended, and passed, composite
repair courses).

3. The CAA have asked a multi choice question about the largest
diameter of hole in a composite sandwich structure that can be
filled with micro-balloons. We have found that this can vary
between manufacturers (we have stated some of the limits in the
text) and should you get this question on your examination we
recommend that you inform the invigilator.
 REPAIRS TO AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

An aircraft is a complex structure of many parts, each part designed to be light

in weight and to carry a certain load (good strength/weight ratio). Any repairs
must be carried out in accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer of
the aircraft (Structure Repair Manual - SRM).

The SRM is approved by the CAA but repairs may also be carried out to
drawings/schemes provided by the CAA or approved design offices.

Principles of Repair

To restore damaged structures to their original strength and shape, the repair
scheme prepared by the design staff, ensures that a margin of strength is built
into the repair. This ‘reserve factor’ is usually 1.2 but can vary from this
figure.

Reserve Factor = Strength of Member

Estimated Maximum Load

Structure Classification

Owing to the difficulty of formulating repair instructions for members or parts

of similar size but designed to take different loads, the airframe structure can
be divided into three general classifications:

Primary Structure. Those parts of the airframe that are highly stressed
and, if damaged, may cause catastrophic failure and loss of life eg, wing
spars, engine mountings etc.

Secondary Structure. Parts of the airframe that are highly stressed but if
damaged have provision for alternative load paths. Ancillary frames
designed to support components, some skin panels, etc, are examples.
It is difficult to give a precise example for this type of structure as a
frame on one aircraft might be classed as primary whilst on another it
could be classed as secondary structure.

Tertiary Structure. Lightly stressed parts such as fairings, wheel shields

and minor component brackets. Failure of which would not be serious.

Sources of Repair Information

British Civil Airworthiness Requirements (BCARs), JAR and EASA

requirements state that all repairs must be carried out in accordance with the
approved repair manual or approved repair drawings.

-1-
Manufacturers therefore provide a repair manual (Standard Repair Manual –
SRM) for each aircraft type. This publication provides the information to carry
out most of the repairs encountered in normal service. It would be impossible
to cover all damage likely to affect an aircraft so where damage occurs which is
not listed in the SRM, a repair drawing and repair method must be obtained.
This is issued by an approved drawing office (usually the aircraft
manufacturer) after all details (photographs, drawings, written descriptions
etc) have been sent regarding the extent of the damage.

Damage Classification

Damage can be classified according to how it occurred:

Primary Damage. Damage which occurs at the point of impact or failure,

eg, the actual damage caused by a bird strike at the point of impact.

Secondary Damage. The damage which occurs as a result of the primary

damage, remote from the actual impact area, often due to failure as a
result of overloading, brought about by primary failure - transmitted
shock etc. In the case of a heavy landing the primary damage could be
damage to the main undercarriage attachment points and the secondary
damage could be transmitted shock to some other remote part of the
wing or tailplane for example.

Classification of Repair

When the damaged area has been fully inspected and cleaned up it can be
assessed. This assessment will fall into one of four categories depending on the
classification of the structure where the damage has occurred.

1. Negligible damage. Damage which does not affect the

airworthiness of the airframe but will normally need some
attention – like stop drilling the end of a crack, carrying out anti-
corrosive treatments,
cleaning the damaged area etc.
2. Damage repairable by patching. A patch repair is riveted/
bolted/bonded onto the damaged area after the damage has been
cut to a regular shape.
3. Damage repairable by insertion. The damage is removed and the
structure cut to a regular shape and an insert repair is
riveted/bolted/bonded into position.
4. Damage repairable by replacement. The whole section of structure
is removed and a new section fitted.

The limits for the above are all laid down in the SRM, but in general the
damage is getting more severe from item 1 to item 4.

-2-
Repair Report

If the damage will require extensive repair then a report should be made out
prior to commencement of the work. Whether a report is necessary or not will
depend on the company operating procedures. Even if the repair is fairly
straight forward then some pre-planning is required.

QUESTION What sort of pre-planning might be required? (2 mins).

ANSWER It would be a good idea to check on the availability of spares,

(rivets, bonding agents etc) labour, heat treatment facilities,
hangerage etc and also to draw a plan of the actual repair to be
carried out. This could save a lot of trouble later on.

A formal report must detail all the repair work and the procedures involved
and quote the reference numbers, and any other relevant details, of the
approved repair schemes.

The report should also list any maintenance work which could usefully be
carried out during the repair work since this may obviate the need for further
dismantling later on and the aircraft being taken out of service.

Stage inspections, giving details of the inspection required, must be listed on

an Inspection Record Sheet in a sequence related to the Repair Report.

Examination of Damage

Access to the damaged area might require the removal of items of equipment/
systems or parts of systems. In that case proper records must be kept and
after completion of repairs the systems/equipment must be put back to a
serviceable condition and any functional tests carried out.

Refer to the AMM and SRM. Visually examine for extent of primary damage.
Check carefully for the extent of any secondary damage. Assess damage area
and inspect for:

(a) Cracks. May be considered negligible in a tertiary structure, which only

requires stop drilling at the end of the crack to stop it spreading and
regular inspections thereafter. It may necessitate repair by patching,
insertion or renewal of the part if present in primary structures.

(b) Nicks. Nicks in free edges may be classed as negligible and dressed out
by blending to a smooth gradual change of section and an anti-corrosive
treatment applied to any filed edges. The depth and spacing of such
damage would be dependent on the structural class of the component
and the SRM.

-3-
(c) Loose Rivets. Carefully remove, and inspect damage to rivet hole.
Enlarge the hole to the next size up - if allowed in the SRM. Replace with
next size rivet of correct type. If the hole size gets too big a bolt may have
to be fitted or a repair may be necessary.

(d) Bowing Limits. Minimum limits are usually 1 in 600 but actual limits
may vary. Checked in a variety of ways using:

(i) A straight edge and feelers.

(ii) The sighting method. Not very accurate but gives an instant
indication of any bow.
(iii) A three point trammel with a surface table and feelers.

The amount of bow can be calculated by:

Bow = Clearance measured by feeler gauges

Length of member

Example: Length of member is 2ft and the clearance measured is

0.040 inches.

Bow = 0.040 = 4 = 1 or 1 in 600

24.0 2400 600

(e) Skin Panting. Due to fluctuating loads (usually compressive), stressed

skin may develop panting. This shows up as slight undulations of the
aircraft skin where unsupported between frames, stringers etc. The total
deflection will determine whether this is classed as negligible or the
panel needs repair or replacement.

(f) Scores and Abrasions. Limits in terms of area and depth will be specified
and it may be permitted to polish out the abrasion and restore the anti-
corrosive treatment. In the case of clad alloys care must be taken not to
remove the cladding.

When the blending out of a score or abrasion in a stressed part is

permitted, it is often necessary to use a suitable NDT method to
ensure that any minute crack has not been overlooked (as its presence
would not be considered negligible).

QUESTION How would you check an abrasion for area and depth?
(3 mins).

-4-
 ANSWER For the area a rule could be used - but if you wanted to be
pedantic you could use a planometer (a special wheeled
pantograph type instrument that measures irregular areas).
For depth a DTI (Dial Test Indicator) with a needle point
plunger could be used.

(g) Dents. Small smooth dents, free from cracks and abrasions may be
classed as negligible. They are assessed by depth and maximum
diameter. Dents over the limits should be classed as holes and repaired
accordingly. The spacing allowed between dents will also be specified, as
will the minimum dimensions between damage and rivet rows or joints.

A DTI can be used to measure depth and if the dent is on a tubed item
then a suitable ball bearing and a micrometer can be used. Note – the
ball bearing must be of a size that fits into the bottom of the dent.

(h) Holes. Before assessment, any holes, or damage classified as holes

(dents etc) should be cleaned to a regular shape ensuring all damage is
removed. Small holes can be drilled and larger holes filed to a regular
shape and edges should be given a smooth finish.

The SRM will give the negligible dimension, according to structural

classification, stating the maximum diameter and minimum spacing
between damage and other parts/damage.

Damage Repairable by Patching

Before commencing repairs consult the SRM. The repair instructions for small
cracks, punctures and deep scores usually stipulate the following:

* The repair patch must be of the same gauge and material as the
existing metal sheet.

* Rivets used to secure the patch should be the same pitch, type
and size and material as those used in the nearest edge of the
material.

* The distance of the rivet centre from the edge of the patch must be
at least twice the diameter of the rivet (land).

* All overlapping (faying) surfaces should be coated with jointing

compound, and the repair assembly riveted while the jointing
compound is wet (wet assembly).

* Renew paint treatments.

-5-
 Fig. 1 PATCH REPAIR

The patch repair may look similar to an insertion repair in that there might be
a ‘filler’ plate riveted in position to produce a smooth contour. How-ever, the
load paths on a patch repair will pass through the patch and on an insert
repair will pass through the insert (figures 1, 2 and 3).

Damage Repairable by Insertion

In very general terms an insert repair is similar to a patch repair (if it has a
‘filler’ plate) but the insert is riveted into position so that all the load paths
pass from the aircraft structure through the butt strap, into the insert,
through the butt strap and back into the aircraft structure.

Rivets securing the filler plate to the patch merely hold it in position, and need
not be as strong or as numerous as the rivets securing the patch to the butt
strap.

Fig. 2 PATCH REPAIR (WITH FILLER PLATE)

The insertion repair is used where the damage is large and the lost strength of
the sheet must be restored. With this type of repair an insert and butt strap
are used, and as both parts transfer the load all the rivets must be of similar
size and pitch.

-6-
In practice the butt strap may consist of a patch with the centre removed. With
a large patch repair, this type of patch ensures a reduction in weight, without
loss in strength of the repair.

Fig. 3 INSERT REPAIR

Damage Repairable by Replacement

Usually applies to most components. If they are unserviceable or damaged in

any way they are replaced. For structural parts if they are damaged beyond
repair they are replaced. This can apply to skin panels, bulkheads, frames,
stringers, engine pylons and even main spars.

For some of this work the aircraft will need supporting and/or jury rigging and
may need to be fitted into special jigs and fixtures. If this is the case then
repair will need to be carried out in an overhaul facility.

If repair is not possible (not economical) then the airframe will have to be
scrapped. All components that are in good condition and/or with plenty of
flying hours left are removed and used as spares or put into storage.

The CAA is informed of the scrapping of the airframe, it is made safe and the
local scrap merchant is asked to tender a price for the removal of the airframe.

Records are kept of components removed (airframe, engines, VP props etc). The
records cross refer to the appropriate log books and details include part
description; part numbers; serial numbers; hours flown; cycles; landings;
calendar life etc as appropriate and aircraft removed from.

Repair Practices

(a) Removal of Damage. In most instances it will be necessary to cut away

the damaged material and dress back the surrounding structure.
Although it should be ensured that no more material than is necessary
is removed, it is necessary to make sure that the adjacent structure to
which the repair is to be attached is in a sound condition.

-7-
 When removing riveted structures, care must be taken not to damage
those rivet holes which are to be used again since circular, smooth
edged correct size holes are essential for subsequent riveting and if the
risk of failure by fatigue is to be kept to a minimum.

The damage is classified as repairable or not after the above process has
been carried out.

(b) Stop Drilling. (Refer figures 4 and 11). Used where a crack is found in
the structure to prevent it propagating (spreading). The procedure is only
allowed where specified in the SRM and usually not allowed in primary
structures, in pressurised hulls etc.

To stop-drill a crack:

1. Check the SRM for damage classification, maximum crack

length and diameter of stop-drill holes (drill diameter).
2. Ascertain length of crack (the exact position of the ends).
This may not be easy and will involve the removal of any
paint, thorough cleaning of the area and possibly NDT
inspection methods such as the use of dye penetrants.
3. Select the correct drill size and drill through the structure
(checking that there is clearance behind the structure from
and systems, components etc). Ensure that the drilled hole
has drilled out the end of the crack.
4. Re-instate any anti-corrosive treatments removed.
5. Clean the area of any swarf/debris.
6. Record the work done in the aircraft log book and sign.
Record also that the repair must be inspected on a regular
basis to check if propagation has been arrested.

Fig. 4 STOP-DRILLING

The principle behind stop-drilling is that it increases the area at the end
of the crack and hence reduces the stress. Stress is force per unit area
and while the force in the structure (tensile, sheer etc) is the same for an
un-drilled crack as for a drilled one the areas are not. The area at the
end of the crack is very small and therefore the stresses are very high.
When the end of the crack is rounded out into a hole the area is
significantly larger and the stress is reduced.

-8-
(c) Support of Structure. The support of structure during repair is essential,
especially before any part of the structure is removed, to prevent
distortion or collapse. The process of supporting during repair or renewal
of parts is known as ‘Jury Rigging’. Jury rigging may take the form of
special jigs and fixtures supplied by the manufacturer. In many cases
the rigging may be made up from local stock – wooden beams, screw
clamps, bolts etc.

When removing large parts of the structure it is important that the rest
of the structure is held in place and that no relative movement occurs.

Figure 5 shows an example of jury rigging. It is used on the fuselage of

the aircraft after removal of the mainplanes (during major overhaul). In
general terms with the aircraft jacked and trestled and, after removal of
the engines (from the wings) and all the fairings, the system connections
to the mainplanes are disconnected and the mainplanes detached by
removing eight main attachment bolts. The wing centre section is then
removed complete.

To prevent possible fuselage distortion and damage two steel jury struts
are bolted to the existing main fuselage attachment points on the right
and left hand side of the fuselage.

Fig. 5 JURY RIGGING – EXAMPLE

(d) Selection of Rivets. Although repairs must always be approved for the
particular aircraft, sometimes local decisions must be made in respect of
details to ensure that the strength of the repair will not be less than its
original strength, any such repair must be CAA approved.

The size, spacing and type of rivet to be used is normally specified

in the SRM but in general should be the same specification and size as
the existing rivets.

-9-
 If there are no existing rivets and in the absence of any repair data, in
general, the rivet size is 3 times the individual sheet thickness that is to
be joined.

If, after drilling out any existing rivets, oversize* rivets must be used
then authority must be obtained from the Quality Control department/
the CAA, unless this has been allowed for the original repair
specification.

Always confirm the specification of the rivets by the packet identification

and only heat treat if specified by the rivet manufacture. Remember if
the rivets are heat treatable they can only be solution heat treated.

They may be kept in cold store after heat treatment for a period
depending on the freezer temperature and the aircraft must not fly until
the rivets have age hardened – up to 4 days.

* Oversize rivets. These are commonly used when the removal of the
existing rivets has lead to enlarged rivet holes (the forming of the original
rivet will enlarge the rivet hole very slightly). The existing holes are re-
drilled with the correct size drill to allow the oversize rivet to be a
clearance fit.

(e) Rivet Spacing. The Sphere of Influence (S of I) is the area in which the
closed rivet maintains the two plates in close contact and this dictates
how far the rivets are spaced apart (together with the stress levels the
joint has to take). S of I is about 5 times the rivet diameter (5D) and can
vary depending on type of head.

(f) Countersinking. There are two methods used to allow for a countersunk
head to ensure a flush fit: drill countersinking and dimpling.

The first method should only be used on sheet metal of 18 SWG

(Standard Wire Gauge) or thicker since there is a danger of enlarging the
hole and weakening the joint on thinner material.

For drill countersinking a counter-sinking tool with the correct cutting

angle is used. If this is not available then a large twist drill can be used
with its cutting angle ground to the correct angle to suit the angle of the
countersunk head.

(g) Dimpling. Is a method of obtaining flush riveting with thin sheets using
special tools. This is a process for indenting the sheet material around a
drilled hole so that the countersunk head of the rivet sits flush with the
surface of the metal. A pilot hole is drilled first then the metal is dimpled
then the rivet hole is drilled to the final correct diameter.

- 10 -
(h) Jointing Compound. After the metal sheets have been drilled or dimpled
ready for riveting, they should be separated to remove swarf and burrs
and also to allow the specified sealant or chromate film to be applied.

Jointing compound is normally used to prevent galvanic corrosion

between dissimilar metals. Most manufacturers have a policy of ‘wet
assembly’.

(i) Sealants. Used to seal pressure cabins against air lose and rain water
ingress. Also used on floats and hulls of seaplanes/floatplanes to seal
against ingress of water. Also used in the sealing of integral fuel tanks.

It is important that the particular sealant specified for the particular job
only is used.

Before any sealant is applied, it is important to ensure that the surfaces

to which it is to be applied are clean and free from swarf and burrs.
Sealants are applied from the inside of the structure.

Metal Repair Procedure - General

Plan the repair before hand and proceed as follows:

(a) If necessary move aircraft into hangar.

(b) Consult the AMM if access has to be gained by the removal of
equipment/components.
(c) Consult the SRM to find the class of structure involved.
(Irrespective of this classification the repair will be carried out to
the highest standard as per the SRM.)
(d) Examine the primary damage and inspect the internal structure
for signs of secondary damage.
(e) Fit jury rigging and jack and trestle the aircraft as necessary.
(f) Carefully clean up all damage in order to classify it correctly eg,
negligible, repairable, replacement.
(g) Determine from the repair manual whether the damage is
negligible or within the repairable limits.
(h) Consult the repair diagrams and plan the repair. The plan to
include an overall plan of action and detailed plans for the repair
itself (sizes, pitches, spacing etc – all based on dimensions given in
the SRM).
(i) The material specification, gauge, and part numbers of materials
required will be given in the SRM.
(j) Use a pencil for all marking out - except cutting lines. Remember
that Al alloys are notch sensitive and will soon develop a crack
along a scribed line.
(k) Determine the type and length of rivets required.

- 11 -
 (l) Mark and drill one plate and use it as a template for the other.
(m) Check the work against the repair instructions at each stage of the
repair. The work should be inspected at suitable intervals.
(n) Check the alignment of the structure occasionally, if necessary.
(o) Any corrosion must be treated and protective films made good.
(p) Use jointing compounds.
(q) With repairs to pressurised areas use the recommended sealants
at mating surfaces and around rivets and joints.
(r) Repeat (q) above for integral fuel tank repairs.
(s) Pressure test the cabin (if repair to the hull) as stated in the
aircraft maintenance manual.
(t) After sealing integral fuel tank carry out pressure test and flow
check.
(u) Restore protective treatments.
(v) For large repairs carry out airframe rigging check.
(w) Re-configure any systems disturbed for access and test.
(x) Make sure all work sheets are ‘signed up’.
(y) Complete Tech Log entry and sign CRS.
(z) Check on what caused the damage in the first place and if the
incidence was avoidable. If it was then write a report as to how it
occurred making the necessary recommendations.

COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Defects/damage to composite structures include:

* Cracks.
* Bulges.
* Splitting – particularly inside the panel.
* Delamination.
* Debonding.
* Moisture/water ingress.
* Fibre failure.
* Dents.
* Scratches.
* Punctures.
* Fastener damage.
* UV (ultra violet) degradation.
* Erosion.
* Lightning strike damage.
* Fire damage.
* Signs of bowing and signs of damage to systems/equipment inside
the panel.

- 12 -
Cracks. These can pass right through the laminate. Where they occur they are
likely to run inline with the weft or warp plies of the material. The likelihood of
a crack occurring is considerably reduced by constructing composites of a
weft/warp material or laying consecutive weft-less plies at right angles to each
other.

Typically caused by impact damage or high local loads.

Matrix cracking is not visible on the surface and may be caused by thermal
stresses or moisture ingress.

Bulges. These may be a sign of delamination or debonding and may be

accompanied by water ingress.

Splitting. This is usually a sign of impact damage.

Delamination. This is the failure of the bond joint between two composite parts
or between a composite part and a metal part. Maybe the result of impact
damage, stress concentration, or more likely, poor quality of the initial bonding
process.

Debonding. This is similar to delamination.

Moisture Ingress. This can result from impact damage or from a poorly made
joint. The term ‘moisture’ can include water, fuels, “blue water” etc. Once in
the structure, the moisture can degrade the bond between the laminates/core
and can increase the damage area particularly if subject to freezing conditions.
Can show up as stains on the surface.

Fibre failure. Not common and not serious with secondary/tertiary structures
but more serious with major load bearing members. Due to poor quality
control at manufacture.

Dents. Usually caused by an impact event and may also be an indication of

underlying damage such as fibre damage, debonding, moisture ingress, matrix
cracking etc.

Scratches and gouges. May be caused by poor ground handling of the aircraft
and may hide similar defects as Dents above.

Punctures. This are holes in the visible composite which may hide further
damage – moisture ingress, delamination, fibre failure, matrix damage etc.
Usually the result of an impact.

Fastener damage. Damage around fasteners due to poor panel handling or

incorrect fastener location/placement. May hide further damage within the
panel.

- 13 -
UV radiation. This will degrade some composite fibres more than others, but at
any rate UV absorbing additives should be used on all outer surfaces of
composite build-ups.

Erosion. Erosion will occur on all leading edge surfaces (mainplanes, tail-
planes, fins, propellers, rotor-blades etc) irrespective of the material they are
made of. It is caused by small particles in the air such as rain, dust, insects,
etc.

Can lead to moisture ingress.

Lightning strikes. This will show up as surface damage to the material, not too
unlike impact damage, usually with signs of burning. Check any lightning
conductor strips for security and damage. Carry out an electrical bonding
check of the airframe and check all electrical/electronic equipment/systems
for correct functioning.

Electrical discharge damage to radomes may be difficult to detect. One method

is to pressurise the radome (off the aircraft and in a safety cage) to about 3psi
(20kPa) and check for leaks using uncured resin on the outside – which will
bubble if there is a leak.

Heat damage. Resins will not usually withstand high temperatures and when
burning will give off inflammable gases and thick smoke. When burned-off will
leave the fibre yarns behind.

Caused by structure being near to heat sources such as engine exhausts, air
conditioning ducts etc.

Collateral damage. Composite panels may spring back to shape after an

impact but if the panel hits equipment/systems/other structure inside the
airframe then they may sustain damage and act as a ‘tell-tale’ to the original
cause of the damage.

INSPECTION OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

With any of the above defects they will have to be found, classified and
repaired as per the SRM. First, they have to be found and that might not be
easy.

To some extent composites can be more difficult to inspect for flaws than metal
structures.

When subject to impact damage they can ‘spring-back’ and show little or no
sign of impact. Certain NDT techniques will not work with composites, eddy
current, magnetic particle etc, and whilst X-ray interpretation of negatives on
metals can be difficult the results of composite X-rays can be more so.

- 14 -
Visual Inspection

The area should be inspected in a good light for those defects listed above.
The structure should be inspected both sides as splitting may occur on the
inside of a panel where the only evidence of damage on the outside is a
scuffmark.

Additionally if damage is suspected the edges of the panel/area should be

inspected for signs of transmitted shock. The transmitted shock may show up
as damage to an adjacent panel/area or to damage and looseness of attaching
bolts, screws etc. It is important to note that if the panel/area has suffered
impact damage it could have moved in sufficient to damage systems/services
within the aircraft, so check these as well.

Coin Tapping

Where delamination is suspected a small metal object can be used to tap the
area and check for a change in the sound when tapping good structure
compared to when tapping un-sound structure. A coin about 1” (25mm) in
diameter is ideal. Tap lightly at the side of the area where delamination is
suspected and continue tapping while moving across the area. Any
delamination will be indicated by a change in the sound.

A tool called a Woodpecker can be used. This electronic tapping device has a
small tapping head than can be moved over the area and the sounds listened
to as before. Two small feet allow the tool to be rested against the surface to be
tested giving the tapping head the correct distance from the surface for best
results. The tool can be connected to a screen where the feedback signal can
be displayed.

Moisture Meter

A moisture meter may be used for checking for signs of moisture ingress. The
pencil size probe is held against the suspected surface and moisture is
indicated either on a dial or an LED display.

Infra-Red Thermography

This has been developed by Airbus Industries for detecting water ingress in
composite-sandwich structures.

Infra-red thermography is based on the principle that an object emits

electromagnetic radiation, the intensity of which is related to its temperature.

- 15 -
When a structure is heated and allowed to cool, water contaminated areas cool
more slowly than ‘dry’ areas and these area can be detected using an infra-red
camera. (The specific heat of water is 5 times higher than composite
materials).

The infra-red camera converts the thermal radiation into an electronic signal,
which is displayed in colour on a video screen.

Method

1. Clean and dry the area to be inspected (both sides).

2. Heat the area using a special electric blanket. The electric blanket
is temperature and time controlled so that it heats up slowly,
taking at least 15 minutes to reach 60°C. The temperature is held
at this value for a further 5 minutes.

Fig. 6 CRT SCREEN DISPLAY – INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY

3. The blanket is removed and the airframe allowed to cool. As it

cools the slower cooling ‘wet areas’ show up on an infra-red
scanning camera.
4. One engineer operates the scanning camera while another views
the output on a video monitor. Wet/damp areas are indicated in
colour as shown in figure 6.
5. When a wet area is shown the viewing operator tells the camera
operator. The camera is held still and the area on the panel is
marked for further investigation/repair.

Note. A typical system is the Agema Infra-red Systems Thermovision 210

which will detect a difference of 0.1°C at 30°C to an area down to about
10mm x 10mm contaminated with 10% water – and located on the
opposite side of the skin.

- 16 -
Ultra-Sonic Testing

Used mainly for detecting below-surface voids but also for surface flaws at a
point some distance from the place of accessibility.

High frequency sound waves, when transmitted through solid material, are
reflected by any discontinuity such as a void or a flaw. This reflection is
converted into a signal on a cathode ray tube (CRT) or flat screen display,
which can be interpreted by a trained operator.

These sound waves are above the audible frequency of the human ear and can
be transmitted in three different forms:

a) Longitudinal - in the same direction as the motion of the sound.

b) Transverse - perpendicular to the motion of the sound.
c) Surface - transverse waves along the surface of the material.

The pitch of the sound is controlled by its frequency and its speed through the
material by the characteristics of the material.

Each probe comprises a quartz crystal and sound damping material. When the
crystal is fed with an ac supply, it vibrates at the frequency of the received
input. These vibrations are passed into the material in a direction related to
the shape of the probe.

Fig. 7 ULTRA SONIC PROBES

The receiver crystal is vibrated by the received sound waves and generates an
ac supply, which is fed into the vertical axis of the CRT. The result is a line on
the CRT with a number of vertical ‘blips’.

- 17 -
 Fig. 8 ULTRA SONIC TESTING

To prevent any signal coming from the air gap between the probe and the
surface a couplant such as oil is used.

On material without any flaws there will be a vertical to represent the top
surface and another the bottom surface; the distance between them related to
thickness of material (distance travelled by the sound waves).

A void within the material will reflect the sound waves earlier and erect a
smaller vertical line on the screen between the first and second verticals at a
position related to its distance from the surface.

Note that the screen displays shown in figure 8 show a clear indication of a
defect. In reality the indications may be difficult to see and interpret. Also
expertise is needed to operate the probe as defect orientation may require
several passes using different sides of the material.

Radiography

A user-unfriendly system that produces X-ray pictures to be analysed. Using

either X or Gamma rays which can pass through almost all materials and
which are extremely dangerous to humans (as well as animals). This system is
not too unlike photography in general practice.

- 18 -
 Fig. 9 USING AN X-RAY MACHINE

Fig. 10 X-RAY EQUIPMENT

X-Rays

These are generated in an electron tube needing 250,000 Volts to give a better
picture quality than gamma rays. The electron tube (X-ray tube) is relatively
large which can give access problems.

- 19 -
Gamma Rays

Self-generated by radioactive isotopes, each isotope being about the size of a

overcoat button. Access into small spaces is easier – into shafts, etc. Has a
poorer picture quality than X-rays.

In general the process is as follows:

(a) Set up equipment with X-ray tube on one side of the part to be
checked and the (light sealed) negative on the other side.
(b) Place test piece in front of negative (this provides a density
comparator on the negative so that comparisons can be made
between it and the rest of the image).
(c) Check exposure times and distance of tube from part (distance
measuring rod supplied).
(d) Clear hangar of personnel and place warning signs around
aircraft.
(e) From remote control panel switch on tube and monitor the area.
(f) After the correct exposure time switch off tube and remove
equipment/signs. Allow maintenance personnel back on aircraft.
(g) Develop negative and analyse results.

The process requires a high level of expertise both in setting up the equipment,
calculating the exposure times and interpreting the X-ray results. The
equipment is also dangerous to use. Operators require a regular medical
check-up and wear a personal radiation dosimeter. Always stay out of roped
off areas.

QUESTION If a defect was found using any of the above methods, what action
would you take? (10 mins)

ANSWER If the crack or void is in a component then it will normally require

replacement, but check the manual first – some cracks might just
be allowed if they run in a certain direction and/or are in a certain
area and/or are below a certain length, but will normally need
stop drilling. If a crack or void is in a structural member it may be
classed as negligible (check SRM – the same parameters may
apply as above) and stop drill the ends of the crack. If the defect
is outside the negligible limits then the area must be repaired in
accordance with the SRM, or the part replaced.

If porosity is found then check the repair manual, but in general

the component is replaced, or the area repaired.

QUESTION What does ‘stop drill’ the end of the crack mean and why is it
carried out? (5 mins)

- 20 -
ANSWER The exact end of the crack is located (often very difficult) and a
drill is used to drill a hole right through the cracked material. This
has the effect of reducing the stress concentration at the crack
end to a lower concentration on the wall of the drilled hole, so
(hopefully) stopping the crack from propagating. Always inspect
the crack at a later date to see that it has not developed further.

QUESTION If an NDT team was to carry out an inspection on your aircraft,

what would be their relationship to you as a licensed engineer?
(5 mins)

ANSWER They would be requested by you or the senior engineer of the

company to carry out the NDT test. Their findings would be
recorded and signed for using their own documentation and they
would report back to you (or the senior engineer). They would
hand over their recorded findings and you would clear the defect
in the log-book (if no defect was found or after rectification carried
out) making reference to the NDT report.

QUESTION What parts of the aircraft would you carry out an NDT test on and
when? (5 mins)

ANSWER Those parts/components that the CAA/aircraft manufacturer or

your company tells you to or a part that you are highly suspicious
of. Airworthiness Directives/Service Bulletins will be sent from the
CAA/manufacturer to all operators of your aircraft to carry out a
particular check. The instructions will normally indicate a time
limit and if it says ‘before next flight’ it effectively grounds the
aircraft. In some cases a report has to be sent back to the
CAA/manufacturer of the findings.

Note. The student is advised to read CAP 747 GR 23 (was in AN 94) Personnel
Certification For Non-destructive Testing.

COMPOSITE REPAIRS

Repairs to composite structures is generally considered to be more difficult

than repairs to metal structures. Of course, all repair information, composite
and metal, is given in the SRM and most operators will use a “composites”
qualified person or team to carry out repairs. However, as a licensed engineer
you are required to know how this is done as the composites person will report
to you on completion of the repair.

For repairs involving cores the SRM usually specifies that the same type of
core is fitted to that which has been removed during the repair process.

- 21 -
Remember on radomes/dielectric covers the repair should be ‘radar
transparent’. The repair should also follow, as far as possible, the original
contour and shape of the original component.

Preparation and Mixing of Resins

In general always:

(a) Wear protective clothing, including goggles.

(b) Work in a well ventilated area.
(c) Mix the chemicals in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
(d) Wash the area thoroughly if chemicals come in contact with the
skin.
(e) Irrigate the eyes immediately with water if the chemicals come into
contact with the eyes – and seek medical advice.

The ingredients should be stored (normal maximum time 12 months) at

temperatures less than 10°C and be allowed to come to room temperature
before mixing and all materials, working areas, tools and utensils must be
kept thoroughly clean and dry.

Fig. 11 TYPICAL REPAIR TO CRACKED SKIN

- 22 -
The resin and additives should be carefully measured into a glass container in
the correct proportions as specified in the manufacture’s instructions. These
proportions may be specified as percentages by weight.

The catalyst should be thoroughly mixed into the resin before adding the
accelerator and any additional material such as fillers etc.

Pot Life

Once mixed the resin begins to cure and may have a pot life of between a few
minutes and several hours before it begins to gel. Always ensure the resin is
used well within it’s pot life time. Discard (in accordance with local
regulations) all time expired materials.

Fig. 12 TYPICAL REPAIR TO DELAMINATED SKIN

Curing

Most mixed resins will cure at room temperature within a few hours, but may
take several days to cure completely. It may be necessary to use heat to cure
the resin, so check the SRM for details. Heating may be carried out by the use
of lamps, electric heaters, electric blankets or ovens. Temperature control may
be by a thermostat or by marking the part with a special heat sensitive pencil
that changes colour at a specific temperature.

- 23 -
 Fig. 13 TYPICAL REPAIR WHERE BOTH SKINS
& CORE ARE DAMAGED

Film Adhesives

Some adhesives are supplied in film form and the amount required is simply
cut from a large sheet. They are generally easier to apply than liquid or powder
adhesives, but once the protective backing is removed it is most important that
the adhesive film is not touched as this will severely affect its adhesive
properties.

Figure 11 shows an example of a patch repair to a crack on the outer skin. The
ends of the crack are stop-drilled using a 3/16th (4.8mm) twist drill. Glass
cloth patches (3) are cut as per the SRM and using the mixed resin bonding
agent are cemented into position. Pressure is applied and this can be done
using a vacuum sheet stuck with double sided sticky tape to the skin. A
parting layer is used between the patches and the vacuum sheet, and vacuum
is applied from a vacuum pump via a valve in the vacuum sheet.

Figure 12 shows a typical repair where the outer skin is damaged and has to
be repaired by insertion. The skin is cut away without damaging the core using
a router (not easy as the skin and core are bonded together). Two glass cloth
inserts are cut and (using the mixed resin) placed into position. The glass cloth
patches are placed in the same way. Again, pressure is applied as before.

Figures 13, 14 and 15 show repairs where the core has been damaged and
requires replacement. Study each drawing and understand how the repair is
being carried out. As with the other repairs a router is used for material
removal, and sometimes wood chisels and the like are used to remove old resin
– which is difficult to do.

- 24 -
Limits are specified in the SRM as to the maximum length of crack/size of
damage, the minimum distance between repairs and the minimum distance
from the repair to the edge of the panel.

Fig. 14 EXAMPLE OF CORE REPAIR 3” (76mm) DIA MAX

Figure 15 shows an example from an SRM of an infill repair to a damaged

core. Note the limit to the size of the hole that can be filled with Kwikfill. This
is a proprietary mix using resin and hardener for the infilling of small holes.

General Repair Considerations

1. With reference to the AMM gain access.

2. Ascertain the exact extent of the damage and classify the repair
using the SRM (negligible – repairable – replacement etc). Damage
location may be achieved visually or using the ‘tap test’ or X-rays
(not always easy to interpret) or thermographic techniques (see the
book in this series on Non Destructive Testing).
3. Support or jury rig the structure if necessary.
4. Check the effect of the repair on radar transparency – if applicable.
5. Mix and use the resins in a warm dry atmosphere (min 20°C).
6. Remove resins from store and allow to attain room temperature for at
least 24 hours.
7. Remove paint from the area by sanding, then clean with acetone or
MEK and allow to dry.
8. Cut out the damage to a regular shape, stepped or otherwise, as per
the SRM dimensions.
9. Sand area if specified in the SRM.
10. Lay up the repair using cloth and resins in accordance with the
repair manual. Cloth may be weft and warp (plain) or weftless weave
depending on the SRM. Cloth yarns (weft/warp) normally laid in the
same direction as the original lay.

- 25 -
 11. Apply pressure to the repair using weights, clamps or vacuum bags
(usually vacuum systems are used).
12. Use a mould for more complex shapes made from wood or other
similar material to provide shape to the repair.
13. Use heater blanket (if specified) (figure 22) with thermostatic control.
Ensure temperature sensors are placed correctly next to the blanket
(as specified by the blanket manufacturer). If they are too far away
from the blanket it will get too hot and the repair will be over-cured
which could result in resin bubbling, burning and poor bonding.
14. Use a parting agent on the mould to prevent the resins from adhering
to the mould (cellophane or a parting agent).
15. Set up mould, heater blanket, vacuum bag etc and note start time.
16. After specified time (SRM) switch off blanket and remove.
17. Remove all traces of parting agent from the repair and clean.
18. Inspect the repair, repaint and carry out functional check of radar
antenna if necessary to check for radar transparency. Note safety
measures required when operating radar.
19. If a control surface check weight and mass balance and carry out
control system check plus an independent check.
20. Record all work done and clear the Log Book.
21. Reconfigure aircraft and test any disturbed systems. Record and
sign.

Fig. 15 EXAMPLE OF SMALL CORE REPAIR (1.5” 38mm DIA MAX)

CARBON FIBRE COMPOSITES (CFCs)

Like GRP it is made up of layers of fibre but carbon and not glass. It may be
pre-preg (already pre-impregnated with resin) or may be carbon fibre material
requiring a bonding agent between the layers. Once the layers are made up the
resin is allowed to cure – usually using heat and pressure (vacuum bags).

Materials

(a) Resins and other chemicals. Stored at -18°C usually has a shelf
life of 12 months – refer to manufacturers literature.
(b) CFC and Kevlar material stored in a dark room in their original
plastic containers. Kevlar is affected by uv light.

- 26 -
 (c) CFC pre-preg is stored at -18°C and again may have a shelf life of
12 months. May have a life of one month out of cold store.

All materials should be allowed to reach room temperature before being used.
This usually means keeping at room temperature for a period of 24 hours.

Damage

Like GRP, damage that does occur may be difficult to detect. It is therefore
important that if damage is suspected then a thorough investigation is carried
out over the whole area. The damage is usually associated with impact and the
inspection procedure is similar to that used with GRP.

Fig. 16 IMPACT ‘SPREAD’ ON CFC SKIN

X-rays may be used to check for internal damage/delamination on sandwich

structures and ultra-sonics may be used on monolithic structures. When
using ultra-sonics a couplant is used between probe and the part being tested
(oil or grease on metals). For CFCs a rubber tyred wheel or water is used.

Thermal Pulse Thermography (TPT) may be used. This process involves the use
of a high intensity thermal pulse and the rate of diffusion is measured. An
image of the thermal pattern is then displayed on a screen and a change in the
pattern will indicate a defect. Modern TPT systems will involve the use of
computers for storage and analysis of data.

Repair

The repair process is similar to that which is employed with GRP structures.

Equipment

The equipment will vary depending on the type and level of the repair being
carried out.

- 27 -
The following is a typical list of the equipment required:

* A CFC bay with everything kept scrupulously clean.

* Repair heaters - electrical heater mats thermostatically controlled.
* Vacuum pressure bags - to put the repair under pressure when
curing.
* Temperature probes – to monitor the temperature of the repair
when curing.
* Cold storage equipment.
* Various tools including diamond coated saw blades and diamond
tipped drill bits.
* Breathing equipment and a dust extraction plant. CFC particles
and dust are dangerous if breathed in and fumes from the
chemicals are toxic.

Repair Methods

These will be laid down in Chapter 51 of the SRM and may involve the use of
infill, metal patching, GRP lay-up, CFC lay-up, core replacement etc.

When assessing the damage always inspect an area much larger than the
‘obvious’ damage as the impact shock can travel through the material and
show up some distance away. For example – if it is damage to a panel, check
for security and damage at the panel attachments and check for transmitted
shock into the surrounding structure.

Of course, all these types are damage are laid down in the SRM, as are the
repair schemes.

In general the repair materials should be the same as the original component
unless specified otherwise.

General Repair Procedure

(You should be able to incorporate the appropriate parts of the repair

procedure from the glass fibre general repair procedure where appropriate.)

1. Clean and dry the repair area.

2. Remove the paint (by sanding) in the area taking care not to
damage the fibres.
3. Remove all traces of dust.
4. Remove the damage. Check that all the damage has been removed.
Scarf the edges as specified in the manual. The scarfed edge may
have a taper of 20:1. The core is removed by the use of a router.
5. Check the repair limitations in the repair manual.

- 28 -
 6. The fibre layers are laid up by hand and usually involve the use of
pre-preg material. This may be laid up at 0°, 45° and 90°.
7. Use might be made of ‘in-fill’, an insert, blind rivets, bolts, metal
patches etc.
8. Allow to ‘cold cure’ – use a vacuum bag or heat in an autoclave.
9. Inspect the repair and repaint if necessary.
10. Depending on what has been repaired check the system and sign
for all the work done.

Fig. 17 SKIN REPAIR - HOT CURE USING PRE-PREG

Two basic methods of repair:

(a) ‘Cold Cure’. Using room temperature (20°C min) or heater

blankets. Curing can take up to 7 days but with heater blankets
using temperatures of about 80°C the time can be reduced to less
than an hour – depending on materials, type of repair etc.

Considered a temporary repair which must be inspected regularly.

(b) ‘Hot Cure’. This process uses an autoclave with temperatures up

to 180°C and curing times as short as 45 minutes, again
depending on materials and type of repair.

- 29 -
Repairs to Sandwich Structure

The damaged core is usually removed and the void filled with a mixture of
adhesive and thickening agent, or a core plug of honeycomb is bonded into
position. The skin is then repaired in the same manner as already described.

Fig. 18 COLD CURE REPAIR USING

DOUBLER & VOID FILLER

Delamination and Debonding

Delamination occurs when two or more plies become separated from each
other – often due to impact. They may be repaired by layering or by injecting
adhesive through the rivet holes (drilled iaw the repair drawing) and riveted up
using blind rivets.

Debonding occurs when the honeycomb core separates from the outer skin.
Repair can be carried out by injecting adhesive into the honeycomb through
holes drilled in the skin. Pressure should be applied to the skin to ensure a
good bond between the skin and the core material.

Fig. 19 HOT BONDING USING A HONEYCOMB INSERT

Metal Patching

The metal patch may be bolted or bonded into position. Metal patching does
not attempt to restore the structure to its original strength or contour but is a
quick method of repairing small cracks or limited damage to non-primary
structures.

- 30 -
 Fig. 20 DELAMINATION REPAIR

Fig. 21 DEBONDING REPAIR USING INJECTED ADHESIVE

Fig. 22 TYPICAL COLD CURE REPAIR OF A HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE

USING HEATER BLANKET, VACUUM BAG & TEMPERATURE PROBES

- 31 -
Figure 22 shows an actual example taken from an aircraft SRM. Study the
drawing and note the following:

* The repair plies, insert core and adhesive.

* The vacuum bag – stuck down around the edges with bag seal
tape (double sided sticky tape).
* The vacuum hose connection.
* Parting films or layers – to stop the bleeder cloth plies/rubber
sheets from adhering to the repair.
* Bleeder cloth layers – to allow all air to be evenly drawn away from
the repair.
* Silicon rubber sheet to allow an even pressure over the whole area
of repair.
* The thermostatically controlled heater blanket with its electrical
supply. This should overlap the entire repair by 2” along all edges.
The drawing does not show this clearly.
* The temperature probes (thermostats). As shown in the drawing
the repair will seriously overheat as they are not under the heater
blanket. They must be located under the blanket.

Void Filler – Honeycomb Section

When repairing honeycomb section where the honeycomb is removed the void
must be filled with a core plug or filler compound. The type of filler will depend
on the size of the void.

In general small diameter voids are filled using:

* An adhesive and thickener.

* A resin mixed with micro balloons. The micro balloons are small
phenolic resin hollow spheres that help to produce a low-density
(light-weight) filler.
* Foam etc.

For larger holes a core plug is manufactured from the same material as the
original honeycomb and cemented into position with a resin mix/resin micro
balloons mix. The minimum size of hole where a manufactured plug must be
fitted is stated in the repair manual eg:

* A320/310 ……………………… above 2” in diameter

* Boeing 737 …………………….. above 0.5” in diameter
* DC9 …………………………….. above 2” in diameter

- 32 -
 Fig. 23 EXAMPLE OF A REPAIR TO DAMAGE NOT MORE
THAN 2” (51mm) DIAMETER ON THE A320

Fig. 24 REPAIR TO DAMAGE GREATER THAN 0.5” (13mm) DIAMETER

TO ONE SKIN & THE HONEYCOMB CORE – B737

- 33 -
Electrical Bonding

Some composite structures are electrically bonded to allow for a current path
for static electricity discharge. Embedded aluminium foil may be used and
external metal discharge strips. Aramid (Kevlar) has an aluminium foil ply.

Fig. 25 TYPICAL PLUG FITTING USED ON SOME AIRCRAFT

FOR DAMAGE GREATER THAN 1” (25mm) DIAMETER

Fig. 26 REPAIR TO DAMAGE 0.5” (13mm) OR LESS TO ONE SKIN

& HONEYCOMB CORE – B737

- 34 -
 Fig. 27 DETAILS OF A REPAIR TO MAINTAIN AN ELECTRICAL
PATH ACROSS A FOIL COVERED SURFACE – B737

AGEING, FATIQUE & CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAMMES

The operator in conjunction with the manufacturer of the airframe/engines/

systems will draw up a maintenance programme for the airframe, its systems
and the engines. This programme must be approved by the CAA.

For small aircraft a standard programme might be used. It is called a LAMS

schedule (Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedule). For large aircraft a special one
must be approved.

The inspection of the airframe may necessitate some dismantling - removal of

decor panels, insulation, equipment, inspection panels, etc, but in general
routine maintenance consists of regular visual inspections.

- 35 -
The inspection of the airframe includes the checking for:

* Corrosion.
* Cracks.
* Damage.
* Bowing.
* Buckling.
* Panting.
* Loose rivets.
* Missing and sheared rivets.
* Fretting (between panels and rivets and panels).
* Correct alignment – of mainplanes, tailplane, fin, engines etc.
* Contamination - especially around toilets and galleys.
* Moisture ingress.
* Serviceability of paint finishes and anti corrosive
treatments.
* Clearance of drainage holes.
* Security of attachment of other structure, engines, brackets, air
data probes, drain masts etc.
* Cleanliness.
* Bulging, water ingress, delamination, debonding, splitting,
damage and security of composite panels.

The inspection may need the use of lighting equipment, remote viewing
equipment and NDT methods where this is thought necessary. The inspections
are carried out in accordance with the schedule, but as a good maintenance
engineer ‘you have always got your eyes open’ so if you are near, or on, the
aircraft you should always be giving it a critical look.

Geriatric Aircraft

There are a number of quite old aircraft in service these days and because of
their age they require special attention in relation to the maintenance of the
airframe.

Most other components can be easily changed, but the airframe is a different
matter. When it starts to get old it will need greater attention.

Some items on the airframe might be lifed (eg the main spar). In that case it
will have to be changed when the airframe reaches that life time (usually
measured flying hours). It is an expensive process but the alternative is to
scrap the airframe.

The inspection of geriatric airframes is not a lot different from ordinary

airframe inspection, but inspection frequencies are greater and there is more
attention paid to detail particularly inspections for corrosion, moisture
contamination etc.

- 36 -
There is usually more NDT involved using X-rays, ultrasonics and eddy
current techniques.

All aircraft (but geriatric in particular) suffer from the effects of:

Corrosion. The longer any metal is exposed to the atmosphere the more
likely it is to suffer from corrosion. Where access is difficult on the
airframe this can be a serious problem.

Corrosion can be reduced by following a simple set of rules. These

include:

* Keep the aircraft in a well ventilated hangar if possible.

* If aircraft has to be parked outside, besides all the
precautions when parking/mooring ensure that covers etc
are fitted and if any rain gets in the reasons are investigated
and rectification action taken and the wet areas dried.
* For very old aircraft only take outside on fine dry days.
* Open doors and hatches often to allow ventilation.
* Inspect regularly for any signs of deterioration and rectify
immediately.
* Ensure all drains, drain holes etc are clear.
* Keep aircraft clean (wash outside regularly to remove dirt
which encourages corrosion). Keep free from any debris
which may collect inside the structure near drain holes etc.
* Ensure water is drained regularly from fuel systems.
* Ensure all toilets and galleys are kept clean and dry and
inspect these areas carefully as these are prone to corrode
because of water/urine proximity/splashes.

Ageing. Items can deteriorate because of the natural aging of certain

materials. This process affects natural fabrics, rubber, plastics and
composites. In particular they are likely to suffer from surface
cracks/crazing, lose of flexibility and lose of strength. Exposure to the
sun will generally speed up the process.

Components in this category include: tyres; flexible pipelines; flexible fuel

tanks/tank linings; door and window seals; control seals through
pressure bulkheads; internal sealants; interior décor panels; fabric
coverings (airframe and seat coverings) and all composite
structures/composite components.

Fatigue. A process of cyclic stressing of a part over a long period of time.

In this case each individual stress applied is well within the part’s normal
working maximum applied stress level, but over a period of time fatigue
stress will set in – particularly on Al alloys. This can show up as small
cracks.

- 37 -
A special maintenance schedule is followed and there is more frequent
consultations with the CAA and the manufacturer over such things as
allowable number of cracks, allowable crack lengths, strength of fabric
(fabric covered aircraft – usually small aircraft) etc.

As experience is gained with the airframe so modifications are carried out

to update/upgrade components, fitments, etc, (eg engine mounting pins –
early B747s) and the workload on the maintenance engineer becomes
greater.

There will generally be more service bulletins to read and inspections

related to service bulletins to be carried out.

There will be more airframe repair work carried out as panels, frames,
stringers and brackets become corroded or damaged and have to be
replaced.

For fabric covered aircraft original fabrics were usually made of natural
fibres (Irish linen, Madapalam etc). These tend to deteriorate with age and
regular fabric recovering of the whole airframe was necessary.

To help reduce this cost item the CAA have allowed the replacement of the
natural fabric with synthetic fabric (manufactured, of course, to CAA
approved standards). Synthetic fabrics have a longer life, being less prone
to rotting, insect attack etc and the complete re-covering of the airframe is
needed less often.

In general ‘geriatric aircraft’ are like geriatric anything - they require a

little more care and attention and maintenance schedules are made up in
consultation with the manufacturer and the CAA together with the
operator to cope with the increased maintenance requirement.

””””””””

- 38 -
Book 9 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1
BRAZING WELDING
BONDING

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1 EASA 66 7.15(b) ISSUE 03 0512

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without
prior written permission from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Metal joining 1
Brazing 2
Brazing materials 3
Joint preparation 4
Brazing methods 5
Braze welding 7
Flux removal 8
Aluminium & its alloys 8
Nickel alloys 10
Stainless steel 10
Safety precautions 10
Joint inspection 11
Welding 12
Oxy-acetylene 13
Arc 22
TIG 28
Atomic hydrogen arc 33
Carbon arc 34
MIG 34
Spot 35
Seam 43
Butt 45
Flash 44
Laser beam 48
Electron beam 49
Adhesive bonding 49
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book deals with subjects not often come across in aircraft maintenance
engineering. The processes of brazing and welding are almost never seen –
although some pipe fittings are brazed. However, they are in the EASA Part 66
syllabus so you are required to know them.

Bonding is increasingly used in aircraft construction, particularly where

composites are concerned.

This book deals with these subjects in a comprehensive manner and it is

possible that we have gone “too deep”, but the CAA do ask questions on them
so you should have at least some knowledge of how they are carried out. We
recommend that you read through the book so as to gain a general knowledge
of the processes described. Although the level in the syllabus is level 2 the CAA
do not tend to ask too many questions in this area.

The book is written for the category B1 engineer and there is no requirement
for it to be studied by the A line mechanic or B2 engineer.

If you can observe any of these precesses being carried out and/or look at the
equipment used then you should take the opportunity to do so. Remember,
particularly with welding and brazing, there are significant safety issues, so
observe all workshop safety rules and notices.

All these processes require considerable skill to perform correctly. Welding, in

particular, is difficult to do and made doubly so when used on aluminium
alloy. Welders must be approved (or work for a company with the appropriate
approval) to carry out arc-fusion welding (manual metal arc MMA, metal inert
gas MIG and tungsten inert gas TIG) on aircraft.

To verify a welder’s competency test sample welds must be submitted at least

every 12 months to the CAA for testing. Welding is carried out to drawings
specified by the CAA and approval is granted to cover one or a specified group
of metals. An approved welder cannot clear a CRS unless he/she is a type
rated licensed aircraft engineer or has approval as a licensed aircraft engineer.
The welder will normally sign work cards for the welding and report to the
licensed engineer.

continued
To verify a person for hand torch brazing of important parts a test sample
should be submitted every 6 months. The test piece should be submitted for
examination to a laboratory approved for the examination of welded joints and
should show satisfactory penetration into the joint of the filler with no defects.
If an operator fails a test he/she should undergo further practice and/or
training before resubmitting another test piece.

An additional competency test should be submitted whenever there is a

marked change in the material or types of joints being brazed

Note 1. Drawings from CAP562 may not be found in that publication due
to amendment action by the CAA.

Note 2. The term “Dissimilar metal fusion” has occurred recently in a CAA
question. Dissimilar metal fusion is the fusion during welding of
two different metals – base metal and filler for example. If the term
was used in the context of corrosion then it would apply to this
interface layer.
 METAL JOINING

Metals can be joined using:

* Soldering.
* Brazing.
* Welding.
* Adhesive bonding.
* Riveting.
* Special fasteners, bolts etc.

Soldering employs a low melting point solder melted between the parts to be
joined and once solidified produces a reasonably strong joint – but not strong
enough for structural purposes. Used for electrical connections, plumbing etc.
In general, uses a solder, soldering iron and flux. Some skill is required. See
the book on electrical cables in this series for more details.

Brazing is similar to soldering but uses brass in place of solder. The melting
temperature is higher and the joint stronger. Used where a stronger joint is
required than will be obtained with soldering. In general, uses a blow torch,
brass rod (spelter) and flux. More skill is required.

Welding is a process where the two metals to be joined are clamped together
and are themselves melted locally, and while being held still the melted area
(weld pool) is allowed to cool, solidify and become, effectively, one piece of
metal. Correctly carried out produces the strongest joint possible. Used on
structural steel parts. Is also used on structural aluminium alloy parts but the
process is difficult. In general, uses a blow torch and filler rod. Considerable
skill is required.

Bonding is a process whereby chemicals are used as a ‘glue’ to chemically

bond metal parts (and non metals) together. Uses chemicals, vacuum bags,
clamps, heat (sometimes) and a reasonable amount of skill.

Riveting is mainly used for sheet metal joining but is used on non metals, by
the insertion of headed dowels (rivets) into holes in the metal and the free end
(tail) of the rivet peened, or otherwise formed into a head. The process uses
rivets and riveting tools, and the skills required varies depending on the type of
rivet being formed.

Rivets, fasteners, nuts, bolts etc are covered in other books in the LBP series
modules 6 and 7.

-1-
 BRAZING

The process is similar to soldering (see other book in the module 7 LBP series)
except that the temperatures are higher and brazing spelters are used instead
of solder. Usually applied to ferrous metals (listed in BS1782) and produces a
stronger joint than soldering.

The equipment required includes:

* Oxy-acetylene, gas/air torch, ovens etc.

* Brazing paste or flux – to help remove oxides and improve flow-
ability of molten joining material.
* Brazing spelter or filter rod – brass or similar.
* Safety goggles, safety gloves and safety apron.

The general method involves:

1. Clean the parts to be joined and apply flux.

2. Clamp parts in position and pre-heat.
3. Dip spelter into flux and melt into (small) gap between the parts.
4. Allow parts to cool, clean and inspect the joint.

Fig. 1 TYPICAL BRAZED JOINTS

After brazing the joint should be inspected to ensure that it is clean and all
traces of flux removed and check that the spelter has melted and flowed
completely through the joint (X-ray if necessary).

Brazed joints can be dismantled by applying heat in a similar way to soldered

joints except a blowlamp, oxy-acetylene torch or an oven is used.

-2-
Brazing means the joining of materials by a process in which a molten filler
alloy is drawn by capillary attraction into the space between the adjacent
surfaces of the parts to be joined. The parts to be joined are known as the
basic, or parent metals.

Low temperature brazing, also known as silver soldering, silver brazing or hard
soldering, is a process which uses filler alloys based on silver, copper and zinc
with a melting temperature in the range 600°C to 850°C. The strength of a
joint brazed with silver brazing alloy is often equal to the strength of the
materials being joined.

When brazing is carried out with filler alloys of high melting temperature with
spelters made from a copper zinc alloy (brass typically containing 50% of each)
grain growth and softening of the parent metal may occur, this necessitates
further heat treatment to restore the required parent metal properties.

Bronze Welding is a term used to describe brazing using a brass or bronze

spelter with a joint temperature of about 800-900°C.

The strength of the joint depends on the area between the parent metals and
the completeness of penetration of the molten spelter between the joint, and,
to a lesser extent, on the thickness of the film, a thin film producing the
strongest joint.

Overheating during brazing can have an adverse effect on the strength of a

joint. Care is necessary, when using a hand torch, to ensure that the flame is
suitable for the work in hand, otherwise grain growth, burning, distortion or
even melting of the parent metal may result. Care is necessary when using an
oxy-acetylene torch, which has a flame temperature in excess of 3000°C.

The strength of the joint at high working temperatures depends mostly on the
type of filler alloy used and in general terms the silver brazing alloys having
the lowest melting temperature are suitable for continuous working
temperatures up to about 250°C.

When dissimilar metals are joined (having different rates of thermal

expansion), the possibility of stresses resulting from differential contraction
during cooling is reduced by the use of low temperature filler alloys.

Flux should be removed after brazing by washing in hot water. With dissimilar
metals or with sudden changes in section, washing should not be carried out
until the parts are cool otherwise stress cracking could occur.

BRAZING MATERIALS

The filler alloys (spelters) and fluxes for aircraft parts must conform to BS1845
or to DTD 900 specifications.

-3-
Brazing Spelters

Filler alloys are available in rod, wire and strip form, and in some instances in
granular form. Whilst the majority of hand torch operations require the filler
alloy to be fed by hand from a rod, wire or strip, better results can sometimes
be obtained by placing the brazing alloy in a predetermined position in the
joint, and heating the assembly by means of a fixed torch or electrical oven.
Filler alloy inserts for this purpose usually take the form of wire rings, foil,
washers or pressings of special shapes.

A silver brazing alloy in the form of a paste or paint is also available and
consists of finely divided filler alloy, flux and a volatile liquid medium.

Fluxes

The function of a flux is to dissolve oxides and reduce the surface tension of
the molten filler alloy to allow it to flow better between the joint.

The flux used should be specified by the supplier of the filler alloy, since a flux
suitable for one filler alloy may not be suitable for another. An example of this
is borax, which has a higher melting temperature than some of the filler alloys
and, in this case, its use may result in flux entrapment.

Fluxes are normally supplied in powder form and are made up in accordance
with the manufacturers’ instructions.

Brazing Jigs

Parts should be positioned and supported so that they are held during the
brazing process with allowance being made to permit expansion and
contraction to take place due to heating and cooling. In some cases (with
delicate, complex, or large component parts) a locating jig is used.

JOINT PREPARATION

Immediately before brazing mechanically remove any scale, grease, dirt, paint
and moisture. Blasting – for some metals using crushed steel shot is not
suitable, so a stainless steel wire brush is used. Degrease the area with
trichloroethylene or a similar solvent, then clean as described below.

Steels. If a pickling process is required, a heated acid solution used.

Nickel Based Metals. If pickling is necessary, check on the applicability of the

process as it may result in intercrystalline attack.

-4-
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. Mechanically clean by abrasive blasting with
alumina grit or by brushing with a nylon bristle brush. If an etching process is
required the part should be immersed in an acid solution for 30 minutes, and
washed in water and dried.

Copper and Copper-Based Alloys. The surface may be cleaned by mechanical

means such as alumina abrasive blasting or using abrasive cloths finally
cleaning with a solvent. The parts may also be etched by immersion for two
minutes in an acid solution.

BRAZING METHODS

Capillary attraction is the major factor in making a brazed joint and although,
in theory, there is no limit to the extent of penetration by capillary attraction,
in practice this is dependent on the dimensions of the joint. The best results
are obtained where a joint gap of 0.05mm to 0.1mm (0.002” to 0.004”) is used.

Heating

May be classified into four categories, ie torch, induction, resistance and

furnace.

Torch Brazing. Requires a skilled operator, is inexpensive and widely used. For
the flame oxygen may be combined with acetylene, hydrogen, propane or coal
gas; air with propane, butane or methane. Of these the most commonly used
is oxygen/acetylene.

Induction Brazing. The parts to be brazed are placed in a high frequency ac

coil.

Since the heating effect is influenced by the thermal conductivity and electrical
resistance of the component, copper and similar materials will take longer to
heat up than materials such as iron or nickel. This method is suitable for high
speed brazing of ferrous materials in production line quantities.

Induction machines may use 15kVA at frequencies ranging from 100kHz to

3MHz and are usually fitted with timing mechanisms to control heating time.
The coils are usually made from copper tube through which water is passed
for cooling purposes but solid copper coils may also be used.

Paste flux and pre-placed filler alloy are often used, but in some instances, eg
when brazing titanium pipe fittings, brazing may be carried out in an argon
atmosphere where no flux required.

Resistance Brazing. Used where precise localised heating is required to prevent

loss of mechanical properties throughout the parent metal.

-5-
A high current of low voltage is passed through a resistive circuit so that the
heat developed in the circuit raises the temperature in the joint area to the
brazing temperature. There are two main methods in use, carbon resistance
heating and interface heating.

In carbon resistance heating the electrodes are made from carbon, which have
high resistivity and heats up quickly. The electrodes are in direct contact with
the area to be brazed and heat is conducted into the workpiece.

In interface resistance heating the electrodes are made from, or faced with, a
material of relatively low resistivity. Most of the heat is developed through the
resistance to the passage of current at the electrode/work interface and some
is also developed in the work itself. The amount of heat in the workpiece is
higher than in the carbon electrode method.

Furnace Brazing. The advantage of this system is that high output rates can be
achieved. An inert or reducing atmosphere is used to prevent oxidation. Steel
or nickel alloys can be furnace brazed using a copper or bronze filler alloy.

Brazing is usually carried out in a controlled atmosphere of cracked ammonia,

or hydrogen. Flux is not normally required although it may be used.

Furnace brazing of aluminium and aluminium alloys is common. Brazed joints

may be made either by the use of inserts of aluminium brazing alloy, or by
using sheets with an integral coating of brazing alloy. The use of a suitable
flux is essential. Since the difference in melting temperature between the filler
and the metal is small, close control of the furnace temperature is important.

THE BRAZING PROCESS

After cleaning the flux should be applied in the form of an aqueous paste, both
to the joint area of the assembly and to the filler alloy (the filler rod is
continuously dipped into the flux paste during the brazing process). If the
overlap of a joint exceeds 4.75mm (3/16 inch) the surfaces should be coated
with flux prior to assembly.

Heat the joint quickly but do not overheat. When an oxy-acetylene flame is
used, a larger flame should be employed than when used for welding. The
envelope of the flame should be kept on the move over as large a portion of the
joint as possible, since a static flame is likely to cause local overheating.

Heating should be started with the torch held a few inches from the work so
that the flame spreads over a large area. Where parts of unequal thickness are
brazed, the flame should be concentrated on the heavier part.

As heat is applied, the flux first bubbles then settles down to a thin clear
liquid. When this stage is reached, the work is approaching the correct
temperature for application of the brazing alloy.

-6-
The brazing filler strip or rod should then be placed in contact with the joint,
but if the filler does not melt on contact with the work, it should be removed
and the heating continued until the correct temperature is reached.

When the brazing alloy melts in contact with the joint, it should be melted into
the joint. When this stage is reached and the molten filler has had time to
penetrate the joint fully, heating should be discontinued. Unless there are
specific instructions to the contrary it is usual to quench the joint in water
after the filler has set.

Oxy-acetylene Flame

A neutral flame (equal amounts of oxygen and acetylene) should be used,

except when copper-zinc, copper-zinc-silicon or copper-zinc-nickel-silicon filler
alloys are employed, when an oxidising flame (more oxygen) is necessary.

Torches

Brazing torches vary in design. When oxy-acetylene is employed, a welding

torch, together with the normal welding equipment, is used, the flame being
adjusted to suit the brazing work in hand. There are several types of torches
available. A typical hand held torch has:

* Controls for the gas and air supplies.

* A built-in economiser that cuts off the gas and air supply when
the operator’s grip is relaxed and restores the flame when the
torch is again held.
* A pilot flame adjustable to suit different gas pressures.
* Interchangeable flame units to provide various flame
characteristics to suit a range of work and gas combinations.

Air is supplied by an electric blower; a foot operated bellows; a compressed air

bottle, or the normal workshop supply suitably regulated to the required
pressure.

BRAZE WELDING

Also known as Bronze Welding, it is suitable with high melting point metals in
which the main strength of the joint is obtained by building up a fillet of filler
alloy. No fusion of the joining metals takes place but some penetration of the
filler alloy into the joint gaps may occur through capillary action.

Filler rods for braze welding are specified in BS 1724 and are basically a
copper/zinc alloy, but may contain quantities of nickel, manganese, silicon or
tin, depending on the metals being joined. Proprietary types of fluxes are used,
usually recommended by the braze welding rod manufacturer.

-7-
FLUX REMOVAL

Flux residue is likely to cause corrosion and if the residue cannot be

neutralised it should be removed after the completion of brazing by either
chemical or mechanical means.

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

1. Wash in boiling water for 10 to 60 minutes.

2. Rinse in clean hot water.
3. Wash in a solution of nitric acid in water at a temperature of 65°C
for 20 minutes.
4. Rinse in clean water and inspect visually for signs of flux residue.

If flux residue is still present repeat the above except another bath is used with
sodium dichromate added and the soak time is 30 minutes.

With other materials, where no harmful effects can occur, flux removal is
assisted by quenching/washing the work in water. The parts should be
thoroughly dried to avoid corrosion.

Fluoride Fluxes. Wash in hot or boiling water, followed by brushing with a wire
brush. In difficult cases, soak in a cold solution of sulphuric acid in water,
followed by washing in water and subsequent brushing.

Borax Fluxes. These fluxes are only slowly soluble in water. They may be
removed by the methods specified above but mechanical methods such as
blasting maybe necessary. Sometimes removed by being dissolved in a hot
caustic soda solution.

ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOYS

It is much more difficult to braze Al alloy as the filler metal is aluminium-

silicon with a melting point only slightly lower than that of the parent metals.
Consequently there is a small margin between the melting point of the filler
and the melting point (and collapse) of the parent metals. Accurate control of
temperature (and a qualified welder) is therefore important.

BS 1845 gives a list of the filler materials which are suitable.

Many types of proprietary fluxes are available and these are generally of the
alkali halide type and the recommendations of the manufacturer of the filler
material should be observed. A standard aluminium brazing flux containing
chlorides of sodium, potassium and lithium gives satisfactory results when
used with aluminium which has been chemically cleaned.

-8-
Most fluxes for Al alloys absorb moisture quickly and their efficiency is
reduced accordingly. It is essential, therefore, that fluxes should be stored only
in aluminium or glass airtight containers.

The three main methods of brazing aluminium and aluminium alloys are:
torch or flame brazing, furnace brazing and flux dip brazing.

Torch Brazing

Needs more skill than other forms of brazing. A standard welding torch is
suitable for most aluminium brazing. The flame should be a neutral or a
slightly reducing flame.

Furnace Brazing

The temperature required is strictly controlled within the range of 540°C to

650°C, according to the material being brazed. The general requirements for
brazing aluminium are, a rapid rise in temperature, a short period at the
brazing temperature and rapid cooling to solidify the brazing alloy.

In general, soaking times are (from when the brazing temperature is reached to
when the gap is completely filled) - sheet 2 to 6 minutes plus 4 to 15 minutes
for complete furnace treatment. Heavier sections may take up to half-an-hour.

Heat-treatable alloys must be re-heated treated and quenched at the

appropriate temperature to restore their properties. Quenching also helps
remove some of the residual flux.

Flux Dip Brazing

Flux dip brazing is used largely in the production of assemblies having a large
area of jointing in relation to their size, for example, heat exchangers or
radiators and is useful for the brazing of parts in an inaccessible position
which cannot be brazed by other methods. This process is suitable for any Al
alloy that is suitable for furnace brazing.

The parts are cleaned, assembled with pre-placed filler material and heated in
a furnace to a temperature just below the melting point of the filler alloy. They
are then transferred to a bath containing molten flux at a temperature high
enough to melt the filler, but not the parent metal. They are removed as soon
as the filler has flowed through the joints.

-9-
Properties of Brazed Aluminium Joints

As the brazing temperature is higher than the recrystallisation temperature of

Al and Al alloys, annealing takes place during brazing. Brazed assemblies
made of non heat-treatable alloy have their design strength based on the
strength of the annealed material.

Suitable assemblies made of heat-treated alloy of the aluminium-magnesium-

silicon type may be strengthened after brazing by quenching, followed by
natural or artificial ageing according to the requirements of the specification.
Alternatively, assemblies may be re-heat-treated to restore the full strength of
the metal.

NICKEL ALLOYS

Most of the high nickel content alloys can be joined by silver brazing, but may
be subject to intercrystalline penetration by the filler alloy if brazed in a state
of stress. When high melting point filler alloys are used all stresses are
relieved during the brazing process but, if low melting point filler alloys are
used on heavily worked components, stress cracking may result if the
components are not stress-relieved prior to brazing. Nickel alloys should
normally be brazed in the annealed condition.

STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel (SS) parts can be joined by brazing.

When SS is heated, the formation of chromium carbide within the metal

reduces the amount of chromium available and may decrease its resistance to
corrosion. This is known as weld decay and has been largely overcome by the
use of ‘stabilised’ steels containing titanium or niobium. If it is necessary to
braze unstabilised SS the effects of carbide precipitation may be minimised by
keeping the brazing temperature and heating time to a minimum.

Joints in nickel-free stainless steel often suffer from crevice corrosion. Silver
brazing alloys are generally employed where this type of corrosion is likely.

Fluoride fluxes are normally used when brazing with silver brazing alloys, but
special fluxes may be specified because of the formation, during brazing, of a
thin film of residue which is insoluble in normal flux.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

All brazing operations involve the use of flame or heat, hot metals and fluxes,
which may be toxic under certain conditions. All working areas must have
adequate ventilation.

- 10 -
Wear heat proof gloves and eye protection, and if parts are very hot handle
with tongs. If burnt irrigate area with copious amounts of cold water and seek
medical attention. If contact is made with flux wash immediately with copious
amounts of water.

Torches should always be pointed away from the operator when being lit and
should be lit from the side or from below. If possible, hand torches should be
fitted with a switch hook, in which a pilot jet and hook are connected to a
valve in the gas supply. When the torch is hung from a hook, its weight cuts
off the main gas supply but when it is picked up the flame relights.

Furnaces and ovens are hot and some use open flame – so be careful. With
induction brazing any metal parts on the body (watches, rings etc) can get hot
if near the induction coil – so take them off or keep away. Do not touch the coil
when on.

Brazing should always be carried out in a location away from flammable

materials, behind refractory brick or heat resistant walls/curtains and with
plenty of fresh air.

If salt baths are used for heat treatment purposes any molten salts splashed
onto the body will cause severe burns. Wear protective clothing, including
overalls, gloves and goggles. Components must be completely clean and dry
before being immersed in the bath as any contamination will cause violent
eruptions.

Always wash hands thoroughly after handling salts and if splashed treat as a
severe burn and seek medical advice.

JOINT INSPECTION

At intervals on a production run a completed joint should be selected and

subjected to strength tests and sectioning (destructive testing).

For all joints the following points should be checked:

1. The joint should be free from pitting, corrosion, scale, flux residue
and other evidence of poor workmanship.
2. The filler alloy must have penetrated through the joint with no
obstruction of internal bores on pipework.
3. Fillets of filler alloy should be smooth and continuous.

For a more detailed examination X-ray, ultrasonic or eddy current inspections

may be used.

- 11 -
 WELDING

Generally needs more skill than brazing and produces a strong pressure tight
joint the strength of which is equal to or greater than the parent metals. The
principle employed is the local melting of the two parent metals into one. The
joint cannot be dismantled unless it is re-melted (damaged).

Categories are:

* Plastic welding which requires heat and pressure.

* Fusion welding which requires heat only.

Types

Oxy-Acetylene Welding – Uses a oxy-acetylene welding torch, a filler rod and a

flux. The torch is supplied with oxygen from an oxygen cylinder (Black) and
acetylene from an acetylene cylinder (Maroon).

Resistance Welding – eg spot and seam welding. Uses a high current low
voltage supply (eg 30,000 amps). When current is passed through the metals
the resistance causes the temperature to rise and the metals to welded
together.

The electrodes act as the conductors, are water-cooled and exert pressure on
the metals to be joined.

Arc Welding – A fusion process where the heat required is obtained by striking
an electric arc between the electrode and the parts to be welded. The arc will
produce heat up to 3500°C using 50 to 100Vac at 10 to 300 amps or dc at
50V. The electrode is used as the filler rod and is consumed.

Argon Arc Welding – Similar to arc welding but a stream of argon gas is caused
to flow over the weld area. This reduces oxide formation making a cleaner and
stronger joint. This allows some metals to be welded which would otherwise be
difficult, eg Al alloys; nickel alloys; non corrodible and heat resisting steels.
The electrode may be consumed – similar to ordinary arc welding – or the
electrode may remain intact and a filler rod used. Supply is up to 100V @ 300
amps ac.

(TIG Welding = Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. MIG Welding = Metal Arc Inert
Gas Welding).

If the electrode is consumed it is usually fed automatically as a wire electrode

to the welding gun.

Laser Beam Welding – Using localised heat produced by a concentrated laser

beam.

- 12 -
Welding Materials/Equipment - General

Filler Rods. Usually made of the same material as the metals being welded but
must comply with BS1453.

Fluxes. Reduces the effect of oxidation and helps float oxides and impurities to
the surface of the weld pool. The type of flux to be used is specified by the filler
rod manufacturer.

Flux Removal. If it is of the corrosive type it is removed using boiling water.

For Al alloy a weak solution of nitric acid in boiling water is used.

Electrodes. Various electrodes are used including tungsten for arc welding/TIG
welding. Electrode wire for arc welding (MIG/TIG). Some are water cooled
others are round for seam welding.

Power Supplies. For spot, seam and arc welding including transformer/rectifier
units.

Spot & Seam Welding Machines. For spot and seam welding.

Oxygen Cylinders, acetylene cylinders and torch. For oxy-acetylene welding.

Protective Clothing.

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

In this process, oxygen and acetylene gases are fed through a welding torch,
the pressures and quantities of each being separately controlled. The stream of
mixed gas is ignited and produces a flame with a temperature about 3100°C
(5600°F). This is used to melt the parent metals.

Filler rods are normally used for materials of 0.9mm (20 swg) and thicker, and
a flux is generally used to remove oxides and to ensure a sound weld. Different
materials use different filler rods and/or fluxes.

This process should not normally be used for welding magnesium or high-
nickel alloys and is not recommended for SS; inert gas or plasma arc welding
are more suitable for these materials.

Always follow the approved drawing which should specify:

* Type of weld process to be carried out and type of joint.

* Specification of the parent metals.
* Specification of filler rod and type of flux.
* Details of joint preparation, cleaning procedure, welding
instructions (eg tack weld, clamp, starting position) etc.

- 13 -
 * Heat treatments (if any) and flux removal methods.
* Inspection and any related tests.

WELDING EQUIPMENT

Gas Cylinders

The oxygen cylinders are painted black, have a round bottom, have a right-
hand threaded valve with black hoses with right hand threads. Acetylene
cylinders are maroon, have a left-hand threaded valve, have a flat bottom and
use red hoses fitted with left hand threads.

Grease or oil (including greasy, or dirty hands) in any form should not be
allowed to come into contact with oxygen cylinders, valves, welding equipment,
etc since these will ignite spontaneously when in contact with oxygen under
pressure.

Acetylene can form explosive compounds when in contact with certain metals
and alloys (eg copper and silver), it is, therefore, important that all fittings
through which acetylene is to flow have been designed for that purpose.

Gas Generators

Where acetylene gas generators are used, a daily check for gas purity is
necessary. Blotting paper soaked in a 10% aqueous solution of silver nitrate
should show no darkening when placed in the gas stream.

Gas Supply Pipework

Oxygen vigorously supports combustion and has no smell so is difficult to

detect. Conversely, acetylene has an unmistakable smell and will ignite and
burn instantly from a spark or even a piece of heated metal. A dangerous
condition could arise as a result of leakage in equipment, particularly in
confined spaces and the feed system should be checked periodically to ensure
there are no leaks.

Pressure gauges should be checked periodically against a master gauge to

ensure accuracy and records kept.

Torches

Various size torch nozzles are available for different kinds of work and depend
on the nature of the work, thickness and type of material and the skill of the
welder. Check with instructions issued by the equipment manufacturer.

- 14 -
Before lighting the torch the regulators must be set to the correct pressures
and the light must be applied only when a full flow of gas is established,
otherwise a flashback may occur. The use of a spark lighter is recommended.

Follow the manufacturer’s instructions as regards the procedure for lighting

and operating the equipment, and the safety precautions to be taken in the
event of a cylinder becoming heated due to a flash-back or other incident.
Failure to comply with these may cause the cylinder to heat up and burst.

If the flame goes out, it may be caused by the regulator pressure and/or the
gas flow being incorrect, obstruction of the nozzle, the nozzle being held too
close to the work or to overheating of the nozzle. When this occurs both torch
valves should be closed, the condition rectified and the torch re-lit.

Fig. 2 OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING SET

MATERIALS

Because of the wide choice of available materials it is not possible within the
scope of this book to give a list of all weldable metals. It is essential to ensure
that the material to be welded and the welding procedure used are those as
specified in the drawing.

- 15 -
Filler Rods

In general, these are made of the same material as the parent metals but there
are exceptions. Unless otherwise stated filler rods should comply with BS 1453
entitled ‘Filler Materials for Gas Welding’.

Filler rods should be stored in a warm, dry atmosphere, to prevent the pick-up
of moisture which can cause porosity in welds.

Fluxes

With most metals, except steel, the melting temperature of the metal is below
the melting point of the oxides formed by heating and therefore the oxides
remain as solid particles. Flux reduces the effects of oxidation, floats oxides
and other impurities to the surface of the weld pool where they do no harm,
and produces a stronger weld. Fluxes are not used for the welding of carbon
steels because the oxides of the various elements unite and form a slag at a
temperature lower than that of the molten metal and the slag floats to the
surface of the weld pool.

Unless otherwise specified use the flux as recommended by the filler rod
manufacturer.

Most welding fluxes absorb moisture readily (reduces efficiency) which will
cause porosity in the weld. Fluxes are kept in airtight containers made of
aluminium or glass, but steel or brass should not be used as these materials
cause contamination of the flux.

JOINT PREPARATION

Most joints are so designed so the parts to be joined are of the same, or
similar, thickness. The edges to be joined are shaped or machined as per the
drawing and cleaned mechanically and chemically. They are clamped in a jig
or tack welded to prevent movement during the welding process. Tack welding
is the process of welding a small area every so often along the seam to be
welded.

Fillet Welds. The edges are chamfered for materials of 1.6mm (16 swg) and
thicker. For materials in the thickness range of 1.6 to 2.5 mm (16 to 12 swg) a
single chamfer is used where welding from both sides is not possible, but for
materials thicker than 2.5mm (12 swg) a double chamfer is used. Materials
thinner than 1.6mm (16 swg) should be welded from one side only to avoid
burning and weakening the metal.

Fillet welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys is not normally

recommended because of the danger of flux entrapment which could led to
corrosion. However, if fillet welding is required then the joint should be
completely sealed.
- 16 -
Butt Welds in Metals other than Al Alloys. Prepared edges are not usually
required for materials thinner than 1.6mm (16 swg) but to ensure weld
penetration in thicknesses up to 3.2mm (10 swg) it is usual to chamfer the two
adjacent edges thus forming a ‘V’ with an included angle of about 120°.

Butt Welds in Aluminium Alloys. For metals thinner than 2.0mm (14 swg) no
edge preparation is necessary but it is usual to leave a gap equal to the
thickness of the material between the edges of the two sheets. For thicker
metals the edges are usually prepared as above, except that the angle is
smaller (say 60 to 70°) and a gap not exceeding one-third the thickness of the
material should be left between the sheets.

Welds in Tubular Sections. The preparation of tube ends will depend on the
gauge of the material and the design of the joint. Where tubes intersect,
special instructions will be given on the drawings regarding the fit of the tubes.

Where a tube or a tubular structure is sealed a hole should be drilled in a

specified position to allow the expanded hot air to escape. When welding has
been completed and the work has cooled down, the hole should be plugged (eg
by welding) to avoid ingress of moisture.

Note. Some tubular structures, such as engine bearers, are protected by the
introduction of a corrosion inhibiting fluid into the tube after welding.

Surface Cleaning

All scale, grease, dirt, paint etc should be mechanically removed for a
minimum distance of 25 mm (1 inch) each side of the edges to be welded. Any
pickling process used must be in accordance with the drawing.

Aluminium and its Alloys. Vacuum blast edges or brush with a SS bristle
brush. The use of brushes with copper alloy bristles should be avoided
because of the corrosion hazard which could result from prices of bristle
becoming embedded in the surface. Chemically clean using the process
described under brazing.

Steels. Low carbon and alloy steels are sand, shot or alumina blasted or by
brushing with a wire brush. Corrosion-resisting or heat-resisting austenitic
steels are cleaned as described for brazing.

WELDING JIGS

The accurate assembly of welded parts may necessitate the use of special jigs
which will be unaffected by changes in temperature. The jigs should permit
free access to the area to be welded and be rigid, but allow for the expansion
and contraction of the parent metals.

- 17 -
STRESS & DISTORTION

During welding operations the parts are in varying conditions of expansion

and contraction caused by the local very high temperatures involved.

Reduction of localised heat can be achieved by welding in short lengths, either

with each length ending where the previous one began, or with each length as
far apart from the previous one as possible.

When butt welding sheets, particularly when jigs are not available, distortion
can be reduced if the joint is ‘tack’ welded at suitable intervals prior to
commencing the finishing weld.

WELDING AL ALLOYS

The oxy-acetylene welding process is used mainly for aluminium alloy sheet,
which is less than about 2.0mm (14 swg) thick; sheets of greater thickness are
normally welded by the inert gas arc welding process.

The melting point of aluminium is low and heat is conducted through the
material is quick. There is very little physical indication or colour change that
the metal is approaching the melting point and when it does it collapses
suddenly. The metal is weak at temperatures near the melting point and
adequate support should be provided.

Application of Flux

The flux may be prepared for application by mixing it with methylated spirit to
a free-flowing consistency and then applying it with a brush or dipping the
filler rod into the mixture. The methylated spirit will dry off rapidly and will
have no adverse effect.

When it is necessary to apply dry flux to the filler rod, the end of the rod
should be heated and dipped into the powder. The deposit of powder adhering
to the rod should be melted and allowed to run over the rod surface for about
150mm (6 in) of its length.

When welding alloys containing magnesium, it is recommended that, in

addition to applying flux to the rod, a layer of flux paste should be applied to
the edges of the work before welding is commenced.

The Welding Process

A slightly carbonising low velocity flame should be used since an excess of

oxygen will cause rapid formation of aluminium oxide.

- 18 -
Sheet material should be pre-heated to reduce the possibility of cracking due
to thermal expansion.

When starting to weld, the two joint edges should begin to melt before the filler
rod is added. The work must be watched carefully for signs of melting,
experience determining the proper time for adding the filler metal. The filler
rod should be held in a direct line with the weld, with the flame near the
material being welded. Both edges of the weld should receive an equal amount
of heat and the metal from the filler rod should fuse with the parent metals.

The torch should be held close to the joint at about 30° to the plane of the
weld, the angle being decreased as the end of the weld is approached.

Fig. 3 PREPARED JOINTS FOR WELDING

Any tendency to partial collapse or excessive penetration should be rectified by

instantly lifting the flame clear of the material.

One of the main differences between aluminium welding and steel welding is in
the speed of working. With aluminium welding, as the weld progresses and the
metal becomes hotter, the rate of welding should be increased, but in any case
the welding speed should be as fast as possible. Where practicable it is better
to complete the weld in one operation.

- 19 -
WELDING PLAIN CARBON & LOW ALLOY STEELS

A neutral flame should be used and the inner cone should be held close to the
material being welded. The torch and welding rod should be held at angles of
about 60° and 30° respectively, to the plane of the weld.

Good fusion should be obtained evenly on each side of the weld, the rod
should be fed into the molten metal and not melted off by the flame itself,
otherwise too much material may be run into the weld pool and this will result
in a reduction of temperature in the weld with consequent unsatisfactory
fusion.

Fig. 4 LEFTWARD & RIGHTWARD WELDING

WELDING CORROSION-RESISTING & HEAT-RESISTING STEELS

The heat conductivity of corrosion-resisting steel is about 50% less than that
of mild steel, whilst its coefficient of expansion is about 50% greater.
Therefore, correspondingly greater allowance should be made during welding
to prevent distortion.

A welding flame showing a faint haze of excess acetylene around the cone
should be used to ensure non-oxidising conditions.

As the rate of heat conduction through the material is less than that of mild
steel, the heat is localised and, to minimise the possibility of burning the
material, the flame should be played over a larger area than usual.

- 20 -
The welding rod should be kept in the flame throughout the welding operation
and on completion of the weld the flame should be withdrawn slowly to avoid
cracking of the material and unless the flux is non-corrosive, it is essential
that all traces be removed.

Ferrous Metals

Where size permits, flux can be removed from ferrous parts by immersing
them in boiling water for a period of not less than 30 minutes, the water being
changed frequently. Where immersion is not practical, the parts should be
washed until all traces of flux are removed. If the flux residue is brittle it may
be removed by lightly tapping it with a hammer.

Aluminium Alloys

The fluxes used in welding Al alloys are highly corrosive and are removed
using a similar process as that described under brazing.

The efficiency of the final washing operation can be checked by adding a small
quantity of silver nitrate test solution to a sample of the water in which the
joint was washed. If a white precipitate appears it indicates that flux residues
are still present and that further cleaning is necessary.

HEAT TREATMENTS

In general, steels having a carbon content in excess of 0.26% are liable to

crack after welding unless pre-welding and post-welding heat treatment
procedures are employed. It is essential that when such steels are welded the
heat treatment prescribed in the relevant specification or drawing is followed.

Parts made from low carbon and low alloy steels, which can be used in the ‘as
welded’ condition, are sometimes normalised.

INSPECTION

Checks after welding include visual inspections, pressure tests, radiography

(sub-surface defects), fluorescent or dye penetrant testing (surface defects), or
magnetic flaw detection (sub-surface defects). The types of inspection or tests
to be carried out should be stated on the appropriate drawings or
manufacturer’s instructions.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The same safety precautions should be observed as when brazing.

- 21 -
 ARC WELDING

Heat for the weld is obtained from the striking of an electric arc. The arc is
obtained from a low voltage high current supply between the welding rod
(electrode) and the part being welded (earthed back to the power supply unit).
Carbon arc and atomic hydrogen arc welding are only described briefly since
they are not used much on aircraft. Inert gas arc welding is used mainly for
larger gauge metals and its use is limited on aircraft.

When arc welding is carried out the drawing will state the following:

a) The welding process to be used.

b) Details of any pre-cleaning treatments.
c) Details of any pre-welding heat treatment required, including
temperature and method of application.
d) Details of current, electrodes and, where applicable, gas flow
rates.
e) Details of joint preparation, location and dimensions of weld.
f) Cleaning process for the removal of flux residue.
g) Details of any post-welding heat treatments.
h) Details of any additional treatment such as hammering the weld
during cooling, or grinding off the finished weld.
i) Details of any tests/examinations.

Metallic Arc Welding. Heat is supplied by an arc struck between the workpiece
and a consumable flux-coated electrode, the workpiece and electrode are
connected in series between the output terminals of an electrical supply.

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Arc Welding. The arc, which is shrouded in an inert
gas (usually argon – this helps reduce the formation of oxides), is struck
between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the parts to be welded. A
filler rod may be used.

Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding. The arc is struck between two non-consumable
electrodes in a flow of hydrogen. A filler rod may be used.

Carbon Arc Welding. The arc is struck between a carbon electrode and the
workpiece. A filler rod may be used.

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Arc Welding. This differs from TIG welding in that a
consumable electrode, usually similar in composition to the parent metals, is
used instead of the non-consumable tungsten electrode.

- 22 -
Distortion

Due to the high rate of heat generation obtained with electric arc welding
where the welding arc temperatures are in the region of 6000°C (compare 3000
to 3500°C for oxy-acetylene welding), it is possible to confine the heat to a
small area, thus reducing the possibility of distortion.

Weldable Materials

A wide range of materials may be joined by one or other of the arc welding
processes. Below is a table listing just some of these (BS and DTD). There
should be no need to commit the details to memory. Materials thinner than
1.6mm (16 swg) should not be welded by this process.

Material Bars Tubes Sheets

Low carbon S14, S21, S91 T45, T53, T62 S510, S511,

Low alloy steels S92 T63, T64 S514

Aluminium alloys L34 L54, L56 L16, L17, L19

Corrosion and heat S125, S126, S127 T65, T66, T67 S524, S525, S526
resisting steels

TABLE 1 MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR ARC WELDING

Low Alloy Steel. The carbon content of low alloy steel is such that hardening is
more easily effected than in straight carbon steel and although easily weldable,
it will, in many cases, need heat treatment after welding.

Medium Carbon Steels. Have a carbon content of 0.3 to 0.6%. The weldability
at the lower end of the range is good, but heat treatment is necessary after
welding.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys. Nickel alloys should be annealed (makes them
malleable) prior to welding in order to avoid buckling. These materials are
readily weldable and the procedures used for welding low carbon steel are
generally suitable.

Some nickel alloys do not require heat treatment but other do so reference
must be made to the drawings/manufacturers’ instructions.

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. The arc welding of aluminium and its alloys
presents no particular difficulty, but the pre-weld and post-weld heat
treatment, as well as the equipment used and the method, need special
attention and care.

- 23 -
Corrosion and Heat Resisting Steels. Steels which contain between 16 and 30%
chromium are normally welded by the TIG process. Austenitic stainless steel
filler wires are often used. Austenitic steels (corrosion resisting) containing
18% chromium and 8% nickel are easily welded but greater allowance must be
made for distortion than with low carbon steel.

Surface Preparation

The surfaces should be prepared as described earlier. The parts should be

degreased (trichloroethylene, acetone or similar solvents), washed and dried,
otherwise vapours may be produced by the arc on any residual degreasing
agents, and these may be toxic as well as being a likely cause of gas porosity in
the weld.

The surface oxide films on aluminium and magnesium alloys are best removed
by brushing with a stainless steel wire brush or, for magnesium alloys,
treatment to DTD 911 requirements.

A number of proprietary brands of pickling solutions are also suitable for

cleaning and removing surface films, but when such solutions are used, it is
essential, to prevent corrosion, to ensure that all traces of the solution are
subsequently removed by thorough washing.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The operator, and any one near, should wear a helmet, or face shield, with
protective highly tinted glasses and gauntlets and flameproof protective
clothing. Both ultra-violet and infrared rays are emitted during electric arc
welding, the effects being greater with the higher currents.

These can be dangerous if viewed by the naked eye and can cause severe
head-aches (arc-eye).

As the process of solvent degreasing can produce toxic fumes (which become
highly toxic if affected by an arc) all degreasing, washing and drying operations
should be conducted outside the workshop in a well ventilated area.

With all electrical welding units, the manufacturer’s instructions regarding

precautions to be taken should be carefully observed. When the normal open-
circuit voltage is likely to be dangerous, an automatic safety device, which
reduces the voltage at the electrode holder to a safe value when the welding
arc is broken, should be fitted.

The operator should only hold the insulated handle of the torch and should
stand on a rubber mat or dry wooden platform when carrying out the welding
process.

- 24 -
 Fig. 5 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Hydrogen Gas

Hydrogen gas can be produced when welding with the atomic hydrogen
process, this can be explosive so plenty of ventilation is required.

ELECTRODES

The electrodes are supplied as flux coated proprietary items. As the flux melts
under the heat of the arc it produces a slag covering for the molten weld and
an envelope of non-oxidising gas, which together protect the molten metal from
the oxidising effects of the air. Only electrodes specified on the drawing should
be used, they should be stored in clean dry conditions and should be heated
for a period prior to use. In the case of low hydrogen electrodes, it is essential
that they are stored in specially heated ovens to keep the moisture content
low.

The flux on the electrodes may also be used to introduce alloy additions into
the weld deposit.

- 25 -
THE WELDING PROCESS

To strike an arc between the electrode and the work, the electrode, which is
fixed in a special insulated holder, is applied to the work and immediately
withdrawn a short distance, thus initiating an arc of intense heat. The tip of
the electrode melts and vaporises and the molten metal is transferred across
the arc from the electrode to the joint. Simultaneously, the heat generated
melts the workpiece at the joint, and fusion with the electrode material is
effected; the arc is maintained by feeding the electrode, at a uniform rate,
towards the workpiece. During welding there must be a balance between arc
length (gap between electrode and workpiece), current and welding speed and
this requires skill on the part of the operator.

Positional Welding

This term defines the position of the workpiece in relation to the operator. For
downhand butt welds, the best angle for the electrode is between 20 and 30°
from the vertical to minimise the risk of slag entrapment. However, other
angles are used for other welding methods.

Fig. 6 METALLIC ARC WELDING

Fillet Welds

For fillet welds, where the thickness of the parts to be joined is the same, a 45°
electrode position, bisecting the fillet, is used. Where parts of dissimilar
thickness are to be joined, the electrode should be positioned so that the arc
tends to play more on the thicker of the two materials.

- 26 -
Arc Blow

When direct current (dc) is used, the arc may tend to wander and become
uncontrollable. This is known as ‘arc blow’ and is caused by the magnetic field
of the arc stream creating a magnetic field in the material being welded, with a
resulting interaction between the fields. Working away from the earth tends to
help or using an ac current, but ac tends to produce an unstable arc.

Design of Joints

For butt welds on materials less than 3.2mm (0.125 in) thick, bevelling of the
edges is not necessary; the plates can be set as an open square butt with a gap
equal to half the thickness of the metal. For thicker materials the edges
should be bevelled to form a ‘V’ butt joint with an included angle of 120°.

Current and Voltage

The details of the current range are usually recommended by the

manufacturers of the electrodes. It should be noted that the value of the
current used will depend on the nature of the work. In general, the higher the
current the deeper the penetration and the faster the rate of deposit.

If a general purpose steel electrode is used as the positive or negative electrode

(according to the drawing) the voltage varies from 20V to 25V, according to
electrode size. Alternating current is usually supplied from a simple step-down
transformer, which reduces the mains voltage to that required. Direct current
is obtained either from a mains supply through a suitable rectifier or from a
generator driven by external means.

Currents can vary from 80A for 2.4mm electrodes to 230A for 6mm electrodes.

Alternating current machines often have a high frequency current

superimposed on to the welding current to initiate and stabilise the arc when
welding certain materials.

FLUX REMOVAL

Unless a flux is specifically approved as being non-corrosive, it is essential that

all traces of flux residue should be removed. For ferrous parts flux is removed
in the same way as for oxy-acetylene welding and for nickel alloy parts it is
removed by wire brushing. Any heat treatments are similar to those carried
out after oxy-acetylene welding.

- 27 -
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING

May be called Gas Tungsten Ark Welding (GTAW). The heat required for
welding is supplied by an arc struck between a tungsten electrode and the
material to be welded. The weld area and the arc are surrounded by an inert
gas (usually argon), which prevents contamination of the weld pool by
atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.

Welding may be carried out in a welding chamber containing the gas or in the
open with gas supplied through a shield around the electrode. In the latter
case an inert gas or flux may need to be needed on the underside of the work.

This process produces a good weld, quickly with little distortion. There is no
flux residue (no cleaning required), welds are smooth and no dressing or
grinding is needed.

Fig. 7 TIG ARC WELDING

All the materials weldable by the oxy-acetylene process are suitable for welding
by this process plus others that, up to the introduction of TIG were considered
as not appropriate for welding, eg Al alloys and Nimonic alloys.

Material Thickness

Due to the deep penetrative qualities of TIG, a wide range of metal thickness
can be welded; for example, non-corrodible steel sheet of 0.25mm (0.01”)
thickness and al alloy plate 12.5mm (0.5”) thick can be welded by hand torch.

Equipment

The equipment required consists of a welding ‘torch’ (air or water cooled) and a
current regulator, together with a source of current and a supply of inert gas
(usually argon). The filler rods to be used for all types of welding are specified
in BS 2901.

- 28 -
Argon Supply

Argon is present in the atmosphere in concentrations of approximately 0.94%

by volume. It is extracted by fractional distillation and is stored in cylinders at
a pressure of about 132 atmospheres (about 1900psi [13MPa]). It is chemically
inert, odourless and non-toxic. Cylinders are painted blue in accordance with
BS 349. It is important that argon lines should be checked periodically for
leaks, since serious contamination by oxygen and nitrogen can be caused.

Argon cylinders should not be used at pressures less than 140kPa (20psi) as
the reduction in argon flow beyond this limit will increase the danger of
contamination of the weld by air and the subsequent purging of an empty
cylinder is a problem for the manufacturer.

Current

The tungsten inert gas arc process is used with both dc and ac current, the
choice of being determined by the material to be welded. Metals with
refractory surface oxide films, eg magnesium alloys and aluminium and its
alloys, are generally welded with ac, while dc is used for carbon, low alloy,
non-corrodible and heat-resisting steels, nickel alloys, Nimonic alloys and
copper.

The use of ac with a tungsten electrode combines the advantages of reasonable

penetration with only moderate heating of the electrode and adequate
dispersal of the oxide film from the weld surface. The reversal of current in the
ac cycle, however, raises a particular difficulty in conjunction with the
difference in arc characteristics in the respective half cycles.

Twice in each cycle, as the arc current changes in direction, it passes through
zero and at these times the arc is extinguished and must be re-ignited for
welding to continue. Re-ignition, however, is opposed by the arc gap and, when
the polarity of the work is negative, the resistance during the change of
direction may become sufficient to prevent arc re-ignition. This is overcome by
the insertion of a series of high-voltage, high-frequency oscillatory sparks
across the arc gap at the instants of zero arc current to prevent the arc gap
becoming non-conducting, or by means of a surge injector which provides a
surge when the arc voltage is at zero.

The ac equipment consists of the welding transformer, dc suppressor, HF unit

with or without surge injection and a power-factor correction condenser. A
pedal operated control switch for the HF unit must be incorporated, otherwise
unsatisfactory welds may result. The switch may be one which controls the HF
unit alone, or may be of a type which incorporates a toe-action switch for
switching on the current and a heel-action switch for controlling the HF unit.

- 29 -
With TIG welding using dc, the choice of polarity depends only on the type of
material being welded, since a tungsten electrode is used throughout and is
virtually non-consumable. In a dc arc, approximately two-thirds of the heat is
concentrated on the positive end of the arc and one-third on the negative end.
If the tungsten electrode is made positive and the workpiece negative the
relatively smaller mass of the tungsten electrode is subjected to the larger
proportion of arc heat and the relatively larger mass of the joint assembly
absorbs the lesser proportion of heat. If, therefore, the tungsten electrode is
connected to the negative pole of the generator and the work to the positive
pole, the electrode remains comparatively cool, thus negative pole dc is widely
used for all TIG welding of steels and high nickel alloys.

Currents can range from 45A for parent metal thickness of 0.9mm to 150A for
3.2mm, though it is not recommended to weld Al alloys less than 1.6mm thick.

Arc Initiation

Arc initiation and stability can be improved by superimposing a high-

frequency current at low power on the welding current; this also helps to
maintain electrode shape and reduce tungsten inclusion in the weld deposit.

Torches

Torches ranging from 50 to 600A with straight and angled heads are available.
For welding currents up to 150A, air-cooled torches are normally used, but for
higher currents water-cooling is used. In either case the argon gas is supplied
through a combined power cable and gas hose and emerges from the refractory
(ceramic) shield designed to direct an even flow of argon around the electrode
and weld area.

Welding Technique

For the butt-welding of high nickel alloys, Al and Al alloys, less joint
preparation is required than with gas welding. No special joint preparation is
required for any material up to 3.2 mm (0.125 in) thick, and in the case of Al
alloys, parts up to 6 mm (0.25 in) thick can be welded without bevelling. When
the joint edges are not bevelled (square) a gap of half the thickness of the plate
should be left between the edges. In general, however, for materials thicker
than 3.2 mm (0.125 in), the edges to be welded should be bevelled, so that
when the plates are joined a 70° ‘V’ is formed leaving a thickness of about 0.8
mm (0.03 in) at the bottom of the plates. Backing bars should be used
whenever possible.

Argon has no fluxing action and the joint to be welded must, therefore, be
absolutely clean. Care should be taken to ensure that the edges to be joined,
as well as their top and bottom surfaces, are clean.

- 30 -
Materials oxidised during previous heat treatment should be pickled, and all
materials should be cleaned by mechanical means (such as wire brushing) and
degreased before welding; any filler rod must be treated in the same way. If
more than one pass is used, the previous weld must be cleaned before the next
run.

Butt Welding

The angles of the torch and the filler rod should be about 90° and 20°
respectively, from the surface of the horizontal plate (figure 8). The arc length
(defined as the distance between the tip of the electrode and the surface of the
weld crater) varies between 3mm (0.125in) and 6mm (0.25in) depending on the
type of material and the current used.

a) The filler rod is fed into the edge of the molten pool and not directly into
the arc; it should be fed in with a slightly transverse motion, with the tip
of the filler rod making contact with the weld metal.

b) The hot end of the filler rod should always be kept within the influence
of the argon gas to prevent oxidation.

c) Butt welds in thin gauge materials are best made with a progressive
forward motion.

d) To avoid contact between the electrode and the filler rod when welding
heavier section plate, it is essential that a filler rod of the correct
diameter for the thickness of material being welded is used. The weld
area is melted under the arc, the torch is withdrawn backwards for a
short distance from 6 to 12mm (0.25 to 0.5in) along the line of the seam
and the filler rod is inserted in the molten pool. The torch is moved
forward and the filler rod is withdrawn from the pool simultaneously.
This movement of both torch and filler rod, backwards and forwards in a
progressive forward motion, melts down filler rod and plate without the
filler rod entering the core of the arc.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 8 ARGON ARC (TIG) WELDING

- 31 -
Fillet Welding

The axis of the electrode should bisect the angle between the fillets whilst the
electrode should be at 90° to the work surface.

Positional Welding

The downhand technique should be used where possible, since other

techniques reduce the welding speed without decreasing heat input and may
induce distortion.

Completing the Weld

The weld current is reduced gradually at the end of the weld or extension tabs
may be left on the component, on which the weld can be run out and the tab
later removed.

Jigs and Fixtures

Jigs and fixtures may be used as also may tack welding for work location.

Backing Bars

Backing bars are widely used with automatic TIG welding and serve to
minimise distortion and to control penetration. They usually form part of a
fixture which also serves to ensure accurate alignment of the welded joint.
Good contact between the backing bars and the sheet material is necessary.

Magnetic Holders

Magnetic devices for holding components together are widely used. Permanent
magnets are available to give pulls of up to 225N (50 lbf) and electro-magnets
can be obtained with considerably greater strength.

Flux Removal

Any flux residues should be removed as soon as possible after welding. Steel
and nickel parts should be treated as described earlier, and aluminium and
magnesium parts should be treated as described below.

Aluminium. Flux should be removed by washing the parts in boiling water or in

a weak solution of nitric acid in water at 60°C for 15 minutes. Rinsed water
and dried.

- 32 -
The efficiency of the final washing operation, whether or not acid treatment
Has been used, can be checked by adding a small portion of silver nitrate test
solution to a sample of the water in which the joint was washed. If a white
precipitate appears, it indicates that the flux residues are still present and
further cleaning is necessary.

Note. The fluxes used in welding aluminium alloys are highly corrosive and the
products of the corrosion are also actively corrosive.

Magnesium. Flux should be removed by vacuum blasting or washing in boiling

water. This cleaning should be carried out in conjunction with the
preparations for the application of the chromate treatment to DTD 911.

Heat Treatment

Some form of heat treatment may be required on many parts and precise
details will be specified on the relevant drawing.

Stress relieving heat treatment may be prescribed prior to the welding of some
SS or chromium-nickel alloys to relieve residual stresses and after welding of
complex structures in non-heat-treatable alloys.

Heat treatable alloys may require a full heat treatment to restore their
properties after welding. The times and temperatures of the heat treatment
will vary according to the type of alloy and some compromise may have been
made when joining parts made from different alloys. There may also be a
restriction on the number of heat treatments given to a particular alloy (for
example, magnesium alloys should not be heat treated more than three times).

ATOMIC HYDROGEN ARC WELDING

Heat is produced by an arc struck between two inclined tungsten electrodes.

A stream of hydrogen passed through the arc is dissociated (temporarily
broken down into atoms) with a corresponding increase in energy content, the
extra energy being released as heat when the atoms re-combine to form
molecular hydrogen at the relatively cool surface of the weld joint.

The process is used mainly for the welding of steels and is particularly
applicable to automatic production welding techniques. Filler rods should be
those recommended for gas welding.

This method is not now widely employed and has been mainly superseded for
aircraft work by the TIG process.

- 33 -
 CARBON ARC WELDING

In this process, which has been largely superseded by TIG welding, the
principle is that an arc is drawn between the parts to be welded using dc
current and the carbon electrode is manipulated by the welder. The filler wire
(or rod) and the flux are the same as used in oxy-acetylene welding and
welding is usually done by the leftward procedure.

The process is not normally used for welding materials thinner than 1.2mm
(18 swg) and is usually restricted to straight butt joints.

METAL INERT GAS (MIG) ARC WELDING

In this process a consumable electrode in the form of a filler wire is fed

automatically into the arc at a controlled rate, the wire and weld area being
shrouded with an inert gas.

Used on heavier gauge materials and is not usually used in the aircraft
industry.

The equipment comprises a gun or torch to which the filler wire and current
are fed, a carriage unit which houses the reel of filler wire and the control
circuits, a dc power unit (which may be a standard dc welding generator) and
an inert gas supply with a suitable regulator.

Final Inspection

After cleaning, the completed weld should be examined for:

a) Satisfactory fusion between the weld and the parent metal.

b) No undercutting where the weld metal joins the base metal and
the welded parts should not be reduced in thickness by the
welding operation.
c) Good penetration should be apparent and an underbead should
show throughout the length of the weld.
d) Correct build-up of the weld (a concave surface on the face of the
weld indicates lack of weld metal with consequent weakness).
e) A regular weld surface free from porosity, scale, slag or burn
marks.
f) No spatter around the weld area.
g) Correct dimensions of the weld, especially the leg lengths and
throat dept in fillet welds.
h) Weld cracks, with care being taken with magnesium alloys.

Any NDT method called for has been carried out.

- 34 -
All welds, except those which are required by the drawing to be hammered
during cooling, must be examined in the ‘as welded’ condition. If, after
inspection, the weld is dressed by filing, grinding or machining, it is to be
inspected again. Light tapping with a hammer to break off flux residue
resulting from the use of flux-covered electrodes is necessary as an aid to
inspection and should not be regarded as a dressing operation.

Welds in certain alloys are improved by hammering during cooling. This

treatment is only done when required by the drawing. There is a danger that
cracks may develop in magnesium alloys which are hammered cold; it is a
general practice to hammer such welds within a temperature range of 300 to
400°C and in no circumstances should hammering take place below 250°C.

ARC SPOT WELDING

Used where only one side of the workpiece is accessible. The process is
suitable for the joining of non-corrodible steels, some alloy steels and titanium,
but should not be used with aluminium or magnesium alloys.

The thickness of the top sheet of the weld may be between 0.037 and 1.6 mm
(28 and 16 swg) and it can be welded to an under sheet of similar thickness or
greater, but for sheets in excess of 1.6 mm (16 swg) the penetration of the weld
becomes progressively shallower.

The weld is made by the TIG process and is effected by holding the torch firmly
against the exposed face of the joint and pressing the torch switch. The
welding process is then automatically controlled by the welding machine.

The current provides the arc for a pre-set period of up to a few seconds,
resulting in the melting of the area of the top sheet, which is under the torch
head. The molten metal crosses the interface of the joint, becomes common to
both parent metals and solidifies into a solid ‘U’ or ‘V’ shaped nugget.

The welding current must not be cut-off abruptly after the welding operation
otherwise a crater will form in the top surface of the weld. The usual method of
cut-off is to reduce the current to zero in stages. This is known as ‘current
decay’.

Joint Preparation

Prior to welding, the surface of the joint should be prepared as described

earlier.

- 35 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 9 SPOT WELDING MACHINE

Inspection should include checking:

a) The position and pitch of the welds and the underside of the weld
is free from excessive penetration.
b) Both sides of the weld are free from excessive concavity, craters,
cracks or holes. A satisfactory weld usually has a convex top
surface with a small ‘pip’ resulting from the current decay.
c) If the drawing stipulates light hammering, the blows are to be
applied to the centre of the weld surface. After hammering, the
weld should again be examined for freedom from defects.

Test samples should be tested to destruction and if possible X-ray

examinations carried out.

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

Used to provide a joint between two or more metal sheets, but not used for
load-bearing situations. It is a pressure welding process in which a ‘slug’ of
welded metal is produced at the interfaces of the sheets; a heavy localised
electric current is passed through the parts to be welded by two opposed
water-cooled, copper-alloy electrodes subjected to mechanical pressure.

The requirements for a spot weld are ability to resist shear stress, freedom
from internal cracks and cavities, correct penetration (ie the relationship of the
thickness of the slug, to the total thickness joined), freedom from excessive
surface indentation or burning, freedom from flash or ‘spits’ either on the
surface or between sheets and consistency of properties between one weld and
others made under the same conditions.

- 36 -
Accurate repeatability of the electrical and mechanical operating cycles usually
necessitates the use of fully automatic control with electronic timing of the
current flow, especially when welding stainless steels and heat-resisting alloys.

Factors, which influence the strength of spot welded joints, include adequate
preparation of the surfaces to be welded, the method of presentation of the
work to the machine and the spacing of the spot welds. Surface preparation is
of particular importance with aluminium alloys, since the presence of an oxide
film on the surfaces of these materials creates a high resistance in comparison
to the resistance of the parent metal which, apart from causing the generation
of excessive heat at the electrode tips, results in welds of varying strength.

As the only certain method of testing the strength of spot welded joints would
result in the destruction of the workpiece, acceptance of the joints must,
therefore, depend on adequate inspection supervision of the process, backed
up by a system of test samples.

The Process

Figure 9 illustrates the general arrangement of a typical air-operated spot

welding machine. Air-operated machines are usually manufactured in
capacities up to 400kVA.

During the welding operation, the top electrode is brought down into contact
with the workpiece by the depression of a foot switch. When pressure has built
up on the workpiece, an electrical contactor closes, completing the circuit to
the primary winding of the welding transformer and causing a secondary
current of predetermined amperage to flow through the secondary circuit and
through the workpiece.

The pressure on the workpiece of the water-cooled electrodes is maintained

automatically for a predetermined period, during which the material is heated
by the current flow through the resistance of the workpiece. At the conclusion
of the pre-set period of current flow, the contactor opens and de-energies the
welding transformer, but the electrode pressure is maintained for a further set
period to permit the consolidation of the weld. At the end of this latter period,
the top electrode pivots up and the workpiece is freed for movement to the next
welding position.

Strength of Spot Welds

The tensile strength of a spot weld is lower than its shear strength; therefore,
spot welding is not normally used for applications where loads acting out of
the plane of the joint occur. A minimum edge distance of 1.5D and a minimum
overlap or flange width of 3D (D being the weld diameter) is generally
recommended.

- 37 -
 Fig. 10 THE SPOT WELD

Pitch of Spot Welds

If welds are spaced too close the strength is reduced due to current shunting
(ie the passage of part of the welding current through the previously made spot
weld). If the spacing is excessive it would result in a weak joint.

Material Thickness

The total thickness of material which can be joined will depend on the capacity
of the machine and the nature of the material, but joint thickness of up to
about 10mm (0.4in) in Al alloys and up to about 4mm (0.16in) in SS are rarely
exceeded. Up to three sheets can be spot welded.

Surface Indentation

The surface indentation on any sheet should normally not exceed 10% of the
sheet thickness. Where indentation has to be avoided on one face of the
workpiece, the tip diameter of the corresponding electrode can be increased.

Positioning of Surfaces

It is important that the surfaces to be joined should be the best possible fit so
that the electrode pressure is not required to overcome any stiffness of the
sheets or sections. Ideally the parent metals should be clamped.

Some weldable materials:

Aluminium & Aluminium Alloys. These do not require heat treatment after
welding, as the speed of welding is so great that mechanical properties are not
impaired.

- 38 -
Magnesium & Magnesium Alloys. The resistance welding of these materials
must be controlled with special care.

Nickel Base Alloys. Nickel base precipitation-hardening alloys will require heat
treatment after welding.

Plain Carbon & Low Alloy Steels. Normally require no heat treatment after
welding. As they are magnetic, they should be welded on single-phase
machines with constant current control or three-phase frequency conversion
equipment.

Titanium Alloys. Require no heat treatment after welding.

Surface Preparation

The area to be welded must be thoroughly cleaned and after surface treatment,
the parts should be washed and dried. DEF STAN 03/2 gives further details.

Surface preparation methods already described apply.

Aluminium Alloys. The presence of a thin, tough, oxide surface film of high
electrical resistance is characteristic of the Al alloys and its removal prior to
welding is essential.

The cleaning of aluminium alloys of the type which are solution heat treated
and naturally aged, should not be commenced until 24 hours after solution
treatment. Care should be taken to ensure the complete removal of all
cleaning and pickling solutions, by washing and drying.

Magnesium Alloys. These should first be degreased and then cleaned

mechanically. They should finally be air-blasted to ensure the removal of any
particles left by the cleaning process.

Corrosion-Resisting Steels. The surfaces should be degreased and cleaned with

a SS bristle brush. Pickling is not necessary for these materials unless vapour-
blasting or abrasive paper cleaning is employed, in which case contamination
should be removed by pickling or swabbing in a 20% (by volume) nitric acid
solution.

Nickel Alloys. The surfaces should be degreased and then immersed in either a
nitric acid or hydrofluoric acid solution for a period of time.

Plain Carbon Steels. After degreasing, plain carbon steels should be pickled in
a weak solution of sulphuric acid in water.

- 39 -
SPOT WELDING AL ALLOYS

Al alloys have high thermal and electrical conductivity. The amount of heat
produced by electrical resistance welding depends on the resistance offered to
the welding current by the parent metals, thus, despite the low fusion
temperature of Al alloys (compared with low carbon steel) a considerably
greater rate of energy input is required. This means the use of high currents
and short welding times.

The temperature range between the liquid and solid states is small and
because of this close control must be exercised over the energy input, since
small variations in energy may produce relatively large variations in weld size.

The high thermal conductivity of the Al alloys (which results in rapid

dissipation of heat) causes the welds to solidify quickly, increasing the
tendency to form shrinkage cracks and porosity. In practice, this factor is
overcome by various machine refinements, eg by rapid electrode follow-up, by
the application of a relatively high pressure after welding (which serves to close
up pores and eliminate the tendency to form shrinkage cracks) and by
decreasing the rate of cooling during the solidification of the weld by passing a
relatively small but long duration post-heating current after the main welding
current has been switched off.

The tendency for Al alloys to alloy with copper or copper-based electrodes is

known as electrode ‘pick-up’.

Types of Equipment

Fully automatic machines are universally used for welding of Al alloys, so that
the predetermined welding cycle can be reproduced indefinitely, independent
of the operator. Compressed air is generally used as a means of applying the
load to the electrodes.

‘Stored energy’ single impulse, uni-directional machines are generally used.

These machines can be sub-divided into two groups, ie the ‘induction storage’
and the ‘condenser storage’ types. With the induction storage type, energy is
stored in the electro-magnetic field of a large iron-cored inductor, whilst with
the condenser type; energy is stored in the electrostatic charge of a large
condenser. These machines are, however, gradually being replaced by three-
phase frequency conversion machines.

Portable and semi-portable machines, known as ‘gun’ or ‘pinch’ welders, are

also used. Such machines are not normally used for Al alloys.

- 40 -
The Electrodes

Special alloy electrode materials are available (such as chromium-copper)

which have good electrical conductivity coupled with high resistance to wear
and to softening at elevated temperatures.

SPOT WELDING MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Although magnesium alloys can be spot welded, the process is not

recommended for stressed applications. The equipment used for spot welding
Al alloys is suitable for magnesium alloys. Magnesium alloys have a lower
electrical conductivity and consequently lower current values will be required.

SPOT WELDING PLAIN CARBON & LOW ALLOY STEELS

This is relatively simple compared to Al alloys because of the readily weldable

nature of the materials and the absence of an interfering oxide film. For
cadmium plated surfaces the plating should be removed.

In general the conditions as stated above apply as regards electrodes, machine

settings etc.

SPOT WELDING SS

Austenitic stainless steels have an electrical resistance approximately 6 times

that of plain carbon steel, with a lower heat conductivity and melting range;
therefore, less heat input is required for spot welding these materials.

The welding of SS is made more difficult because of ‘weld decay’, which causes
precipitation of chromium carbide near the weld. The corrosion resistance of
these materials is dependent on the retention of chromium in solid solution;
therefore, the corrosion resistance is reduced if precipitation of chromium
carbide occurs.

Austenitic steels are available which contain small additions of titanium or

niobium in amounts sufficient to combine with all the carbon present so that
no chromium can be precipitated.

SPOT WELDING TITAIUM ALLOYS

The welding of titanium is essentially similar to that of SS.

- 41 -
TESTING WELDS

As with the testing and inspection of other welding processes, the weld itself
must be inspected for any visible defects. Sample welds can be carried out
from time to time on test pieces which are subsequently tested to destruction
to verify their strength properties; and on production runs samples of the
produced items can be selected for destructive testing. X-rays and other NDT
methods may be used to inspect welds.

Some of the destructive tests used are:

Peel or Chisel Test. The test sample is prepared and the two strips of metal are
torn apart or separated with a blunt chisel, working from each side of the
weld. The first spot weld (which should be marked) should be ignored and the
remaining spots examined.

Shear Test. The test sample should be made up, the spots marked in the order
of welding and the spot removed by drilling.

The test sample should be held at one end and a load applied to the other, so
that a pull force is applied to the second and third welds in shear, no twisting
action being exerted on the welds. Load should be applied at a controlled rate
using a machine and the load at failure noted.

If a test sample fails at a load below the specified load, two further test
samples should be made. If one or both of these additional samples fails the
test, the material welded since the last satisfactory test should be subjected to
closer examination and the entire welding process should be examined to
identify the cause.

Microscopic Examination. The samples for microscopic examination should be

prepared to the dimensions given, the spots being marked in order of welding.

After sectioning and polishing, the sample is examined microscopically, in both

the unetched and etched conditions, first at low magnification (x 10) and then
at higher magnification (x 100). At low magnification the welds should show
freedom from cavitation and from excessive porosity.

The first weld should be ignored and the second and third welds should be
carefully sectioned through the centreline and polished.

When examined through a lens of low magnification the welds should be well
shaped and show freedom from overheating and from cavitation and porosity.
Slight cracks in the nugget may be permissible, but not if they extend into the
parent metal.

Penetration should be adequate but not excessive and electrode indentation

should not exceed 10% of the thickness of the individual sheets.

- 42 -
COMMON FAULTS

Fault Probable Causes

Poor Strength Welds Insufficient current, weld pressure too high

or misalignment of the electrodes.

Irregular Shaped Welds Electrode tip misalignment. Incorrect

surface preparation.

Surface Burning Incorrect surface preparation where the

material has too high a contact resistance.
Badly cleaned electrodes (eg electrodes from
which ‘pick-up’ has not been removed).

Heavy Indentation Sharp electrode contour or high energy

input. High electrode pressure.

Concave Shaped Weld Insufficient weld time. Insufficient current.

Excessive electrode pressure.

Cracks in Weld Insufficient forging time. Insufficient

electrode pressure. Excessive current.
Insufficient overlap.

Surface Cracking Excessive welding current. Insufficient

forging time or pressure too low. Inadequate
surface preparation leading to excessive
heating and rapid cooling.

Maintenance of Welding Equipment

Daily inspections include checking electrodes to ensure that they are clean,
distorted free, securely attached and if water cooled the water flow rate is
adequate. All electrical connections should be inspected for deterioration.

Weekly the bearings should be lubricated and the airline water traps drained.

Monthly maintenance should include a thorough clean and a check:

a) On all instruments and gauges.

b) On the water-cooling system.
c) That all indictor lights on the control panel function correctly.
d) The equipment is in good condition, and working correctly.
e) To ensure that the air pressure system and valves are free from
leaks and functioning correctly.
f) To ensure the correct operation of the control panel.

- 43 -
 SEAM WELDING

This method produces a continuous load-carrying and/or pressure-tight joint

between two sheets of metal. The seam is produced by feeding the parts
between two rotating copper alloy electrode wheels and passing a high
intensity pulsating current through the parts whilst the electrode wheels are
rotated (electrically) and applying a steady pressure to the wheels sufficient to
forge the local areas heated by the welding current into a series of overlapping
spot welds – effectively a continuous weld.

Usually employed on light gauge (up to 1.5mm) material where the current ON
/OFF times do not exceed 7 or 8 cycles per second.

‘Roller spot’ welding is the term usually employed to describe the process in
which the electrode wheels are halted at the commencement of each current
pulse and rotate only during the OFF period between welds. Each weld is
therefore completed with the electrodes stationary, allowing each weld to be
forged, ie to cool from welding temperature whilst under pressure. Roller spot
welding is normally employed on thick materials and on heat-resisting alloys
where the current ON time for each welding pulse exceeds 6 cycles per second.

The quality of the weld is controlled by the same factors (plus the speed of
rotation of the wheels) as with spot welding.

The current for the electrodes is usually produced by a single phase water
cooled transformer inside the machine and connected to two phases of the
incoming three phase mains supply by a special thyristor power switch. This
enables the transformer to be switched ON and OFF rapidly and accurately
over timing intervals ranging from 1 to 99 cycles a second. It transforms the
incoming supply (nominally 400/440 V) down to a low voltage (typically 5 to 10
V) to produce 2,000 to 25,000 amperes or more, depending on the machine.
The secondary windings are connected to the upper and lower electrode wheels
via rotatable current-carrying bearings with flexible links to permit vertical
movement of the upper sliding head assembly.

The pressure applied by the electrode wheels to the work-piece is usually

produced by compressed air applied to a double-acting pneumatic actuator to
control the movement of the upper welding head. On some machines both top
and bottom electrode wheels are controlled by pneumatic controlled actuators.

Voltage Compensation

Seam welding machines are commonly equipped with special controls to

minimise the variation of welding current, which normally accompanies any
fluctuation in the supply voltage. These controls continuously compare the
incoming supply voltage with a non-varying reference source and
automatically adjust the internal phase shift to maintain the secondary voltage
constant.

- 44 -
Constant Current

Seam welding machines may be provided with an additional control facility

called ‘Constant Current Control’.

This system monitors the current flowing in the transformer primary or

through the electrode wheels and compares the current to a reference current.
Any variation due parent metals, or mains voltage supply variations can be
detected and automatically corrected.

The Welding Operation

The metal sheets to be welded are placed between the rollers with a
predetermined overlap, the rollers then clamp the joint. A current is applied
through the rollers, which cleats the joint sufficiently to form a weld with the
aid of the pressure imparted by the rollers. At the same time they rotate and
the work is passed steadily between them at a controlled speed. Each weld
spot is completed in a fraction of a second and the OFF period occurs before
the pulse of current makes the next weld; as this cycle is continued, a seam
weld is produced.

After testing of samples machine settings may have to be adjusted.

In general the same conditions apply to seam welding as to spot welding as

does the inspections and testing techniques.

RESISTANCE BUTT & FLASH WELDING

Butt Welding

The principle of butt welding is to pass a large current low voltage supply
through the butting weld faces for a period of time. The faces are clamped
together. When welding heat is attained, the welding current is stopped but
the forging (clamping) pressure is still maintained until the joint has cooled to
some extent. In the case of round bar, the finished butt weld is in the form of
an even circular swelling around the welded joint.

Flash Welding

The flash welding process differs from butt welding in that the current is
applied before the weld faces are brought into contact with each other and a
light pressure moves the movable platen with the clamping electrode towards
the other electrode, thus causing flashing between the two faces of the work.
The heat generated by the flash burns away the weld faces uniformly and, if at
the same time the flash is maintained by the light pressure, which causes the
weld, faces to ‘creep’ together, a welding temperature is rapidly attained.

- 45 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 11 BUTT WELDING

When this welding heat is attained, the parts are forged together by a sudden
surge of high pressure known as the ‘upset’ stroke and after a predetermined
time of a few cycles the current is switched off.

When the sudden impulse of high pressure or upset stroke is applied, the
molten metal is forced to the outside of the joint and at the same time the
plastic metal is forged into a weld. The extruded molten metal forms a ‘fin’ or
‘flash’ over the edge of the weld, which can be removed either by turning,
grinding or other mechanical process if a flush finish is required.

Flash welding can be used for both thin and heavy sections, providing the
parts are of identical area at the weld face, but butt welding is restricted to
small compact sections and is not suitable for welding thin sheets. Both
processes are suitable for welding the following metals:

All Plain Carbon Steels and Low Alloy Steels. Can be used by both processes.

SS and Heat Resisting Steels. Butt welding not to be used.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys. Flash welding only.

Al and Al Alloys. Flash welding only.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys. Flash welding only – but with difficulty.

- 46 -
Butt Welding Machines

All butt welding machines have transformers to convert the current to low
voltage, high amperage, each side of the transformer secondary being
connected to its respective electrode. Usually, the right hand electrode is
mounted on a movable platen which is fed towards the left hand fixed platen;
thus producing the forging action at the joint faces.

The mechanical devices used for ‘forging’ the parts together are either
manually operated by a wheel or lever or they can be electrically, hydraulically
or pneumatically actuated. The predetermined load can be preset.

Joint preparation is similar to that described for other welding techniques.

Flash Welding Machines

These are similar to those used for butt welding, but (apart from hand-
operated machines) there is accurate automatic control of the two main
variables, ie heat and pressure, and this extends the use of this type of
welding to a wider range of materials as well as weld sizes.

A simple form of flash welding machine, consists of two welding platens on

which are mounted the clamps, one platen is fixed (usually the left one) and
the other movable. The right hand platen is mounted on a slide which gives a
direct approach to the fixed head and is actuated by a suitable mechanism.
Each platen incorporates clamps or electrodes in which the parts to be welded
are held and, as both clamps are connected to the transformer secondary, the
work, when clamped in the machine, completes the secondary circuit.

The upset stroke and ‘creep’ may be applied by a hand operated lever or wheel
in the simpler form of machine, but the larger machines employ hydraulic,
pneumatic or electrical methods of pressure application. Various methods are
employed to control the weld cycle which is regulated by the total movement of
stroke, consisting of creep or flash and forging or upset.

Flash Welding of Al and Al Alloys

Machines of specialised design are required and non-heat-treatable alloys only

can be welded. Very high currents are needed, usually above 100,000 amps
per sq inch of section and accelerated upsetting pressures are essential.
Special steel clamps are required to support these relatively soft materials.

Inspection and Quality Control

This is not too unlike the methods already described.

- 47 -
 LAZER BEAM WELDING (LBW)

The term LASER is an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation". It is defined as "any device that emits highly amplified
coherent radiation of one or more discrete frequencies".

The laser beam for welding can be continuous or pulsed with many systems
using the pulsed beam.

A Nd:Yag (Neodymium-Doped Yttrium-Aluminium-Garnet) rod is stimulated by

a flash lamp. The rod emits light in the ultraviolet range with a wavelength of
1.06 microns. This light is then focused and delivered to the work-piece, where
the high energy density (about 1MW/cm2) beam is used to produce sufficient
heat to locally melt the metals and produce a weld.

The laser beam can be delivered to the work-piece in two ways. One involves
the use of "hard optics," and the second involves the use of a fibre optic cable.
Hard optics uses mirrors and lenses to deflect and focus the laser beam. This
method limits the distance between work-piece and laser source and the
welding head must be kept stationary at the correct distance and angle relative
to the work-piece. The second method uses fibre optic cable. The laser energy
is focused into one end of the cable and emerges at the other end (up to
several metres away), with only a small loss of energy. The beam can then be
collimated and refocused onto the work-piece.

Up to the point that the laser beam contacts the work-piece, all the
components that direct it are either transparent, refractive or reflective,
absorbing little energy from the ultraviolet light. The laser beam can be pulsed,
is accurate and repeatable. When the pulse of laser energy is focused onto a
small spot (adjustable from approximately 0.1 to 2.0mm diameter) on the
work-piece, the energy density (energy per unit area) becomes high. The energy
is absorbed into the metal work-piece, causing a "keyhole" effect as the
focused beam "drills" into, vaporizes and melts some of the metal. As the pulse
ends, the liquefied metal around the "keyhole" flows back in, solidifying and
creating a small spot weld.

The process takes a couple of milliseconds and the system has the ability to
fire many pulses per second. Moving the work-piece or the laser head allows
anything from separate spot welds to a series of overlapping spot welds to
create a seam weld.

The process is a fusion welding process and performed under an inert gas
stream cover. A filler rod is rarely used.

- 48 -
Metals that can be laser welded include:

* Some stainless steels

* Titanium
* Kovar**
* Copper
* Some aluminium alloys
* Some dissimilar metals

** Kovar is a trade name and has a low coefficient of linier expansion (similar
to Invar). Used in the electronics industry where there is a requirement to
attach metal to glass.

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW)

EBW is a fusion welding process where a beam of high-velocity electrons is

directed to the metals being joined. The work-pieces melt locally as the kinetic
energy of the electrons is transformed into heat energy on impact with the
metal. Should a filler rod/filler metal be used this is melted also. The process
is usually performed in a vacuum to prevent dissipation of the electron beam.

The free electrons in the vacuum are accelerated and their orbits controlled by
electric and magnetic fields to form a narrow high speed beam of electrons
with high kinetic energy. This is converted to heat energy when the electrons
collide with atoms in solids.

A strong electric field can accelerate electrons to a very high speed, with
subsequent very high power, equal to the product of beam current and
accelerating voltage.

Using magnetic lenses the beam can be shaped into a narrow angled cone and
focused to a small diameter with high power density (in the region of
104 W/mm2) as the beam leaves the tungsten electrode.

The work-pieces must form part of an electrical circuit.

ADHESIVE BONDING

Most materials can be joined by adhesive bonding – wood, paper, glass, metal,
rubber, and plastic.

Many theories exist as to why adhesives work. Why does the adhesive ‘stick’ to
the adherent? Possibly by a combination of chemical reactions; intermolecular
forces (absorption) or by intermolecular electrical forces – the textbooks differ
on the subject.

- 49 -
Advantages of adhesive bonding:

1. No holes to weaken the metal.

2. No high temperatures (unlike welding).
3. Smooth exterior surfaces.
4. The adherends are sealed – no gas or liquid leaks.
5. No stress concentration, unlike riveting or bolting, as all the faying
surface is bonded.
6. Vibration damping is possible. Most adhesives are inherently less
rigid than metals. Thus vibration is damped out rather than
transmitted across bond lines. The excellent vibration-fatigue
resistance of adhesively assembled helicopter rotor blades is an
example.
7. With a few exceptions adhesives are good at joining dissimilar
materials. Glass-to-rubber bonds are probably more easily
achieved with adhesives than with any other assembly technique.
8. Adhesives may be used to electrically insulate joined materials
from one another.
9. Adhesives often result in weight savings.
10. Ease of assembly.

Disadvantages

1. There is no one universal adhesive. Different adhesives have to be

used for different jobs/different materials.
2. Long curing times (up to several hours) may be involved.
3. Careful joint preparation is required with strict control of
cleanliness.
4. Some materials are toxic and/or a fire risk, so are dangerous to
handle.
5. On the selection of an adhesive there is a trade-off between
strength and toughness. Most adhesives are not good at both. 48 -
6. Difficult to check the joint because a poorly made joint looks just
the same as a well made joint. It is usual to construct a test piece
at the same time and with the same materials as the real joint and
then test the test piece to destruction.
7. Joints do not like high temperatures.
8. Many of the materials have a shelf life so strict inventory control of
stock is required.

- 50 -
 Fig. 12 THE ADHERENDS

Safety

When using adhesives the following safety precautions should be observed:

1. Know the chemicals you are working with.

2. Keep all areas, benches and tools clean.
3. Adequate ventilation is required.
4. Use barrier cream and protective clothing.
5. If splashed wash affected parts with soap and water immediately.
6. Observe all fire precautions.

Classification of Adhesives

Adhesives may be classified according to their function, chemical structure or

method of application or on the basis of the adherends joined. Functional
categories include structural, holding and sealing adhesives. Structural
adhesives are those which, by design, endure mechanical loading. Holding
adhesives are those which bear little structural load but do form unstressed
joints between parts. Household appliance trim and many types of labels
typically use holding adhesives. Sealing adhesives are those used to exclude
gases or liquids from a joint. In many applications an adhesive may perform
two or even all three of the structural, holding and sealing functions.

The chemical structure of an adhesive resin is often used as a basis for

classification. Thermosetting adhesives are those which cure to form an
insoluble, infusible film. This process is known as crosslinking. A
thermosetting adhesive will not soften on re-heating.

Thermoplastic adhesives are those whose molecules remain chemically

separate, ie they do not form chemical bonds between the molecules. These
adhesives are generally heat-softenable and soluble in the proper solvent.

A more specific type of chemical structure classification is based on the

repetitive structure of the adhesive polymer. Thus we have epoxies,
polyamides, polyurethanes and polyacrylates to name but a few.

- 51 -
The method of application or cure may also be used to classify adhesives.
Solvent cements are those adhesives in which the resin is applied in solution
and allowed to dry to a tacky state before the bond is formed. Hot melts are
applied in their molten state. They form a bond by cooling to a temperature
below their softening point. Two-part adhesives have two separate components
which must be mixed prior to use; one-part systems are just that – they are
used as supplied. Room-temperature-curing adhesives do not require heating,
while hot-curing systems do.

Tape and film adhesives are supplied in sheet form and are simply laid in
place between the adherends. Pressure-sensitive adhesives are supplied as
tapes or sheets and form bonds immediately upon contact with the adherends.

Still another method of classifying adhesives is based on the nature or

properties of the adherends. Thus we have metal-to-metal, metal-to-plastic,
plastic-to-glass, and similar adhesive types. Similarly, adhesives may be
described as heat stable or as rigid, flexible or elastomeric.

Often the classification systems just described are combined. This leads to
adhesive categories such as structural two-part, flexible plastic-to-plastic, or
elastomeric pressure-sensitive.

Some categories are as follows:

Inorganic Adhesives. Such as those that are sodium silicate based. Not used
for metal bonding.

Natural Adhesives. Rubber based and includes shellac, cellulose, etc. Used
mainly for paper and wood.

Fig. 13 ADHESIVES

- 52 -
Thermoplastic Adhesives. Made from thermoplastic resins. Are softened by
heating which can be repeated. Used where great strength is not important
though hot melt thermoplastics are very strong (18MPa).

Elastomeric Adhesives. Based on synthetic rubber they produce an instant

stick when brought together. They set by the evaporation of the solvents. For
structural work thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are added.

Thermosetting Adhesives. Includes epoxide and urea resins. Provides a strong

joint and the process of making the joint usually involves a curing agent.
When the resin and agent are brought together curing takes place which
involves a chemical reaction. Used in structural bonding.

Bonding - The General Method

1. Surface Preparation – The surface must be thoroughly cleaned and

in most cases chemically cleaned. Some metals must have
additional treatments such as anodising for Al alloys to provide a
key for the adhesives.

2. Adhesive preparation – Film adhesives stored at -20°C require

little preparation prior to use. Epoxide type adhesives will require
mixing and must be used within the time (pot life) specified by the
manufacturer. Absolute cleanliness is required throughout the
preparation.

3. Applying the Adhesive – It is applied in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions.

4. Making the Joint – The adherends are brought together using

some or all of the following:

(a) A heater blanket to speed up the curing process.

Thermisters might be placed close to the joint to control the
temperature.
(b) Clamp using either vacuum/pressure clamping or
mechanical clamps. Many processes use a vacuum bag
which allows atmospheric air pressure to exert a force on
the joint.

5. Allow Curing Time.

6. Joint Inspection – Inspect the edges of the joint as far as possible

to check on the colour of the adhesive and whether it has
penetrated to all the joint edges.

- 53 -
 7. Check Test Piece – A test piece can be manufactured in several
ways:

(a) By making up a separate test piece using the same metals

(adherends) and the same adhesives, temperatures, etc.
(b) By making a part that is longer than required – cutting the
extra piece off – and sending it away for testing.
(c) In some cases the test piece can come from the middle of a
component, eg when making up an aircraft skin the window
aperture can be cut out after fabrication and sent for test.

Table 2 shows the forms in which the various adhesives may be supplied.
There is not need to commit the details to memory.

Film Hot Melt Liquid Paste Solid

Epoxies X X X
Nitrile-phenolic X X
Urea-formaldehyde X X
Epoxy-phenolic X X
Polyester X
Silicone X X
Polyvinyl acetate X X
Polyamide X X X
Polyurethane X X
Polyethylene X X
Polyacrylate X X
Polysulfide X
Neoprene X X

TABLE 2 ADHESIVES – FORMS OF SUPPLY

Bonding – General

1. Some adhesives contain chemicals which may affect some people

physically. Good ventilation and minimum skin contact is
essential.

2. One-part adhesives are preferred over two-part adhesives. Mixing,

metering and dispensing operations allow operator and equipment
errors to occur.

3. Tape and film adhesives are preferred over liquid and paste
systems because mixing, handling, outgassing and shrinkage
problems are reduced.

4. Differences in thermal expansion properties of the adherends can

produce stresses to the bond line when the joint undergoes
temperature changes – leading to eventual failure.

- 54 -
 5. Most adhesives will not combine high tensile strength and high
peel strength and most will not combine high strength with
toughness.

6. The most common cause of poor joint performance is failure to

properly clean the surface.

Table 3 gives a list of some adhesive used to bond various adherends. Table 4
gives typical cure conditions and descriptive comment about some of the
adhesives listed in Table 3 (there should be no need to commit the details to
memory). Adhesive suppliers should be consulted for additional information
about specific products or bonding techniques.

Joint Design

Adhesive bonds undergo a variety of stresses. These are usually a combination

of shear, tension, compression, cleavage or peel.

Of these, shear, tension and compression are the most easy to cope with. This
is because the entire adhesive-bond area can aid in withstanding the stress.
Cleavage and peel forces are less desirable because the load is concentrated at
the end of the bond and the adhesive fails gradually from that point.

The origin of the stress is usually mechanical but it may also be thermal.
When bonded materials of different thermal expansion coefficients undergo a
temperature change, the more rapidly expanding (or contracting) material tries
to slide over the other material and shear stress is generated.

Fig. 14 JOINT DESIGN

- 55 -
MATERIALS USED ON ADHESIVE TYPE (REF TABLE 4)

Aluminium and its alloys Epoxy E

Epoxy-phenolic D
Nylon-epoxies F
Polyurethane rubber G
Polyesters A
Alpha-cyanoacrylate C
Polyamides H
Polyvinyl-phenolic I
Neoprene-phenolic B
Acrylics R

Ceramics Epoxy E
Cellulose esters J
Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate K
Polyvinyl butyral L
Acrylics R

Copper and its alloys Polyesters A

Epoxy E
Alpha-cyanoacrylate C
Polyamide H
Polyvinyl-phenolic I
Polyhydroxyether M
Acrylics R

Magnesium Polyesters A
Epoxy E
Polyamide H
Polyvinyl-phenolic I
Neoprene-phenolic B
Nylon-epoxy F
Acrylics R

Nickel Epoxy E
Neoprene G
Polyhydroxyether M

Natural rubber Epoxy E

Flexible adhesives H

Steel Epoxy E
Polyesters A
Polyvinyl butyral L
Alpha-cyanoacrylate C
Polyamides H
Polyvinyl-phenolic I
Nitrile-phenolic B
Neoprene-phenolic B
Nylon-epoxy D
Acrylics R

Wood Animal glue E

Polyvinyl acetate O
Ethylene-vinyl acetate N
Urea-, melamine-, resorcinol-, and
Phenol-formaldehyde P

TABLE 3 ADHESIVES FOR BONDING VARIOUS MATERIALS

(REF TO TABLE 4 FOR ADHESIVE TYPES)

- 56 -
 Adhesive Type Comments Typical Cure
Type Ref Conditions
Polyesters and A Used primarily for repairing fibre-glass-reinforced Minutes to hours
their variations. polyester resins and ABS. Generally unsaturated at room
esters are polymerised with a catalyst such as MEK temperature.
peroxide and an accelerator. Bonds are strong.
Sometimes combines with polyisocyanates to control
shrinkage stresses and reduce brittleness. Unreacted
monomer, if present, keeps viscosity low, provides
good wetting, and enhances crosslinking.
Occasionally used on metals.
Nitrile-phenolic, B These are a blend of flexible nitrile or neoprene Up to 12 hours at
neoprene - rubber with phenolic novolac resin. They combine 250-300°F
phenolic the impact resistance of the rubber with the strength (120-150°C).
of the crosslinked phenolic. They are inexpensive and
produce strong, durable bonds which resist water.
They are used extensively in the adhesive-tape
industry although they do require high-pressure,
relatively long high-temperature cures. They are
used for metals, airframe components and some
plastics.
Alpha- C These low-viscosity liquids polymerise or cure rapidly Up to 5 minutes at
cyanoacrylate in the presence of moisture or many metal oxides. room temperature.
Thus most surfaces can be bonded. The bonds fairly
strong but brittle. Used widely for the assembly of
electronic components.
Epoxy-phenolic D A combination of epoxy resin with a resol phenolic. 1 hour at 350°F
Noted for strength retention at 300-500°F (150- (175°C).
250°C), strong bonds and good moisture resistance.
Normally stored refrigerated. Used for some metals,
glass and phenolic resins.
Epoxy, amine, E Noted for high tensile but low peel strengths. Also Varies depending
amide and have good high-temperature strength, resistance to on process used.
anhydride-cured moisture and little tendency to react with acids or
solvents. Other important features of epoxies are
their low shrinkage on curing, their compatibility
with a variety of fillers and their long life. These
resins are widely used to bond metal, ceramics and
rigid plastics.
Nylon-epoxy F Tensile shear strengths above 6000psi (41.4MPa) and 1 hour, 300-350°F
peel strength above 100lb/in (18kg/cm) are possible (150-175°C).
when epoxy resins are modified with special low-
melting point nylons.
Flexible G These adhesives are flexible with a low load-bearing Pressure-sensitive
adhesives: ability. They have excellent impact and moisture tape or solvent
Natural rubber, resistance. They are easily tackified and are used as cements. Low-
Butadiene- pressure-sensitive tapes or as contact cements. The temperature bake
acrylonitrile, urethanes are two-part products which require for urethane.
Neoprene, mixing before use. Silicones cure in the presence of Ambient cure for
Polyurethane, atmospheric moisture. silicones.
Polyacrylates,
Silicones
Polyamides H These adhesives, which are chemically similar to Hot melt – cures by
nylon resins, have good strength at ambient cooling.
temperatures and are fairly tough. Often applied as
hot melts, they have good adhesion to a variety of
surfaces.
Polyvinyl- I These resins, which combine a resol phenolic resin 1 hour, 300°F
phenolic with polyvinyl formal or polyvinyl butyral, were the (150°C).
first important synthetic structural adhesives. A
considerable range of compositions is available with
hot strength and tensile properties increasing at the
expense of impact and peel strength as the phenolic
content rises.

- 57 -
 Polyamides H These adhesives, which are chemically similar to Hot melt – cures by
nylon resins, have good strength at ambient cooling.
temperatures and are fairly tough. Often applied as
hot melts, they have good adhesion to a variety of
surfaces.
Polyvinyl- I These resins, which combine a resol phenolic resin 1 hour, 300°F
phenolic with polyvinyl formal or polyvinyl butyral, were the (150°C).
first important synthetic structural adhesives. A
considerable range of compositions is available with
hot strength and tensile properties increasing at the
expense of impact and peel strength as the phenolic
content rises.
Vinyl chloride- K They may be used as hot melts or as solution Cooling (hot melt)
vinyl acetate adhesives. Since thin films of vinyl chloride-vinyl or solvent loss.
acetate are somewhat flexible, they are often used for
bonding metal foil, paper and leather.
Polyvinyl butyral L A tough, transparent resin, which is used as a hot- Cooling (hot melt),
melt or heat-cured solution adhesive. It has good heating under
adhesion to glass, wood, metal and textiles. It is pressure.
flexible and can be modified with other resins or
additives to give a range of properties. Not generally
used as a structural adhesive.
Polyhydroxyether M These are resins based on hydroxylated polyethylene Hot melt. Cures by
oxide polymers. Generally used as hot melts, they cooling.
have only moderate strength but are flexible and
have fairly good adhesion.
Polyvinyl acetate N This adhesive is generally supplied as a water Hot melt – cure by
emulsion (white glue) or used as a hot melt. It dries cooling; emulsion –
quickly and forms a strong bond. It is flexible and air dry.
has low resistance to heat and moisture.
Animal glue O Chemically, animal glues are proteins; they are Air dry under
water-soluble polymers with a high affinity for paper, pressure.
wood and leather surfaces. They form strong bonds
but have poor resistance to moisture. They are being
replaced in many areas by synthetic resin adhesives
but their low cost is an advantage. They are usually
applied as liquids.
Urea- P These thermosetting resins are widely used for wood Up to 300°F
formaldehyde bonding. Urea-formaldehyde is inexpensive but has (149°C) and 200psi
Melamine- low moisture resistance. It can be cured at room (1.28 MPa).
formaldehyde, temperature if a catalyst is used. Melamine-
Resorcinol- formaldehyde resins have better moisture resistance
formaldehyde, but must be heat-cured. Phenol-formaldehyde
Phenol- adhesives form strong, waterproof wood-to-wood
formaldehyde bonds. The resorcinol-formaldehyde resin will cure at
room temperature while phenol-formaldehyde
requires heat.
Ethylene-vinyl Q This copolymer is widely used as a hot-melt adhesive Hot melt – cures by
acetate because it is inexpensive, adheres to most surfaces cooling.
and is available in a range of melting points. It is
widely used for bookbinding and packaging.
Acrylics R Acrylics are versatile structural adhesives. They cure Room temperature
at room temperature and are applied as a or up to 130°F
conventional two-part system or by coating one (54°C); 10-20
substrate with the resin and the other with the minutes with only
catalyst. Impact resistance is controllable since fixturing pressure.
acrylics may vary from rigid to flexible. Floor
ventilation is often recommended because they may
release heavier-than-air monomer vapours, which are
odorous.

TABLE 4 ADHESIVE TYPES

- 58 -
It is also possible for tensile loads to generate peel forces. This requires that
the bonded members deform. The result is the appearance of peel forces as
the bond ends.

In order for a joint to be properly designed, especially a load-bearing one, the

magnitude and direction of the stresses, which the joint will experience, must
be known. Often a welded or mechanically fastened joint will be completely
unsuitable for adhesive bonding and must be redesigned. Simple butt joints,
for example, are rarely suitable for bonding.

A number of commonly used joint designs are shown in figure 14. Some are
less practical than others because of machining requirements or because they
may allow excessive cleavage or peel forces.

Another approach to overcoming peel and cleavage stresses is to combine

adhesive bonding with more traditional fastening methods. Rivets may be
used at the ends of a lap joint, for example. The adhesive greatly increases the
fatigue life of the joint compared with that for rivets alone. The rivets help
secure the ends of the bond against cleavage or peel failure and may replace
clamps and fixtures while the adhesive cures.

Weld bonding uses welds to hold metal parts together while a previously
applied adhesive is cured. The technique protects bond edges against cleavage
and peel failure and can often eliminate clamps and fixtures during the curing
process.

In addition to joint geometry, the designer may have some control over
adherend width, thickness or overlap. The practical significance of these
relationships is simply that stronger lap bond results when width, overlap or
adherend thickness is increased. With thin or low-modulus adherends, it is
easily possible for the bond strength to exceed the yield strength of the
material. Joints having such strength are undesirable since thy use more
adhesive than is necessary.

Surface Preparation

A clean, dry surface, which resists physical disintegration, is essential for

high-quality bonding operations. Most surfaces are far from smooth on an
atomic or molecular level.

Their ‘hills and valleys’ are usually contaminated with water, metal oxides,
adsorbed gases, processing lubricants and perhaps loosely held products of a
reaction between the surface and its surroundings. These materials must be
removed or at least reduced in quantity if strong, durable bonds are to be
achieved.

- 59 -
Surface cleanliness is difficult to measure with certainty. The water break-free
test is often employed because it is rapid and easy to interpret. In this test a
small quantity of water is poured over the surface and observed to see if it
breaks up into droplets. If individual droplets form it is usually because oil or
grease contamination is present. The test will not detect salt or metal oxide
contamination and some surfaces such as polyolefins and Teflon break up the
water layer even when they are clean.

Surface preparation methods, listed below, are typical surface treatments for
common metals and plastics. Other methods may be used. Adhesive
suppliers and texts on surface treatment should be consulted for additional
information.

Surface Preparation Methods

The following gives the recommended surface preparation for metals prior to
carrying out any bonding process.

Aluminium and its Alloys Blast or solvent wipe.

Immerse for 10 minutes at 150-160°F (66-71°C)
in a solution of with sulphuric acid and sodium
dichromate.

Copper and its Alloys Vapour degrease, abrade and degrease.

Immerse for 2 minutes at 77°F (25°C) in a
solution of aqueous ferric chloride and nitric
acid in water. Rinse in cold water and dry.

Stainless Steel Degrease or sandblast or both; then immerse in

150°F (66°C) solution of sodium dichromate and
sulphuric acid. Rinse well with water and dry.
CAUTION: Add the acid slowly while stirring to
the sodium dichromate solution.

Pickle in a solution of sulphuric acid, nitric acid

and water. Rinse with water, then dip for 45
seconds in a solution of hydrochloric acid,
hydrogen peroxide and water. Hot-water-rinse
and dry.

Zinc (and galvanised steel) Degrease, abrade, degrease again. Follow with a
3-minute dip at 77°F (35°C) hydrochloric acid in
water solution. Rinse with clean water. Oven-
dry at 150°F (66°C).

Acrylic. Polycorbonate Degrease with methyl alcohol, abrade and

Polystyrene degrease again.

- 60 -
Polyethylene Etch times are polyethylene, 1 minute at 160°F
Polypropylene (71°C); acetals, 10 seconds at 77°F (25°C) and
chlorinated polyethers, 5 mins at 160°F (71°C).

Rubber, natural and Degrease with methyl alcohol, etch with

synthetic but not sulphuric (5 to 15 mins). Rinse with water
silicone materials and neutralise with 0.2% caustic for about 10
mins. Rinse with water and dry.

Nylon, epoxies, Solvent-wipe with acetone or MEK, abrade

Fibre-glass composites and repeat solvent wipe.

Applying Adhesives

The best application method for a particular job depends primarily on the size
and shape of the parts and the nature of the adhesive. Commonly used
methods may be classified as manual, machine or spray.

Manual application methods for liquid adhesives are the simplest. Nearly all
types of adhesives can be applied manually if provision is made for proper
handling of toxic or flammable products. Brushes, spatulas or flow guns may
be used. They depend on operator skill for control of adhesive thickness.

They are ideal for low production rates with large or complex parts and can
often be made portable for use in various on-site locations.

Film and tape adhesives may be applied by hand or with hand-held

dispensers. These methods are often used when one of the adherends is
supplied with a pressure-sensitive adhesive backing.

Machine application methods are generally used in production involving flat

surfaces. The machines may be bench or floor-mounted.

Rollers may be used. They employ one or more rollers to transport a liquid
adhesive from a reservoir to the surface being coated. Film thickness is
controlled by roller spacing, blades and substrate feed rates. Most low and
medium-viscosity adhesives can be applied to flexible or rigid materials up to
several feet in width. Viscosity control is important to control film thickness.

Curtain coaters work by moving the surface to be coated through a falling

sheet of liquid adhesive. Film thickness is controlled by the rate of adhesive
flow and substrate feed. Excess adhesive flowing over the edges of the
substrate is collected in a drain pan and returned to the feed reservoir.

Spray application of adhesives is often the best method for use on large,
complex rigid parts. Spray techniques are suitable for intermittent operation
but they generally waste more material than do manual or machine methods.

- 61 -
Also, greater operator skill is required, more ventilation is needed and general
housekeeping requirements are more stringent.

Extrusion equipment pumps adhesive through one or more nozzles in the form
of a liquid bead. Typically the nozzle moves over the substrate, although in
some cases, the surface to be bonded can be moved beneath the nozzle.
Extrusion nozzles are normally guided by some combinations of gears, belts,
cams etc. In recent years, a number of extrusion heads have been fitted to
robots, which allows them to be moved in a variety of pre-programmed paths.

Adhesives may be applied via air or airless spray of heated or ambient-

temperature material with automatic or manual guns. Air spray uses
compressed air to atomise the adhesive and propel it towards the desired
surface. Airless or hydraulic spray uses pressure in excess of 6.894MPa (1,000
psi) applied directly to the adhesive. Atomisation occurs as a result of the
pressure release when the adhesive enters the atmosphere at the gun tip.

Automatic stationary or movable spray guns are ideal for high production rates
and simple shapes. Manual guns are better for complex shapes and
intermittent operation.

Adhesives are sometimes heated to over 50°C (122°F) for spray application.
These heated materials can be sprayed at a higher-percent solids content and
with a lower energy requirement, per unit weight, especially for airless
(hydraulic) spray systems, than is possible at ambient temperatures.

Curing Adhesives

Cure means the process by which an adhesive is converted from its applied
condition to its final solid state. Adhesives may cure at ambient or elevated
temperatures. The process may involve simple solvent evaporation, as with a
contact cement, or a complex chemical reaction between two or more
components, as with epoxies and urethanes.

Heat and pressure are often used to obtain rapid curing. Heating speeds the
cure while the pressure controls bond-line thickness and immobilises the
parts while the adhesive solidifies.

There is an optimum curing pressure for most adhesives. If too much

pressure is used, the adhesive will be squeezed out of the bond line and a
‘starved’ joint will result. Too little pressure permits an excessively thick bond
line which increases the probability that a major flaw within the solid adhesive
will lead to failure by cracking.

Higher temperatures invariably mean shorter cure times. Temperatures must

be selected, however, with a view to the thermal stability of the adherends.

- 62 -
Pressure-applying equipment may range from simple weights and clamps to
sophisticated springs, fixtures and autoclaves. Often the exact pressure
applied is less important than maintaining a constant pressure during cure.

Adhesive bonds are usually heated in gas or steam hot-air ovens. Occasionally
infra-ed, dielectric or induction heating may be employed. Autoclaves,
mentioned earlier, can simultaneously apply heat and pressure. Heated-platen
presses can also be used to apply heat and pressure if the shape of the
adherend permits contact with the platen.

A newer concept, which seems to be gaining acceptance, is that of weld-

bonding. In this process metal is spot-welded through an adhesive layer to
immobilise the parts. The adhesive is then cured in a subsequent processing
stage, perhaps in a paint bake oven. An obvious advantage is that clamps or
other pressure devices need not be used.

Testing of Test Specimens

Various tests can be carried out using – in some cases – fairly simple
machines. The part is tested to destruction. In general the thinner the
bonding agent the stronger the joint.

Tap testing can be used though this is not as satisfactory as destructive

testing. It is used to check for de-lamination or lack of bonding and involves
tapping the surface of the joint with a coin to check the change in tone as the
coin passes from a good section of the join to a poor section.

X-rays may be used though the definition might be poor. Ultrasonics can be
used on monolithic structures though the resulting picture can suffer from
noise (unwanted signal) when testing composites. Some destructive tests are
shown below.

Adhesives must be tested to ensure that the adhesive material or the bonding
process meets the desired standards. Testing is also done to qualify a new
product or process for production use. Test procedures are frequently those
developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Such
tests should be used without modification whenever possible because they
represent standards agreed on by adhesive suppliers and consumers. If they
are modified in any way, they may not be valid.

Routine tests on incoming adhesive materials often include tests for percent
solids. Viscosity, density, colour, flow, tack, pot life, elongation and bond
strength.

Tests to destruction of actual bonded assemblies are often carried out to

ensure that the proper production procedures have been followed, or to
ascertain the effectiveness of a particular joint design.

- 63 -
The direct tensile strength of a bond is often determined according to ASTM D-
897. In this test, cylindrical specimens of 1 sq in for metals or 0.5sq in for
wood are subjected to direct tension until the adhesive or adherend fails.

Fig. 15 THE TENSILE TEST

The tensile lap-shear test (ASTM-1002-72) is probably the most common

adhesive bond test. This test uses a flat overlap of 0.5in for parallel specimens
1in wide and 0.064in thick. The specimen is stressed to failure in tension.

Fig. 16 THE SHEAR TEST

Peel test of bonds involving one or two flexible adherends are typified by the
180° peel test (ASTM D903) and the T-peel test (ASTM D-1876). These tests
subject the bond to peeling stresses. Failing loads are reported in force per
unit of bond width for peeling at a given rate.

Fig. 17 THE PEEL TEST

Cleavage tests involve pulling a bond specimen apart with tensile force applied
at one edge. The failing load is reported as force per unit of bond width.
Cleavage strengths are often a fraction of tensile or lap-shear values, especially
for structural adhesives.

- 64 -
 Fig. 18 THE CLEAVAGE TEST

Creep testing of adhesive bonds is carried out to determine their service

behaviour under load. Creep-testing methods such as ASTM D-2293 and D-
2294 use spring-loaded devices to stress lap joints, in compression or tension.
A fine line is scribed across the edge of the glue line and examined with a
measuring microscope after various test times. Creep is expressed by the
amount of movement between the scribed lines. This creep distance is
compared with the bond line thickness in the case of compression testing.

Environmental and age testing of bonds is performed by holding the specimen

under the desired conditions for various times and then using the appropriate
test method to determine the effect of the environment-age combination.
Temperature and chemical exposure tests are particularly common.
Unfortunately many tests are carried out using unstressed specimens, ie
specimens which are placed in the desired environment but not cyclicly loaded
and unloaded to simulate service conditions. This omission may be serious
and should be avoided if possible.

Non-destructive testing of bonded assemblies frequently employs ultrasonic

techniques. An ultrasonic vibration is passed through one adherend and is
reflected by the glue line and the other adherend. The reflected vibrations are
detected and monitored for consistency. When a debond or no-bond area is
encountered, the reflected wave will differ significantly from the expected and
the part can then be removed for repair.

””””””””

- 65 -
Book 10 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1
MECHANICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
BELTS GEARS BEARINGS
REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1 EASA 66 7A.10 to 7A.13 ISSUE 06 0607

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without
prior written permission from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Duplicate inspections 1
Design requirements 2
Control cable maintenance 3
Swaging 4
Manual splicing 9
Swaged splices 13
Proof loading 15
Cable maintenance 17
Chains and sprockets 19
Control system components 24
Pulleys 24
Turnbuckles 25
Control rods 29
Other cable control systems 31
Bowden controls 31
Teleflex controls 35
Flexball controls 39
Belts and pulleys 40
Springs 42
Bearing maintenance 44
Maintenance of gears 49
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The material in this book is for the B1 person. There is a reasonable amount of
detail in parts of the book to warrant careful reading. It is also a good idea to
read the various sections in conjunction with the appropriate material in
module 6. Of necessity there is some overlap and material from module 6 has
been included where it is considered as essential background reading.

The CAA will expect you to be able to maintain the various systems in this
book – to include inspection, replacement, fault location etc.

If possible, carefully inspect any equipments on your aircraft that are covered
in this book – cables, remote control systems, pulleys etc. Look at them
carefully and also check the AMM for details of the maintenance checks; how
to replace them etc.

Details of scientists/engineers are included for interest only and need not be
committed to memory.

Note. Drawings from CAP (Civil Air Publication) 562 may not be found in that
publication due to amendment action by the CAA.
 INSPECTION OF IN-SITU CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The main purpose of this section is to give details of the inspection of

components within a cable control system to include:

* Steel cables
* Bowden cables
* Push/pull rods
* Bearings etc

Before tackling this it should be noted that if the controls are related to flying
controls or engine controls then after any disturbance of the control system a
duplicate inspection is required.

Duplicate Inspections

A control system is defined as a system by which the flight attitude or the

propulsive force of an aircraft is changed (BCAR Sect A, Chapter A6-2).

Flight control systems include the main flying control surface systems, lift and
drag devices, trim and feel systems, together with any flight control locking
systems and the associated operating mechanisms and controls. In the case
of rotorcraft, the flight control system includes collective pitch, cyclic pitch and
yaw.

The engine control system includes the primary engine controls and related
control systems (eg throttle, fuel cock, oil-cooler controls etc) and the
mechanisms used by the crew to operate them.

A duplicate inspection of a vital point/control system is defined as an

inspection which is first made and certified by one qualified person and
subsequently made and certified by a second qualified person.

Components, systems or vital points subject to duplicate inspection, must not

be disturbed or re-adjusted between the first and second parts of the
inspection. The second inspection must, as nearly as possible, follow
immediately after the first inspection.

In some circumstances, due to peculiarities of assembly or accessibility, it may

be necessary for both parts of the inspection to be made simultaneously.

Control system components, the parts of which are concealed during bench
assembly before installation, shall have a duplicate inspection on assembly,
during manufacture, overhaul or repair.

Both parts of the duplicate inspection and the results of any test made during
and after final assembly shall be certified on the Inspection Record for the part
concerned.

-1-
A duplicate inspection of the control system in the aircraft shall be made (a)
before the first flight of all aircraft after initial assembly, (b) before the first
flight after the overhaul, replacement, repair, adjustment or modification of the
system.

The two parts of the duplicate inspection shall be the final operation and, as
the purpose of the inspection is to establish the integrity of the system, all
work should have been completed. If, after the duplicate inspection has been
completed, the control system is disturbed in any way before the first flight,
that part of the system which has been disturbed shall have another duplicate
inspection before the aircraft flies.

In some instances it may not be possible after complete assembly of the

aircraft to inspect all parts of the system because some sections of the system
may get progressively ‘boxed in’ and sealed during assembly operations. In
such cases the condition and security of any section which is liable to be
sealed must be established to the satisfaction of the persons named before the
section is sealed and the related Inspection Record endorsed accordingly.

Inspection Records should be prepared to ensure that any duplicate inspection

required at an early stage during assembly operations is clearly indicated, thus
avoiding unnecessary dismantling at later stages.

Suitably qualified licensed or approved aircraft engineers should carry out

duplicate inspections. The inspection must be carried out systematically to
ensure that each and every part of the system is correctly assembled and is
able to operate freely over the specified range of movement without risk of
fouling. Also that it is correctly and adequately locked, clean and correctly
lubricated and is working in the correct sense in relation to the movement of
the controls by the crew.

Design Requirements

EASA CS 25 (large aeroplanes), EASA CS 27 (small helicopters) and EASA CS

29 (large helicopters) state that each element of each control system must be
designed, or distinctly and permanently marked, to minimise the probability of
incorrect assembly that could result in the malfunction of the system.

This means that for control systems which, if incorrectly assembled would
hazard the aircraft, the design should be such that at all reasonable possible
breakdown points it is mechanically impossible to assemble the system to give
an out-of-phase action. For example, cross connection of control cables,
reversed controls or interconnection between two systems which was not
intended.

In other words, the systems should be Murphy proof as far as possible.

-2-
These requirements are satisfied in practice in a number of ways. For example,
by the use of end fittings having different diameter threads for different cables;
by the use of different diameter pins in correspondingly different diameter
holes in end fittings; by staggering the positions of breakdown points so that
cross-connecting is impossible, and by the use of keyed cable connectors

CONTROL CABLE MAINTENANCE

Handling of Control Cables

Cable may be permanently damaged and its working life may reduced by
careless handling and unwinding. Care is necessary to prevent the cable from
forming itself into a loop, which, if pulled tight, could produce a kink. If this
happens the kink is permanent and the cable is useless. A kink is shown by
the core strand leaving the centre of the rope and lying between the outer
strands, or protruding in the form of a small loop.

Cable should always be stored on suitably designed reels. The diameter of the
reel barrel should be at least forty times the cable diameter. British Standards
stipulate that reels should be made from a wood which will not corrode the
cable and that contact surfaces should be lined with an inert waterproof
material. Precautions should also be taken to protect the cable from dirt,
moisture and damage in transit.

To remove cable from a reel, a spindle should be placed through the centre of
the reel and supported in a suitable stand. Cable may then be removed by
pulling the free end in line with the reel, allowing the reel to rotate. Cable
should not be unwound by paying off loose coils, or by pulling the cable away
from a stationary reel laid on its side.

When a long length of cable has been cut from a reel and it is necessary to coil
the cut piece, the coil diameter should be at least 50 times the cable diameter,
with a minimum diameter of 150mm (6 in). Care must be taken to prevent
dust, dirt and moisture, from coming into contact with the coiled cable.

The ends of stored cable are whipped (tied with strong cord) to prevent fraying
of the ends. If a length has been cut from the reel, the remaining free end
should be whipped also.

When a coil is being unwound, the coil should be rotated so that the cable is
paid out in a straight line.

Cutting The Cable

Cable should always be cut using cable cutters or heavy duty pliers,
alternatively, the cable may be laid on an anvil and cut with a sharp chisel and
a hammer. Cable should not be cut by a flame.

-3-
If a non-preformed cable is being cut, it should be whipped with waxed cord on
both sides of the cut, prior to being cut. With a preformed cable it will
normally only be necessary to bind the cable temporarily with masking tape or
string as the strands will not unravel unduly.

Cable End Fittings

Cable end fittings may be joined to the cable by Swaging (common), Hand
Splicing, or Machine Splicing. Hand splicing and machine splicing are almost
never seen on large commercial aircraft. Hand splicing is very difficult to do
and must only be undertaken by suitably qualified personnel, it is a form of
weaving the strands of the wire back through the wire itself. Machine splicing
is a form of crimping two parts of the cable together and swaging is forcing the
metal of an end fitting by plastic deformation into the lay of the cable.

Fig. 1 ATTACHMENT OF CABLE END FITTINGS

SWAGING

Swaging is an operation in which a metallic end fitting is secured to the end of

a cable by plastic deformation of the hollow shank of the end fitting into the
lays of the cable. The end of the cable is inserted into the hollow shank of the
fitting and the shank is squeezed in a swaging machine so that it grips the
cable. This is the most satisfactory method of attaching an end fitting to a
cable and it can be expected to provide a cable assembly at least as strong as
the cable itself. Most transport aircraft and a large number of light aircraft,
use control cables manufactured in this way.

-4-
Manufacturers of cable assemblies normally swage with rotary machines. In
these machines the shank of the end fitting is placed between suitable dies
and is subjected to a series of squeezing movements, which reduce the shank
diameter progressively and lock the fitting onto the cable.

Swaging may also be carried using a portable swaging machine, which

squeezes the shank of the end fitting between dies.

A range of swaged end fittings is covered by BS specifications and others, but

some older aircraft may be fitted with cable assemblies containing components
complying with SBAC AS specifications, which are not obsolete. When it is
necessary to make up control cables for these aircraft, approval may be
granted for the use of equivalent BS parts, but the complete cable control run
may have to be changed.

Specifications such as those from BSI provide a range of fittings which prevent
incorrect assembly of control cables. Barrel type turnbuckles, tension rod type
turnbuckles and cable connectors designed to connect screwed end and
tapped end swaged end fittings.

On the BSI system for each size of cable two alternative sizes of end fittings are
available and each size is provided with either a left or right hand thread.
Swaged fittings must be arranged to ensure that a control run cannot be
incorrectly assembled. This can also be achieved in a multiple cable run by the
use of cable connectors and by placing the turnbuckles/connectors so that
they do not occur at the same location within the airframe.

Portable Swaging Machines

It is usual for unserviceable cables to be replaced by cables which have been

manufactured, pre-stretched and proof loaded in accordance with an approved
drawing. Supplied from an approved supplier (usually the aircraft
manufacturer), with correct part numbers and serial numbers and correct
stores documentation (JAA form 1 etc).

Occasions may arise when such a cable is not available and it is necessary to
make up a cable assembly locally. Provided that the process is permitted and
that the appropriate drawings/instructions are available, end fittings may be
swaged onto a cable using a hand-operated machine such as the one shown in
figure 2.

NOTE: The proficiency of a person engaged in the manufacturer of locally

made-up cable assemblies should be established by trail swagings on test
cables, which should be tested to the satisfaction of the supervising inspector.
The effectiveness of subsequent swaging operations should be checked
periodically, by selecting a representative sample and subjecting it to a tensile
test and testing to destruction.

-5-
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 2 PORTABLE SWAGING MACHINE

Various types of swaging machines are available most supplied with sets of
dies for swaging various types and sizes of fittings. Often supplied with
GO-NOGO gauges for checking shank diameter before and after swaging.

The swaging machine is normally bolted to a bench and should be used on a

low bench so that adequate downward force can be applied by hand to the
lever. An adjusting screw in the head of the machine alters the amount of
squeeze applied and a graduated scale permits accurate setting.

Fig. 3 GO NO-GO GAUGES

Swaging Procedure

The procedure outlined below is applicable to the machine shown in figure 2.

The procedure for most other machines is similar but in any case the machine
manufacturers literature must be followed.

1. Inspect the cable to ensure that it is the correct size and type.
Check that it is not damaged or contaminated and has the correct
documentation. Check the size by using a suitable gauge or my
measurement and checking documentation.

-6-
 2. Whip the cable either side of the cut and double check the length
of cable required by reference to the AMM/IPC/drawing/old cable
– noting that it might have stretched.

3. Cut the cable to length and ensure that the ends are clean and
square and that the lay has not unravelled.

NOTE. Swaging elongates the end fitting and an allowance for this must be
made when cutting the cable. The allowance to be made should be stated on
the appropriate drawing or specification.

4. Select the appropriate end fitting (size and type), inspect for
damage and corrosion and clean by immersion it in solvent. Allow
to dry. Check size new with the gauge.

5. Assemble the end fitting to the cable by pushing the cable into the
hole in the end. With drilled-through holes, the cable end must
pass the inspection hole, but be clear of the locking wire hole. For
fittings with a blind hole, the cable must bottom in the hole.
Bottoming may be checked by marking the cable with paint at a
distance from the end, equal to the depth of the hole. Ensure that
the paint mark reaches the fitting when the cable is inserted.

When the cable and the fitting are correctly assembled, they
should be a snug fit both should be lightly lubricated.

6. Fit the correct dies (size marked) into the machine, for the
particular size of end fitting. Open the handles and unscrew the
adjuster until the end fitting can be placed in the dies (passing it
through the access hole). With the end fitting centred in the die,
close the handles fully and screw-in the adjuster until the dies
grip the fitting. Open the handles and tighten the adjuster by the
amount of squeeze required for the particular end fitting -
normally approximately 0.18mm (0.007in).

7. Place the fitting in the position shown in the drawing, so as to

swage to within approximately 1.2mm (0.050in) from the
inspection hole.

8. Check that the cable is in the correct position and carefully push
the handle down fully to its stop to squeeze the fitting.

NOTE. Always swage from the end furthest from the cable as the end fitting
will elongate with the open end moving up the cable by a small amount.

9. Pull the handle up releasing the dies and rotate the fitting through
approximately 50° axially – carry out the next squeezing as per
item 8 above. Repeat this process of squeezing and turning until
the fitting has been rotated one full turn (360°) – about 7 or 8
turns.
-7-
 10. Withdraw the end fitting from the dies by 1.6mm (0.0625 in) and
repeat the cycle of squeezing and turning.

11. Continue this operation until the whole shank is swaged – ending
at the end next to the cable. Check the diameter of the shank
(using the gauge or a micrometer) and if it has not been reduced to
the size required by the appropriate drawing or specification, re-
set the adjusting screw and repeat the swaging operation (items 7
to 11).

12. When the shank of the end fitting has been reduced to the correct
diameter, remove and inspect the fitting. Check for ovality, cracks
and distortion. Check that the cable strands have not unravelled
or are distorted. Check that the cable is sufficiently buried in the
end fitting. If any faults are found then the fitting will have to be
cut off and a new swage (with a new fitting) will have to be made. If
the cable has been cut to the correct length originally, then a new
length of cable will have to be used.

NOTE. Removal of the end fitting is achieved by raising the handle which parts
the dies and lifting the cable into the access hole so it can be pulled clear.

13. Fit an identification tag as laid down in the drawing and stamp
with the cable part number, name etc (in some cases the part
number may be etched directly onto the end fitting). The
identification may be in the form of a wired-on tag, or a cylindrical
sleeve lightly swaged onto the shank of the end fitting.

14. Assemble any slide-on fittings on the cable and swage on the
opposite end fitting. It is very important to get this end correct
because any rejection of this one, or if the cable length is wrong it
will all have to be all done again.

15. Dip the end fittings in lanolin, to prevent corrosion resulting from
damaged plating and to exclude moisture.

On completion of the swaging operation, the following inspection should be

carried out:

(a) Check that the correct combination of cable and fittings has been
used.

(b) Re-check the diameter of the swaged shank, using a GO-NOT GO

gauge or a micrometer. If the diameter of the fitting is too small, it
has been over-swaged and as such the cable and the fitting must
be rejected. Excessive work hardening of the fitting will cause it to
crack and may also damage the cable.

-8-
 (c) Check, by means of the inspection hole or paint mark, that the
cable is correctly engaged in the end fitting.

(d) Check that the swaging operation has not disturbed the lay of the
cable, where the cable enters the end fitting.

(e) Ensure that the shank is smooth, parallel and in line with the
head of the fitting and that the swaged shank length is correct.

(f) Proof-load the completed cable assembly in accordance with the

appropriate drawing. (British practice is to load the cable
assembly to 50% of its minimum breaking strength – America
60%.)

(g) Inspect the fittings for cracks using a lens of 10 x magnification,

or carry out a crack detection test, using the magnetic or dye
penetrant processes.

(h) Check that the cable assembly is the correct length and ensure
that any required identification marking, including evidence of
proof-loading, has been carried out and that any specified
protective treatments have been applied.

NOTE. The first swaged fitting in a production batch is usually sectioned after
proof loading, so that the interior surface can be examined for cracks. If this
check is satisfactory, the settings on the swaging machine should be noted
and used for completion of the complete batch.

MANUAL SPLICING

Although manual splicing may be permitted for some particular applications, it

is seldom used on aircraft cables. It is not as strong than either the swaged
fitting or the swaged splice and considerable experience and skill is required in
order to obtain splices of adequate strength and quality.

The task is difficult and takes a long time. There is also a high risk of fingers
getting pricked by the wire. Great care is needed to avoid injury.

Persons engaged on splicing should be given an initial competency test and

representative samples of their work should be selected periodically for tensile
testing. Splices on cable manufactured to BS W9 or W11 should not fail at less
than 80% of the breaking strength of the cable. There are several methods of
splicing, the procedure in each case varying in detail.

A recommended method is given in the following paragraphs, but other

methods may be used, provided that the resulting splice is no less strong.

-9-
Splicing Procedure

The cable is normally spliced around a brass or steel thimble. The

identification tag and where applicable, the turnbuckle eye-end, should be
placed on the thimble and the centre of the thimble bound to the cable. The
cable should be whipped with waxed cord on either side of the thimble, as
shown in figures 4, 5 & 6.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 4 METHOD OF WHIPPING CABLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 5 WHIPPING OF CABLE TO THIMBLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 6 FIGURE OF EIGHT WHIPPING OF CABLE TO THIMBLE

NOTE. When cutting the cable to length, approximately 23cm (9 in) should be
allowed for each splice on cable sizes up to 3.2mm (1/8 in) and 30cm (12 in)
should be allowed for each splice on cables between 4.0mm (5/32 in) and
6.4mm (3/4 in) diameter.

The method of whipping with a waxed thread is illustrated in figure 4. A loop

of cord is formed to lay on the cable (A) and careful tight winding is
commenced from the open end of the loop towards the closed end (B). When a
sufficient length has been whipped, end ‘b’ of the cord is passed through the
loop and pulled under the whipping by pulling end ‘a’ (C). The ends are then
cut off.

- 10 -
It is essential that the cable and thimble are securely held in a vice, using
cable clamps or specially prepared vice blocks to protect the cable. The thimble
and cable is bound with a figure of eight binding as shown in figure 6. No
attempt should be made to splice a cable without fully effective clamping
devices. The cable strands and wires are very ‘springy’ so as much restraint as
possible is needed.

The individual strands at the end of the cable should be separated and
whipped or soldered to prevent unlaying of single wires. The cable is then
ready for splicing.

NOTE. For descriptive purposes, the six outer strands of the free end of the
cable will called the ‘free strands’ and will be numbered 1 to 6, while the outer
strands of the main cable will be lettered ‘a’ to ‘f’ as shown in figures 7 and 8.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 7 SPLICING - FIRST SET OF TUCKS
(FRONT SIDE)

Each free strand is tucked under one cable strand and over the next cable
strand to complete one tuck. This is repeated at least four times. As this
happens the free strand moves along the cable and at about 45° to the centre
line.

The core strand is positioned so that there are three free strands on either side
and it should be bent back slightly.

The first round of tucks should be completed as follows – 3 under a, 1 under b

and c, 2 under b. Turn the cable over (reverse side) and tuck 4 under f,
5 under e and 6 under d. All free strands should be pulled very tight and
gently hammered with a hide faced (or plastic faced) hammer with the cable
held on a wooden block. This helps to give the splice a better shape and keeps
the strands in position. Care should be taken to avoid disturbing the lay of the
cable by excessive pulling or hammering.

The core strand should be taken forward and temporarily secured to the main
cable with thread, then pulled under a suitable free strand into the centre of
the splice.

- 11 -
The six free strands should then, in turn, be tucked over a strand and under a
strand, eg 3 over b and c, 1 over d and under e. On completing the second
round of tucks, the free strands should be pulled tight and gentle hammered
as before.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 8 SPLICING - FIRST SET OF TUCKS
(REVERSE SIDE)

The third round of tucks should be completed in a similar manner to the

second, taking care to bury the core strand in the centre of the splice.

The last full round of tucks, ie the fourth, should be the same as the second
and third rounds.

A half round of tucks, for finishing the splice, should be completed by tucking
alternate free strands over one and under two main cable strands. To finish
and shape the splice, it should be beaten with a hardwood or rawhide mallet
on a hardwood block, while the cable is held taut. The splice should be rotated
against the direction of tucking during the beating process.

Excessive hammering must be avoided. Free strands should be cut off flush
with the splice and the last one and a half tucks should be whipped with
waxed cord. The central binding and figure-of-eight lashing is removed.

If both ends of the cable are to be spliced, the cable length should be checked
before commencing the second splice, so that the completed cable will be of
the required length. On test lengths a length with a maximum allowance of
plus or minus 1/8 in (3mm) is expected.

Note. To assist in the separation of the strands of the cable an ice pick is used.

The splice should be inspected for symmetry and appearance. The wires
should be close together and no light should show through the strands. A
typical finished splice is shown in figure 9.

- 12 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 9 TYPICAL FINISHED SPLICE

The resistance of the splice to bending should be checked. A poor splice will
bend reasonably easy, and the strands and wires will slacken and move.

The thimble should be checked for tightness and damage. The lay of the
strands in the cable should be maintained as far as the splice permits, as
disturbance in the lay adjacent to the splice may result in weakening of the
cable.

The completed cable must is proof-loaded.

SWAGED SPLICES

A number of proprietary methods are available to secure cable in the form of a

loop, which may then be used to attach the cable to a terminal fitting or
turnbuckle.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 10 EXAMPLE SWAGED SPLICE - TALURIT

- 13 -
The ‘Talurit’ system is typical and is approved for use on some British aircraft
control cables and is also widely used on ground equipment. The process
provides a cable assembly which, when used with cables to BS W9 and W11,
has a strength equal to approximately 90% of the breaking strength of the
cable.

It may only be used to replace cables employing the same type of splice, or
hand splices and must not be used where swaged end fittings were used
previously – or where the AMM does not specifically mention that they can be
used.

A typical ‘Talurit’ splice is shown in figure 10. To make this type of splice, the
end of the cable is threaded through a ferrule of the appropriate size, looped
around a thimble and passed back through the ferrule. The ferrule is squeezed
between dies in a hand-operated or power-operated press. The metal of the
ferrule is extruded between the two parallel lengths of cable and around the
cable strands firmly locking the cable without disturbing its lay.

Ferrules are made in a variety of shapes, sizes and materials. Aluminium alloy
ferrules are used with galvanised or tinned carbon steel cable and copper
ferrules are used with corrosion resistant steel cable.

When making a splice, the correct ferrule should be selected by the code
numbers indicated on the appropriate drawing and the associated dies fitted to
the press. The loop and thimble should be adjusted after the swages have
closed sufficiently to grip the ferrule. The cable must grip the thimble firmly
and the dimensions indicated in drawings supplied with the press, must be
obtained before swaging commences.

The press should be operated until the faces of the dies touch, then the
pressure is released. Continuing to apply pressure after the faces have met
may cause damage to press and dies.

Only one pressing operation is normally required, but some long ferrules are
designed for swaging in two separate operations, each swage in this case being
half the length of the ferrule.

After swaging, surplus metal is visible as a flash along each side of the ferrule,
this may be removed with a file. If no flash has been formed, the sizes of the
ferrule and dies should be re-checked and it should be ascertained that the
press is operating correctly.

The inspection of the finished splice consists of ensuring that the ferrule is
correctly formed and not cracked and carrying out a proof test. In some
instances a dimensional check is also specified, but, since the dies meet
during the pressing operation, little variation in diameter can be obtained.

- 14 -
PROOF LOADING

All cables must be proof-loaded after swaging or splicing, by subjecting the

cable to a specified load. The purpose of proof-loading is to ensure that the end
fittings are satisfactorily installed, and to pre-stretch the cable, ie to bed-in the
strands and wires.

British practice is to load the cable to 50% of its declared minimum breaking
strength. American practice is to load the cable to 60%.

If no specific instructions are included in the drawing, then loading of the

cable should be carried out in accordance with whichever of these practices is
appropriate.

If end fittings have been fitted or splices have been made on pre-stretched
cable, no appreciable elongation will result from proof loading. If the cable was
not pre-stretched, it may be expected to elongate slightly and this should have
been taken into consideration on the appropriate drawing.

A typical test rig suitable for proof loading cables is shown in figure 11, but
other similar methods would be acceptable. The cable should be contained
within a protective guard, to safeguard the operator in the event of cable
failure.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 11 PROOF LOADING TEST RIG

Adapters should be used to attach the cable end fittings to the test rig and
these should be at least as strong as the cable. Particular care should be
taken not to damage the thimbles on spliced cables as these will distort easily.
Use packing or bushes to spread the load.

Before proof loading a cable with swaged end fittings, the cable should be
painted with a quick-drying paint at its point of entry into the fittings and
allowed to dry. Cracking of the dried paint during proof loading will indicate
slipping of the cable resulting from an unsatisfactory joint.

Procedure

1. Fit the cable between the screw jack and the calibrated spring
balance or calibrated strain gauge system.

- 15 -
 2. Measure its length under enough tension to take up any slack,
but not enough to cause any stretch.

3. Fit the safety cover.

4. Turn the screw jack handle slowly to tension the cable until the
specified load is reached. Maintain this load for the minimum
specified period (normally 30 seconds for swaged fittings, but up
to 3 minutes for splices).

5. Release the load, lift the safety cover and carefully examining the
cable for signs of pulling out of the end fittings, or stretching of
the splice.

The end fittings should be checked for cracks using an electro-magnetic NDT
method or, if the fitting is stainless steel, a penetrant dye process can be used.

The length of the completed cable assembly should be measured after proof
loading. Prior to measurement, cables longer than 120cm (4 ft) should be
tensioned with a load of approximately 550 N (112 lbf), or 2% of the breaking
load of the cable, whichever is the least.

Figure 12 shows the reference points and tolerances for the measurement of
cables fitted with swaged end fittings to British Standards. Cables with
different types of end fittings, or loops, should be measured according to the
appropriate drawings or specifications.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 12 CABLE NOMINAL LENGTHS

- 16 -
Cable Maintenance

Always consult the AMM for specific cable maintenance practices.

Before installing a cable which has an identification tag affixed other than as
shown in British Standard SP53, SP54, SP105 and SP106, the tag should be
removed and for future identification purposes, the particulars on it should be
entered in the Aircraft Log Book.

Where applicable the protective treatment specified should be applied to the

cables. However, where the cables pass through or over fairleads, any excess
lubricant should be removed to prevent these parts collecting abrasive dust,
which would wear the cables.

NOTE. In order to improve the wear and fatigue life of control cables, British
Standards require a lubricant to be applied during manufacture of the cable.
It is important, therefore, when cleaning cables not to wash out the lubricant
by saturating the cable with a solvent.

The cables should be free from:

1. Broken wires and kinks.

2. ‘Bird-caging’ – where the strands open up to form a sort of a cage.
3. Corrosion.
4. Wear (thinning).
5. Stretching (other than that which is allowed).

All of these would adversely effect the strength of the cable and/or affect
system operation.

Broken wires can be checked for by bending the cable as shown in figure 13
and visually checking for any broken strands on the outside of the bend. An
in-situ check for the same thing involves taking a piece of rag and laying it on
the cable and carefully running it along the length. Any broken strands will
catch on the rag. Be careful, broken strands can catch the hands and cause
nasty puncture wounds.

Fig. 13 CHECKING FOR BROKEN STRANDS

- 17 -
Broken strands are not allowed near components such as fairleads, pulleys,
pressure cabin seals etc. A certain number might be allowed in free-run
lengths of the cable provided there are not more than a certain number per
unit length – but check the AMM.

Kinks can be seen as permanent bends in the cable sometimes accompanied

by the heart strand kinking out from the middle of the cable. Kinked cables
must be replaced.

‘Bird Caging’ is identified by the strands tending to move outwards from the
centre of the cable; the cable being a slightly larger diameter locally; and light
being visible through the strands. Bird Caging renders the cable unserviceable.

Fig. 14 CONTROL CABLE WEAR PATTERNS

Any corrosion on the cable must be thoroughly investigated. Slight surface

corrosion can be treated (provided the AMM says so), but not with any
chemicals. The lay of the cable must be untwisted by hand to look inside the
strands to determine if any internal corrosion has taken place. This would
render the cable unserviceable.

- 18 -
Wear may be external or internal. Examples of external wear are shown in
figure 14. Taken from the Airbus manual it shows maximum permissible wear
limits of 50% of the diameter of the individual outer wires.

Internal wear may be accompanied by local thinning of the cable which will
require replacement. Wear may be caused by rubbing against pulleys, guards,
and fairleads and results from jamming of pulleys etc and the mis-alignment of
fairleads and components.

Over stretching can be caused by over tensioning of the cable which could also
result in excessive wear on pulleys and bearings for pulleys, bell crank levers
etc. Stretching may also be the result of a mal-functioning Cable Tension
Regulator.

If stretching was caused by high tensions then pull-off checks should have
revealed this, or the aircrew might have complained about ‘heavy’ controls.

Cable Tensions

It is important the cables should be correctly tensioned, and this can be

helped by having the control surface locks in position during tensioning to
support the weight of the control surfaces – but check the AMM.

During tensioning, adjustment should be made equally on all turnbuckles,

otherwise circuits which incorporate a number of pulleys and fairleads and/or
where the cables have to negotiate several bends may be difficult to tension
evenly.

Where the tension is specified in the AMM, this should be checked by means of
a tension meter specified for the weight of cable concerned, due allowance
being made for temperature. To obtain a true reading the tension meter
should be placed in the position on the cable indicated in the AMM, if not
specified it should be placed in the middle of the longest run.

NOTE. The AMM may detail the tensions required over a range of ambient
temperatures.

Where the tension is not specified (rare) it should be ensured that the cable
run is not too slack or too taut but has a satisfactory ‘feel’ over the whole
range of travel of the controls.

CHAINS & SPROCKET WHEELS

Before fitting a new chain to the aircraft the packaging label should be
checked against the Illustrated Parts Catalogue to verify the correct part
number and the EASA form 1 should be checked for completeness and
correlation to the chain.

- 19 -
The chain should be removed from its grease-proof wrapping and checked for
link freedom rotation, distortion or warping, damage and corrosion. Return to
stores, suitably labelled, if any of these conditions exist.

Check all sprocket wheels for freedom of rotation, alignment, damage, wear
and corrosion. Check the sprocket wheel bearings for smoothness of running
and wear. Check the chain run area and chain guards for signs of rubbing and
wear. Check any rubbing strips for excessive wear. Check guards for security.

After installation, the chain should be examined for freedom from twist,
particularly in instances where the attachment is made to threaded rods by
means of screwed end connectors, or where a twist may have inadvertently
been applied to the chain during the locking of the assembly.

Care should be also taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by
the chain sprocket; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the
sprocket teeth and there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up over
the teeth.

The pre-tensioning of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause

friction, but should be just sufficient to prevent any backlash in the system
(refer to the AMM).

Chain guards should be checked to ensure that jamming could not occur and
that the chain would not come off the sprocket should it become slack.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 15 NON-REVERSIBLE CHAIN CORRECTLY
FITTED TO SPROCKET

The security of end connections should be checked, care being taken to ensure
that the split pins in the chain connecting bolts are correctly locked.

- 20 -
The initial lubricant on new chains should not be removed and the chains
should be further lubricated after assembly by brushing with lubricant
complying with specification DTD 417A, unless the AMM specifies otherwise.

Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified

in the Maintenance Schedule.

Smoothness of operation between the chain and sprocket should be checked.

Existing chains should be checked for wear. If worn so that the links are loose
and can be lifted away from the sprocket teeth (figure 16), they should be
removed and checked for excessive elongation.

The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, and adequacy of

lubrication and freedom from corrosion. If the inspection shows the chain to
be corroded or otherwise defective, it should be replaced.

During adjustment of turnbuckles or screwed end connectors, care should be

taken to ensure that the chain itself is not twisted during the adjustment. The
connectors should be held firmly while the lock-nuts are slackened or
tightened, or the tension adjusted.

Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete inspection
at the periods specified in the appropriate Maintenance Schedule.

If elongation through wear is suspected, the following procedure should be

adopted:

(a) Make the aircraft and system safe (check the AMM).
(b) Remove the chain by disconnection at the designed break-down
point (sprockets and sprocket guards may have to be removed).
(c) Clean by immersion in clean paraffin and brushing with a stiff
brush. Dry immediately using hot air to ensure that no paraffin
remains, otherwise the chain will corrode. The chain should be
measured when clean but before any oil is applied.

Chain Pitch BS No Tensile Load (lb)

8mm 1 12

0.375 in 2 16

0.50 in 4 28

0.50 in 6 28

TABLE 1

- 21 -
 (d) Placed the chain on a flat surface and stretch by applying a small
tensile force (table 1). The length should be measured between the
centres of the bearing pins, elongation being calculated by the
formula given in (e) below. Immediately re-lubricate the chain.
(e) The percentage extension over the nominal length can be
calculated by the formula:

Percentage extension = M – (X x P) x 100

XxP

Where M = Measured length under load in inches.

X = Number of pitches measured.
P = Pitch of chain in inches.

P may be found from the chain manufacturer’s literature or by measuring the

pitch of one link carefully using a micrometer or vernier.

If the extension is in excess of 2% on any section of the chain the whole chain
should be replaced. Should localised wear be likely to occur in a chain run,
additional checks should be made on these sections and the percentage
extension ascertained. If the local extension is in excess of 2%, the chain
should be replaced.

Fig. 16 LOOSENESS OF CHAIN INDICATING WEAR

The chain should be checked for kinks and twists by suspending it from one
end and allowing it to hang freely. Sighting along the length will show if kinks
or twist exists. If they do the chain should be replaced.

Checking Articulation

Each link of the chain should be checked for tightness by movement through
180°. This is best achieved by pulling the chain over the finger and
feeling/seeing that all links articulate freely as they pass over the finger.

- 22 -
By first pulling the chain over the finger one way, then reversing it and pulling
the chain over the finger the other way each link will be moved a total of 180°.

Debris within the bearing pins or between the inner and outer plates may
cause tight joints; this may be remedied by cleaning. If cleaning is not
successful, the end of the bearing pin may be gently tapped with a small
hammer, but if this fails to clear the joint the chain should be rejected.

Tightness may also be caused through lack of clearance between the inner and
outer plates due to damage; if this is so, the chain should also be rejected.

Checking for Deterioration

The chain should be examined for damage, cracks and wear to plates and
rollers and for evidence of corrosion and pitting.

NOTE: It is not allowed to remove, assemble or tighten a riveted link in a

chain.

Proof Loading

This is not usually carried after removal for routine inspection. It is carried out
after replacement of a portion of the assembly such as fork end fittings etc, but
it is generally considered better to replace the complete assembly. The proof
loading to be applied is 1/3rd the minimum breaking load.

Storage of Chains

After the chain has been cleaned, inspected and found to be acceptable, it
should be thoroughly soaked in an appropriate oil for a period of time to allow
the lubricant to penetrate the bearing surfaces. If not required for immediate
use, the chain should be laid on a flat surface, carefully coiled and wrapped in
greaseproof paper. Ideally it should be boxed and labelled and records kept.

Sprocket Wheels

These are fitted as per the AMM to allow for the fitment of control chains.
Correct positioning of sprocket wheels is of particular importance where non-
reversible chains are used. During maintenance, they should be checked for
security and wear on the teeth, damage and excessive wear on the wheels and
on the chain guide section. Ball races should be checked for wear, corrosion,
and security.

Wheels should be checked for correct alignment.

- 23 -
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Pulleys

All pulleys must be aligned to provide a satisfactory ‘run’ for the cables so
preventing riding on the flanges of the pulleys and chafing against the guards
and covers. This will cause rapid cable and pulley wear together with increased
friction within the system.

The pulley bearings should be examined to ensure that they are properly
lubricated, rotate freely and are free from dirt, swarf, paint spray, etc. Any play
should be within limits.

Non-metallic pulleys should be examined for freedom from embedded foreign

matter and metal pulleys for freedom from roughness and sharp edges.

All pulleys should be examined for wear patterns such as those shown in
figure 17. Wear patterns for ‘pulley mis-alignment’ and ‘cable mis-alignment’
are similar, but, as in all the other cases of unusual wear, the cause has to be
investigated and rectification carried out.

Fig. 17 PULLEY WEAR PATTERNS

Guards and Covers

Pulleys (and sprockets) must be guarded to prevent jamming of cables and

chains by foreign objects – though CAAIPS state that they are fitted (for cables)
to keep the cable on if it becomes slack. The guards and covers must be so
fitted and locked that they cannot foul the controls in any position and are
held positively against rotation about the pulley or sprocket axis.

- 24 -
Where a guard forms an integral part of a removable panel, adequate
precautions must be taken to check the controls and the correct positioning of
the guard after the panel has been replaced.

Guards should be secure, free from corrosion and undamaged.

Glands, gaiters, seals, bellows etc intended to prevent the escape of lubricant,
ingress of debris or loss of cabin pressure where controls pass through
pressurised areas, must be undamaged and correctly and securely attached.

They should be correctly aligned with little signs of wear.

When longitudinally split rubber seals are fitted at pressure bulkheads to seal
the apertures through which the control cables pass, care must be taken to
ensure that the assembly is such that the seal will not be chafed.

Chafing could result in the seal being broken permitting the retaining rings to
come off and ride along the control cable, possibly causing jamming of a pulley
or fairlead. Care must also be taken to ensure that the retaining rings are
installed correctly into the groove in the seal to prevent a similar occurrence.

Levers

These include bellcrank levers, torque tubes etc. They should be checked for
correct alignment, damage, security and corrosion. Bearings should be
lubricated, free running but without play.

Fairleads

Fairleads should be aligned to give the required free run to the cable without
chafing, JAR25 states a maximum deflection of 3°. They should be securely
attached, free from corrosion (if made of metal), undamaged, clean, dry and
un-lubricated.

Turnbuckles

Turnbuckles should be locked using any of the methods shown in figures 18,
19, 20, 21, 23 & 24. Prior to locking, the turnbuckle should be checked that
the end-fittings are ‘in safety’.

Locking may include any one or more of the following methods:

* Wire locking (wire gauge and specification as per the AMM).

* Lock-nuts.
* Special locking clips.

- 25 -
For the turnbuckle to be in safety, checks are carried out depending on
the type of turnbuckle:

* Barrel Type Turn Buckle (with a plus thread – the crest diameter
being larger than the rod on which it is cut). Some are designed so
that they are in safety when all the threads are buried in the
barrel (figures 18 & 23). Others have inspection holes (figures 19,
20 & 21) and a piece of wire is used for checking similar to the
Tension Rod type described below.

* Tension Rod Type (figure 24). When in safety the threads extend
past the inspection hole in the end fittings. Check this by
attempting to pass a piece of wire (the same diameter as the hole)
through the inspection hole. If the wire passes through the
threads are not in deep enough and must be screwed further in.

* Some turnbuckles are designed so that they can be locked by

special locking devices eg spring locking clips to MS21256 (figure
23). Refer to the AMM for locking.

Remember, locking wire must only be used once.

Fig. 18 WIRE LOCKING - BARREL TYPE TURN BUCKLE

(WITH PLUS THREADS ON FORK ENDS)

With the larger type of control cables (ie UK cables from 45 to 120 cwt), it has
been found that tension loads tend to straighten out the helically-wound cable
resulting in a torque action sufficient to break the locking wire or loosen lock-
nuts on turnbuckles or similar assemblies.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 19 LOCK-NUT & WIRE-LOCKING OF BARREL TYPE TURNBUCKLE
(WITH CONVENTIONAL THREADS)

- 26 -
To overcome this ‘unlocking’ action a tube fitted over the turnbuckle assembly
and drilled to accommodate three bolts is sometimes specified. This provides a
positive means of preventing independent rotation of any part of the assembly.

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 20 ALTERNATIVE METHOD OF LOCKING
THE SAME TURNBUCKLE

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 21 LOCK-NUT & WIRE-LOCKING OF TURNBUCKLE WITH SWAGED
END-FITTINGS (CONVENTIONAL THREADS)

The locking of the turnbuckle in figure 18 is achieved by the use of locking

wire wound in a double figure-of-eight. Those in figures 19, 20 & 21 are locked
by the use of lock-nuts and figure-of-eight lockwire (double figure-of-eight
except for figure 20 which is a single figure-of-eight).

The adjustable fork end-fitting shown in figure 22 can be attached to a swaged

cable end fitting or to a chain or a tension rod. The threaded end must be in
safety and the lock-nut correctly tightened. The screwed portion (A) must not
abut the eye-end fitting (B) in the fork end as this would impose an additional
strain on the fitting and reduce the flexibility. There would also be no provision
for further adjustment.

- 27 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 22 ADJUSTABLE FORK END-FITTING

Fig. 23 TURNBUCKLE LOCKING USING SPRING CLIPS

Fig. 24 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

(LOCKED BY LOCKNUTS & LOCKING WIRE)

Keyed cable connectors may be adjustable, if so they should be checked for

safety and correct locking. All connectors should be checked for damage,
security, corrosion correct keying (male and female parts are compatible) and
that the locking clips are located correctly.

- 28 -
 Fig. 25 KEYED ADJUSTABLE CONNECTOR

Keyed connectors are used where multiple cable runs are located in the
aircraft and cables need to be disconnected. As each pair of connectors has a
unique keying system it ensures that they are Murphy-proofed and cables
cannot be cross-connected.

Control Rods

Sometimes called Push/Pull Rods. They should be perfectly straight (unless

designed to be otherwise) when fitted and bell-cranks, etc, to which they are
attached, should be checked for freedom of movement before and after
assembly of the control rods. The assembly as a whole should be checked for
correct alignment.

If fitted with adjustable end fittings these should be locked iaw the AMM and
checked for safety – usually the same way as most turnbuckles are checked –
by trying to pass a piece of wire through an inspection hole.

Fig. 26 PUSH/PULL ROD END DETAIL

Where self-aligning ball-races are fitted, free rotational movement of the rods
must be obtained in all positions.

There have been cases of control rods with self-aligning bearings becoming
disconnected because of failure of the peening retaining the ball-races in the
rod end housings, thus allowing the rods to become detached from the ball-
races.

- 29 -
 DRAWING FROM CAP 562
Fig. 27 SELF ALIGNING BEARING

This can be prevented if the control rods are assembled so that the abutment
flange of the rod end housing is interposed between the ball-race and the
anchored. Alternatively, a washer having a larger diameter than the hole in
the abutment flange may be required under the retaining nut on the end of the
attachment pin. In any event always follow the AMM.

Torque Tubes

Check that torque tubes are not bowed and rotate freely in their guides; that
universal joints are correctly fitted and give full and free movement through-
out the full angular range of the torque tube.

Gearboxes and Screw Jacks

Where this type of equipment is installed in the system, it should be ensured

that the gearboxes/screw jacks are correctly mounted, undamaged and
corrosion free. That the joints are correctly fitted and give the full angular
range and that only the lubricant specified in the AMM is used.

Gear Boxes and Screw Jacks should be checked for full and free range of
movement. They should be checked that they are free running with no
backlash.

blank

- 30 -
 OTHER CABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Several types of control systems are available and three examples are
described below.

BOWDEN CONTROLS

A flexible system where a pull (tensile load) operation only is required,

operating such services as brakes and release mechanisms.

Made up of a high tensile steel inner cable attached at both ends – one end to
the operating lever/mechanism and the other end to the equipment to be
operated. The inner cable is given protection and support by a coiled
compression wire and metal braiding. The whole assembly is weather proofed
by an outer plastic covering the ends of which are protected by metal end
caps. To allow the attachment of the inner cable to the operating mechanism
nipples are soldered onto both ends. On some systems it is just a compression
fitting.

Operation of the system is by the inner cable being pulled to operate the
mechanism with return being operated by a spring.

Maintenance of these cables is not too unlike that associated with flying
control cable systems described above. The external waterproofing should be
checked for wear and damage with the only effective rectification being
replacement (of the whole cable or the making up of a cable assembly with a
new outer sheath).

Fig. 28 BOWDEN CABLE

Operation of the cable system should be smooth, if movement is rough, jerky

or the friction is high it is an indication of broken stands within the core cable,
wear in the cable, or a damaged outer sheath. Replacement of the complete
assembly will be required.

The cable should be lubricated as laid down in the AMM. End fittings should
be inspected for security of attachment, corrosion and damage. They should be
lubricated as per the AMM and checked for freedom of movement over their
full range. They should be checked for correct locking.

- 31 -
 Fig. 29 NIPPLE TYPES

Making up a Cable Assembly

Cable assemblies for certain systems may be made up at user unit level
provided they are proof tested afterwards.

The inner cable of the correct size is cut from a coil of cable supplied from the
manufacturer of the cable system. The length can be measured from the cable
being removed, allowing for any stretch. If the cable is broken then the length
should be ascertained from drawings. When cutting the cable the same
procedure is applied as with cutting control cable – whipping to prevent un-
ravelling and no flame etc.

A length of outer conduit sheath is then cut from a coil – also supplied from
the cable system manufacturer. It must be of the correct length (see above)
and size. Care must be exercised when doing this to prevent debris getting into
the conduit and to ensure that the ends do not have any burrs that could rub
on the cable. Use snips to cut the conduit and removing any sharp pieces of
the helical coil with the snips. In general:

1. Fix the end fitting (eg nipple) to one end (end 1) of the inner cable.
2. Slide the made-up conduit onto the cable from the other end.
3. Fix number 2 end fitting (eg nipple) to end 2.
4. Test the assembly.
5. Fit assembly to aircraft, adjust and test.

Fixing a Soldered Nipple

The end of the cable is thoroughly cleaned. The correct size and shape nipple
is selected and tinned internally with solder.

The cable is passed through the nipple until the end is level with the nipple
top. The strands of the cable are splayed out as much as possible (figure 30)
and the whole area filled with solder to form a smooth dome. On a correctly
soldered joint the solder should ‘run’ through the nipple and show at the cable
end.

- 32 -
 Fig. 30 SOLDERING THE NIPPLE

The joint is tested for strength by pulling hard by hand. A more specific tensile
test may be applied (similar to cables above but with a much lighter load).

Before fitting the second nipple at the other end of the cable run IT IS MOST
IMPORTANT to slide all fittings onto the cable including conduit, fittings,
adjusters, ferrules etc in their correct order.

Note. Some systems employ a swaged nipple – this is fitted in much the same
way as those fitted to control cables (described previously), but using a special
(smaller) swaging machine.

Making up the Conduit

Each section of conduit (and it is usual to have two sections in each cable run)
is made up of the conduit and a metal cap (ferrule) at each end. The ferrule is
fitted over the end of the conduit and should be a snug (but not tight) fit.

Once the first nipple is soldered on, any end fitting is slid onto the cable (this
is not common), then the first length of conduit is slid on, then the adjuster,
then the second length of conduit, the end fitting (if any), then the second
nipple is soldered on. The adjuster (more or less in the middle of the cable run
– but in accordance with the manual anyway) has a right and left hand thread
and can be changed in length thus allowing for adjustment of the force on the
conduit. It should be adjusted so that there is no slack in the conduit.

Fig. 31 MAKE-UP OF BOWDEN CABLE

(The drawing is fore-shortened and shows one end of the system,
the adjuster would be close to the middle of the cable run.)

- 33 -
Fitting a Cable Assembly

Usually fitted between levers and handles which may have adjustable stops. To
fit the cable to an end fitting the AMM must be consulted, but in general the
follow applies to systems that employ nipple type connections at both ends.
With reference to figure 32:

1. Adjust both end fitting stops (if fitted) on the aircraft system to
give the greatest range of movement.
2. On those conduits that are adjustable for length, adjust them to
their shortest length. (The turnbuckle type adjuster is screwed to
its shortest length which will adjust the length of the conduit but
not the cable. The cable passes straight through the adjuster.)
This means that there is more slack in the system in this
condition than would otherwise be the case. It will allow easier
fitting of the nipples to the attachments.

Fig. 32 TYPICAL CABLE CONNECTION TO END FITING

(PARKING BRAKE LEVER)

3. At one end of the cable run align the cable so that the nipple will
pass into the fitting hole and the cable will pass through the cable
slot. Rotate cable and nipple through 90° to its normal position (as
shown in the drawing).
4. Move the control cable so it is now laying in its correct orientation
with the metal end fitting of the conduit resting on the fixed part
of the end fitting.

- 34 -
 5. Carry out the same procedure at the other end of the system. This
may require a higher level of motor skills because there is less
slack in the cable system because the other end has taken up
some of the free play between the cable and the conduit.
6. Adjust the conduit length adjuster to take up the slack in the
conduit, which means increasing its length. Make sure the
adjuster is in safety and correctly locked.
7. Ensure that both conduit metal end-caps are firmly in place at
their respective ends – input end and component end.
8. Check for correct sense of movement, eg if it is a throttle system,
pushing the throttle forward increases engine power.
9. Adjust the stops at the input end and the component end to give
the correct range of movement (check the AMM). It is usual to
adjust the stops at the input end so that they control the range of
movement – but check the AMM.
10. Check for full and free movement.
11. Check the lay of the cable assembly to see that it has not been
disturbed.
12. Ensure all adjusters are in safety and correctly locked.
13. Carry out a full functional check (a brake functional with reference
to figure 32).
14. Carry any required duplicate inspections.
15. Record all the work done and sign.

TELEFLEX CONTROLS

Used to transmit both a push and a pull in the control system (unlike Bowden
Controls that only transmit a pull force). The loads, however are light.

The system uses a inner high tensile steel cable around which is fitted helix
compression windings. The whole assembly moves back and forth within a
(usually) Al alloy rigid conduit. The outer helix winding whilst adding strength
to the cable core also acts as a male ‘screw-thread’ to engage with wheel units
in the system.

Fig. 33 TELEFLEX CABLE INNER CORES

- 35 -
Figure 34 shows how a Teleflex system can be made up to operate many
different components. The control handle is the input end to the system with
the cable passing through several units – each one will rotate. The junction
unit will allow the system to operate another Teleflex system. The quick release
unit will allow the quick disconnection of the system so, in this case, the
double entry unit can be removed easily.

Fig. 34 A ‘MODEL’ TELEFLEX SYSTEM

Maintenance consists of checking for damage, corrosion, full and free

movement and regular lubrication. Backlash is also checked.

Lengths of control system can be made up at user unit level using conduit and
cable. Lengths can be ascertained by reference to drawings or by direct
comparison with the original – be careful, however, that when checking the old
cable that it has not stretched.

The length of the conduit is from one unit to another. The length of the cable is
from one end unit to another end unit plus that required to fully engage with
the teeth of the wheel or the end unit locking system.

The cut length of conduit (to the correct diameter and specification) is bent (if
required) in a bending machine and squared off at the ends. Any belling of the
ends is carried out using a belling machine.

When cutting the conduit it is imperative that no debris enters the bore as this
will increase the in-use wear rate considerably.

- 36 -
The cable is cut to length and the ends deburred with a file. Again make sure
that the cable is kept clean.

For end wheel units the cable is inserted to engage with the thread on the
wheel and is pushed fully into the cable recess.

The wheel unit and wheel must be so arranged that a minimum number of
threads must be engaged when the wheel is at its limit of travel with the cable
at its outer-most limit of travel. This is specified by the system manufacturer
usually as the minimum angular engagement. The cable is lubricated and the
end nut and prepared conduit is offered up to the cable and threaded over the
cable to engage fully with the unit end fitting. The end nut is tightened into the
end fitting and wire locked.

Fig. 35 WHEEL END FITTING

For sliding end fittings the cable is passed through a slider tube before being
screwed fully into the screwed end of the fitting (turn the fitting not the cable
to screw it on). Remember to pass the cable through the slider tube, outer
sleeve and lock-nut first.

Fig. 36 SLIDER END FITTING

- 37 -
Attachments to Services

Irrespective of the type of control system the final link in the system is the
attachment of the system to the end component. This can include input
attachments to flight control surfaces (rare), flying control tabs, engine
controls, brakes etc and feed-back attachments from these and other systems
to transducers etc.

The method of attachment varies with each type of aircraft, but it must be
ensured that the attachment is assembled so there is no strain and that
adequate clearance exists between adjacent moving parts, or between the
moving part and adjacent structure and equipment throughout the full range
of movement. There must be no slackness in the linkage, which will cause
backlash.

Locking

All connections of components and parts in the control system must be

positively secured and locked in accordance with the AMM.

Lubrication

All moving parts should be lubricated with the specified lubricant during
assembly. Proprietary bearings, such as those of the oil-retaining variety,
should be lubricated only when recommended by the manufacture.

Placarding

A check should be made to ensure that all placards and notices in the
cockpit/flight deck relating to the function, direction of movement and
operational positions of controls etc are displayed.

General

During installation, care must be taken to avoid any possibility of the controls
jamming or fouling against adjacent structure, or cables rubbing together or
chafing against other fixed or moving parts throughout their range of
movement. Where clearances are not stated on drawings and there is some
doubt about their adequacy, the manufacturer should be contacted. The
system should be protected against corrosion and deterioration and should be
electrically bonded.

- 38 -
FLEXBALL CONTROLS

Fitted to some aircraft systems to provide a flexible control system to provide a

push/pull control to take light loads. An example of its use is in the tail rotor
control system of the Eurocopter EC135 were it is used to transmit the control
inputs from the pilot’s yaw pedals to the yaw actuator at the tail rotor.

The system is made up, effectively, of two outer stainless steel rails and
stainless steel balls located either side of a stainless steel centre rail. The balls
are spaced at intervals and located within a stainless steel cage (can be PTFE).
The centre rail slides back and forth between the balls to transmit both tensile
and compressive loads. The assembly is housed in a semi flexible steel casing
weather proofed by an outer PVC protective cover.

Lengths supplied up to 65ft (19.8m) long and 5 different sizes.

Moving end fittings are directly attached to the centre rail whilst the outer case
is attached to the non-moving part of the component.

Fig. 37 CROSS SECTION OF FLEXBALL SYSTEM

Fig. 38 FLEXBALL SYSTEM

- 39 -
 BELTS & PULLEYS

Drive belts are used on some engines – usually piston – to drive such things as
generators, timing mechanisms etc.

In-situ maintenance involves checking the belt for wear, contamination,

stretching, alignment, signs of overheating and correct fitting within the
pulleys.

If worn beyond the limits specified in the AMM the belt should be replaced and
the system checked for reasons why – mis-alignment of pulleys for example.

Fig. 39 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MISALIGNMENT

If the belt is contaminated with oils or greases then is must be replaced, the
pulley cleaned and the source of the contaminant found and rectified. Replace
any belt showing signs of overheating and check on the reasons why – and
rectify.

To check for stretching put a specified force on a free run of the belt and
measuring the deflection, it should not be more than that specified in the
AMM. In some belt systems an idler pulley may be adjusted to take up any
excessive slack.

Fig. 40 MEASURING BELT STRETCH

- 40 -
The deflection may be because of belt stretch, belt wear or pulley wear. If any
wear limits are exceeded the belt/pulley/s must be changed.

To check for belt stretch specifically the belt is removed and tested on a rig.
The rig has one fixed and one free pulley that is loaded to provide a
comparative scale measurement.

Fig. 41 MEASURING BELT STRETCH

The test rig is set up using the correct pulleys and a new belt, ensuring that it
fits correctly in the pulleys. The free pulley is loaded with a nominal force
using a spring balance and the scale reading is noted.

The new belt is removed and the old belt fitted – again ensuring that it seats
correctly in the pulleys. The same load is applied to the free pulley and the
reading again noted. Any stretch will show as a difference in the two readings.

CAUTION. On V pulleys and belt systems any belt wear will also show as an
increased reading. Any stretch or wear outside the manufacturer’s limits will
require belt replacement.

Fitting/Removal of Belts

Always consult the AMM, but in general the following applies:

1. Ensure the equipment is made safe to work on.

2. Note and/or mark the position of pulleys – particularly if they are
timing pulleys with a toothed belt.
3. Remove guards and equipment etc to gain access.
4. Slacken the jockey pulley (the adjuster pulley) so as to provide as
much slack as possible to the belt.
5. With the fingers, carefully prise the belt over the edge of the pulley
at the same time slowly rotating the pulley and the belt.
6. Remove the belt and inspect all the pulleys.
7. Fitting is the reverse of removal, though it might be more difficult
with a new belt. Take care not to damage either belt or pulley.

- 41 -
 8. Check that the belt lies correctly within each pulley and is clear of
any other equipment.
9. Adjust belt tension by movement of the adjusting pulley. Check
deflection as shown in figure 40.
10. If it is a timing system check the position of all pulleys (though
any timing will have to be checked by the equipment timing
mechanism prior to system run (engine valve and ignition timing
for example). If possible rotate system by hand (not usually
possible).
11. Carry out pulley alignment checks, system timing checks (if a
timing system) and pulley clearance checks.
12. Carry out a functional – if possible at this stage.
13. Refit guards, covers, equipment etc removed previously.
14. Carry out functionals iaw with the AMM.
15. Carry out duplicate inspections if required.
16. Record all work done and sign.

Pulleys

Checked for damage, security and corrosion. Light corrosion can be repaired
and some minor damage can be classed as negligible. The critical areas are
those related to the actual attachment – the bearing, and the contact area with
the belt. Any damage or wear to the bearing will render it or the pulley as a
whole unserviceable. Any damage to the belt contact area will also render the
pulley unserviceable.

SPRINGS

Terms used with springs have been included here as revision from module 6 as
it is useful to know them whilst carrying out maintenance tasks.

Free Length – The length of the spring without any load applied. When
checking this length is should be within the limits as laid down in the
appropriate maintenance manual. Compression springs can be checked using
a vernier caliper, or a surface table (with the spring upright) and a height
gauge. For tension springs length is measured whilst laying flat on a surface
table, using a vernier caliper.

Pitch – The distance between the centre of one coil of the spring and its
adjacent coil – without any load applied. Can be measured using a vernier
caliper and subtracting one wire diameter – provided access is possible.

Coil Distance – This is the distance between two adjacent coils – without any
load applied. Again can be measured if access is available.

- 42 -
 Fig. 42 SPRING TERMS

Wire Diameter – The diameter of the wire from which the coils are made.

Outside Coil Diameter – The outside diameter of the unloaded spring (OCD).

Inside Coil Diameter – The inside diameter of the unloaded spring (ICD).

Mean Coil Diameter – The average between the OCD and the ICD.

Tip Thickness – The thickness of the ground section of the end of the spring.

Maintenance

In most cases springs are checked for serviceability and any un-serviceability
is usually rectified by replacement. Checks include:

(a) An inspection for corrosion, damage, wear, broken coils and

distortion.
(b) Checking for correct free length of coil springs. Compression springs
can be checked using a vernier calliper and tension springs are
normally in their fully closed state unloaded.
(c) Check for ‘springiness’. This may require a special process using
masses and checking the extension/change in length with each
added mass. A graph is plotted of mass against change in length
from which the elasticity of the spring is ascertained. The spring
should return to its free length condition when unloaded. Remember,
a spring should obey Hookes law (Robert Hooke English physicist
1635 – 1703) in that extension (or compression) is proportional to the
force applied.

- 43 -
 BEARING MAINTENANCE

Lubrication

Bearings must be lubricated to prevent metal to metal contact between the

rolling elements, races and cage (if fitted) and to protect against corrosion.

The choice of lubricant depends primarily on the temperature range and

operating speed of the bearing - although ball bearings are normally lubricated
by oil because of their design – but check the AMM anyway.

When selecting a lubricant, its viscosity, viscosity index (the amount its
viscosity changes with a change in temperature), temperature range and rust
inhibiting properties are the most important factors that the designer has to
consider.

As all lubricants deteriorate with age and mechanical working, and often the
lubricant becomes contaminated, regular re-lubrication of the bearing is
essential. This may involve the periodic addition of oil or grease, or the
complete cleaning of the bearing assembly and complete re-lubrication.

Oils are thickened mineral oils or synthetic fluids.

There are several types of greases available: calcium, lithium and sodium
based, and most containing additives for corrosion inhibition (principally lead
compounds). As a general rule never mix greases or oils – unless specifically
allowed in the AMM.

Bearing Removal

Although bearings are designed to carry heavy loads at high speeds they can
be delicate. Care must be taken during removal and replacement to ensure
that the bearing assembly is not damaged and that any debris does not enter
the bearing rolling elements.

Any work involving ball and roller bearings should be carried out in clean
conditions using clean tools and equipment.

Most standard bearings can be removed with the use of universal ‘pullers’ and
'splitters’, although some require specialised tools as supplied by the aircraft
or engine manufacturer.

Another method used for removing/fitting bearing assemblies is the hand

operated hydraulic press to push the bearings out of (or in to) their housings.

- 44 -
A bearing assembly should never be driven out with a hammer making direct
contact with the bearing, as this could chip the races or rolling elements. If
using a hammer a drift or slug must be used.

Any contact with the bearing with a drift or a hydraulic press must be on the
race that is in contact with the housing – eg for bearings fitted to a shaft – on
the inner race, for bearings fitted within a housing – on the outer race.

Fig. 43 BEARING PULLERS AND SUPPORTS

Fig. 44 BEARING REMOVAL

Cleaning

Before examination, surplus grease should be removed. Dry compressed air

will assist in dislodging the grease from the cage and rolling elements.

The bearings, except the sealed type, are then soaked in white spirit to remove
any remaining grease or dirt. To facilitate cleaning, the bearing may be turned
slowly by hand.

- 45 -
If difficulty is experienced, a forced jet of white spirit may be used. (Use
transparent shield guards on the tank and protective clothing/eye shields.)
The jet is obtained by fitting a pump to the washing tank complete with filter. .

In certain circumstances, small bearings may be cleaned with benzene, but

appropriate fire precautions must be observed.

After cleaning, the bearing is dried with warm, dry compressed air, and lightly
oiled to prevent corrosion. If the storage period is long the bearing should be
dipped in rust preventative, wrapped in greaseproof paper, boxed and labelled.
The bearings should be stored horizontally and periodically checked for
corrosion and re-protected.

Inspection of Bearings

Cleaned non-lubricated bearings should never be handled with the bare hands
during inspection, as this may lead to corrosion of the bearing after
installation – always wear clean lint free gloves or fine rubber gloves.

Ball and roller bearings are used where play or lost motion is unacceptable.
Bearings would normally be initially inspected in-situ since frequent removal
may cause damage to the bearing races or mating surfaces.

Bearings, unless specified otherwise, would normally be inspected when that

particular component (shaft, wheel etc) is changed or worked on in such a way
as to give access. If any doubt exists as to the condition of a bearing it must be
removed, cleaned and inspected.

To facilitate inspection the cleaned bearing should be supported by its inner

race, and the outer race slowly rotated to determine wear or roughness. Some
types of bearings may be dismantled for inspection – inner race, outer race
and balls or rollers.

The bearing should be inspected for:

1. Surplus grease. An in-situ inspection, remove surplus grease.

2. Externally for signs of overheating, corrosion and damage. Examine the
cage for loose balls/rollers, damage and corrosion. Change the bearing if
any of these conditions are found.
3. Broken or cracked races. Change bearing.
4. Damaged seals and shields. Indications include grease leaking from
bearing. Change bearing if integral seal, or change seal if separate.
5. Cracked or broken cages. Change bearing.
6. Damaged or broken rolling elements. Change bearing.
7. Flaking of the races and/or rolling elements. Change bearing.
8. Discolouration due to overheating. Change bearing.
9. Brinelling (intermittent damage to rolling elements). Change bearing.

- 46 -
10. Spalling – parts of the bearing that are chipped or has shed metal.
Change bearing.
11. Distortion of the race rings. Change bearing.
12. Corrosion. Change bearing – if on the rolling elements. If slight on non-
contact faces – remove, clean and protect.
13. Excessive ‘play’ due to wear. The radial and axial clearance will depend
on the class of bearing. It should be considered as unserviceable if the
amount of clearance is excessive – check the maintenance manual.
14. Damage to races due to bearing ‘spin’. This is the complete bearing
assembly (inner and/or outer race) rotating within its housing/on its
shaft. Change the bearing and check housing/shaft for wear, if worn or
a new bearing does not fit correctly then the component may have to be
changed. Remember that the inner race of wheel bearings is allowed to
creep around the axle to ensure that the shock of landing is not felt on
the same part of the race every time – but they are not supposed to be
too loose.
15. For smoothness of running. Any roughness may be caused by dirt or
damaged rolling surfaces. Remember that rotation of dry bearings
should be kept to a minimum to reduce wear.
The bearing is cleaned and lightly oiled. The outer race is rotated by
hand whilst the inner is held as a push fit on the fingers. Any rough
running indicates damaged or brinnelled balls or rollers – the bearing
must be changed. Another method is to mount the lightly oiled bearing
on an arbour. Set it to run at 500-1000 rpm. The outer race is held and
the smoothness and resistance determined by alternately applying a
light radial and axial load.
16. For rubbing between the rotating and stationary parts. Rubbing
indicates excessive wear and possible contamination of the lubricant.
(Applies to shielded bearings in particular).
17. Wear. The housing end covers may be removed. Creep or spinning may
be recognised by ‘polishing’ – locally smooth areas caused by rubbing.
18. Contamination. The lubricant should be checked for contamination, by
metal particles, by rubbing a sample of the grease between the fingers,
any grit will be felt and metal particles will reflect light.

After inspection bearings should be oiled/greased and stored in oil-proof type

wrapping ready for re-use.

If the bearing has failed and it is decided to return it to the manufacturer for
examination, it must be despatched as removed, since the condition of any
lubricant may produce evidence of the cause of the failure.

Installation of Bearings

Always carried out in accordance with the manufacturer’s manual.

- 47 -
The majority of bearing failures are caused by damage during fitment, faulty
lubrication, or inadequate protection against the ingress of dirt. Cleanliness
must be maintained at all times.

Prior to fitment, the bearing should be inspected to ensure that it is free from
damage, and that there is no evidence of corrosion and that it is free to rotate.
The bearing should be lubricated as specified in the AMM/manufacturers
manuals. Where grease is used, care should be taken that it is worked into the
space between the cage and the races.

Bearings must be assembled the right way round in accordance with the
manual or drawing, sometimes they are supplied in matched pairs, and it is
important that they are fitted correctly.

Lightly loaded bearings, such as control end fittings, may be pressed into
position using only finger pressure. When bearings are carrying a radial load
the inner race is an interference fit on the shaft. Depending on the degree of
interference an assembly tool or press may be required. It may also be
necessary to cool the shaft (if it is to go into the bearing) and heat the bearing
in hot oil.

If these tools are not available it may be permissible to use a soft steel or brass
tube drift, which must be a close fit over the shaft and make contact with the
interference race only.

It is very important when doing this that the bearing is protected from the
possibility of any fragments coming off the drift and getting between the races.

Bearings capable of adjustment must be adjusted to give the necessary

clearance or pre-load. Races should not generally be fitted so that all
internal clearance has been eliminated, since this will impose a heavy initial
loading between the rolling elements and the races, and may result in damage.

Bearings must always be seated squarely against the shoulders of shafts or

bearing housings, otherwise uneven and excessive wear will result.

Care must be taken to ensure that the bearings are not damaged during
fitting, any force necessary should be applied to the race being fitted, as
pressure on the companion race may result in fracture of the race or
indentation by the balls or rollers.

When the bearing is assembled it should, where applicable, be lightly packed

with grease, as a rough guide one third full, to provide a reserve of lubricant.
Excessive greasing should be avoided, since the grease will be expelled from
the bearing immediately it starts to turn. Oil lubricated bearings should be
lightly lubricated with the approved oil.

- 48 -
 MAINTENANCE OF GEARS

Some terms have been included in this section to give a better understanding
of gears and their intricacies. Whilst the author has reduced the number of
terms significantly associated with gears, it is possible that there are still too
many terms listed for the level required by the CAA.

Spur (Involute) Gear Terms

Pitch circle is the circle representing the original line which transmits the
motion tooth to tooth, and its diameter is the pitch circle diameter.

Centre distance is the distance between a pair of meshing spur gears. One of
the advantages of the involute system is that small variations in the centre
distance do not affect the correct working of the gears.

Fig. 45 INVOLUTE GEAR TOOTH DETAIL

Pitch point is the point of contact between the pitch circles of two gears in
mesh.

Line of action. Contact between the teeth of meshing gears takes place along a
line tangential to the two base circles. This line passes through the pitch point
and is called the line of action.

Pressure angle. The angle between the line of action and the common tangent
to the pitch circles at the pitch point is the pressure angle.

Addendum is the radial height of a tooth above the pitch circle.

Dedendum is the radial depth below the pitch circle.

Clearance is the difference between the addendum of one gear and the
dedendum of the other.

Whole depth of a tooth is the sum of the addendum and dedendum.

- 49 -
Working depth of a tooth is the maximum depth that the tooth extends into the
tooth space of a mating gear.

Addendum circle is that which contains the tops of the teeth and its diameter
is the outside or blank diameter.

Dedendum or root circle is that which contains the bottoms of the teeth and its
diameter is the root diameter.

Fig. 46 SPUR GEAR TERMS

Tooth face is the surface of a tooth above the pitch circle, parallel to the axis of
the gear.

Tooth flank is the tooth surface below the pitch circle, parallel to the axis of the
gear. If any part of the flank extends inside the base circle it cannot have
involute form. It may have any other form, which does not interfere with the
mating teeth, and is usually a straight radial line.

Circular tooth thickness is measured on the tooth around the pitch circle, that
is, it is the length of an arc.

- 50 -
Pitch of gear teeth may be expressed as follows:

Diametral pitch is the number of teeth per inch of pitch circle diameter.
This is a ratio.

Circular pitch is the distance from a point on one tooth to the

corresponding point on the next tooth, measured round the pitch circle.

If contact between the teeth of meshing gears does not take place on the line of
action interference may occur. This is often the case when a pinion with a
small number of teeth is in mesh with a wheel with a large number of teeth,
the faces of the wheel teeth fouling the flanks of the pinion teeth. If
interference is allowed the pinion teeth will be undercut at the roots.

The term pinion is applied to the smaller of two mating gears.

Involute Racks

Racks are used as part of a Rack and Pinion assembly. They are usually driven
by the pinion (spur gearwheel) and convert the rotary motion of the gearwheel
to linear motion of the rack.

Teeth are usually straight-sided. The sides of the teeth are at right angles to
the line of action and are inclined to the vertical at the pressure angle.

Fig. 47 RACK TOOTH DETAILS

Bevel Gears

This type of gearing is used to transmit power between shafts in the same
plane whose axes would intersect if projected. The angle between the shafts is
usually a right angle, but it may have any angle up to 180°.

The velocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of their bases or teeth
ratios. This means that if the small gear has 20 teeth and the large gear has
100 teeth the ratio is 5:1 and the small gear will have to rotate 5 times whilst
the large gear will rotate once. If the small gear is the driver there will be a
step-down in the rpm of 5:1.

- 51 -
 Fig. 48 BEVEL GEARS

The basic form of this type of gear is a cone.

If the curved surface of the back cone is viewed normally the teeth have the
same profiles as the teeth on a spur gear. The addendum and dedendum have
the same proportions as spur gear teeth but are measured above and below
the pitch circle, parallel to the back cone generator. Pressure angles for bevel
gears are usually 14½ ° or 20° as for spur gears.

Bevel Gear Terms

In addition to those terms used for spur gears the following are also used for
bevel gears:

Pitch cone angle is the angle between the axis of the gear and the pitch cone
teeth centre. When the pitch cone angle is 45° the gear is called a mitre gear.

Face angle is the angle between a line at right angles to the axis and the top
surfaces of the teeth.

- 52 -
Edge angle is the angle between a line at right angles to the axis and the top of
the teeth.

Addendum angle is the angle between the gear wheel and the top surfaces of
the teeth.

Dedendum angle is the angle between the gear wheel and the teeth bottoms.

Hypoid Gears

These gears are similar to bevel gears but the basic surfaces on which the
teeth are cut are hyperboloids instead of cones. The teeth of hypoid gears are
helical and the axes of the shafts do not intersect.

Fig. 49 HYPOID GEARS

Helical Gears

These are a development of the spur gear. Instead of the teeth being parallel to
the axis of the gear they lie on helicals. Thus contact between teeth in mesh
takes place along a diagonal line across the faces and flanks of the teeth. So
one pair of meshing teeth remain in contact until the following pair engage,
and the load on the teeth is distributed over a larger area with a smoother
transmission of power.

Fig. 50 HELICAL GEARS

With single helical gears the helical tooth form produces an end thrust on the
shaft which must be absorbed with a thrust bearing. The end thrust is
avoided if double helical gears are used. These have one half of the face width
of the gear with a right hand helix and the other half with a left hand helix.

- 53 -
Worms and Worm Wheels

These connect shafts at right angles, which lie in different planes. The worm
is essentially a screw, which may be double or triple threaded, which engages
with teeth cut on the worm wheel. Older worms where cylindrical, but now
usually waisted to give greater contact with the worm wheel. Such worms are
known as, encircling or Hindley worms. With parallel worms the teeth are
straight sided on a section through the axis, and have the same proportions as
standard involute rack teeth.

Fig. 51 WORM GEARS

Gear Maintenance

When access is available gears should be inspected for:

* Corrosion. This is rare as most gears operate within a lubricant.

However, if found on the teeth or any contact surfaces it renders
the gear wheel unserviceable. It is possible to treat corrosion in
the normal way if not severe and on areas of the gear wheel not in
contact with anything.

* Cracks. Any cracks usually require the gear wheel to be replaced.

* Erosion. Happens to gear wheel assemblies rotating fast in fluid

such as oils and fuels. Cavitation can occur between the teeth and
over time this will erode the metal. The gearwheel has to be
changed.

* Chipped/missing teeth. Requires gearwheel replacement.

* Wear. Normally picked up by checking on the amount of play

between the gears or the amount of backlash in the system. The
manual will specify the maximum amount allowed.

With most of the above it should be possible to get some idea of possible
degradation of the gears by taking oil samples and checking for debris and/or
checking filters/magnetic plugs etc.

- 54 -
Backlash

Sometimes called Lost Motion, it is in fact ‘play’ between the teeth. It is there
either because it is designed to be there, or it may occur after a period of time
due to wear between the teeth.

Holding one gear (driver or driven) absolutely stationary and moving the other
as far as it will go from the limit of its travel in one direction to its limit of
travel in the other will give some movement. If the system is serviceable this
will be only a thousandth of an inch or so, if wear has occurred it may be tens
of thousandths of an inch. Whether the system is serviceable or not will, of
course, depend on the limits laid down in the manual.

If there are several gears in the train then the total backlash from one end of
the train to the other is the sum of all the individual contact teeth clearances.

Fig. 52 GEAR TRAIN

If the play between each gearwheel in the train in figure 50 is 0.01mm then
with 3 interfaces the total backlash is 0.03mm.

The most accurate way to measure backlash is to:

l. Disconnect the output (or the input) to the last/first gearwheel in

the train. Measurement may be specified as an angular or linear
measurement.
2. Lock the ‘first’ gearwheel in the train. This may be by using a
locking tool (clamp or spigot) or a locally made up clamp.
3. Move the ‘last’ gearwheel as far as possible in one direction. Set a
DTI to rest against one of the teeth at a tangent to the gearwheel
circumference (for a linear measurement).
4. Move the gearwheel to its maximum position in the opposite
direction. Note the readout on the DTI.
5. Remove any locks fitted and reconfigure the system to its original
condition.

- 55 -
NOTE 1. It is important to remember that the total backlash recorded may not
be distributed as an even amount of backlash for each set of meshing teeth.
For example if the total backlash recorded for the system shown in figure 50
was 0.018” it is possible that all of this was between gears 3 and 4, and that
all other teeth interfaces had no play at all. On the other hand it could be
0.012” for one set and 0.006” for another, with nil for the remaining set.

NOTE 2. With a simple spur gear train, in general, backlash can be measured
from one end of the train or the other. With worm gears it is best to hold the
worm still and move the worm wheel.

The manual will specify the total system backlash allowed and also each
individual backlash allowed.

Gear Tooth Patterns

When gearboxes are assembled, it is essential to ensure that the gears are
correctly meshed. Working clearances must be provided between the mating
surfaces to allow for expansion and lubrication. Failure to provide these
clearances can lead to excessive wear and, in the worst cases, seizure of the
gearbox and/or broken teeth.

The amount by which the tooth space of a gear exceeds the tooth thickness of
the mating gear at the pitch circle is called the backlash. It can be determined
in the plane of rotation or, for helical gears, in the plane normal to the tooth
face.

If mating gears have zero backlash, gears and mountings need to be

dimensionally perfect. To obtain zero backlash with varying operational
conditions, all parts need exactly the same coefficient of thermal expansion.
Because of the difficulty in meeting these requirements and for lubrication
purposes, backlash is normally provided between gear teeth.

The backlash and contact pattern of a gear is therefore determined by how the
teeth of one gear mate with the other. If the teeth of one gear are set too
tightly into the teeth of another, there will be no backlash and the gears will
not be properly lubricated because a film of oil must be present between the
teeth of the gears as they mesh. If gears are meshed too high in relation to the
teeth, the load will be transmitted to the narrower part of the tooth, causing
breakage.

Two methods are in common use to ascertain if gears have been correctly
installed: Wear Patterns and Backlash. For the wear pattern system the
method is to check the wear pattern on the teeth after the gearbox has been
run under operational conditions. A wear pattern becomes established as the
gears rotate and is an indication of the area of tooth in contact with its
opposite number.

- 56 -
 Fig. 53 TOOTH CLEARANCE

Thus the wear pattern can be used as an indication of the correctness or

otherwise of gear tooth mesh and clearance.

The correct wear pattern for an individual gear train should be given in the
relevant Overhaul Manual, but generally speaking, two main types of wear
pattern will be encountered, depending on whether the gear has straight cut or
helical cut teeth.

The general rule applicable to straight cut teeth is that the wear pattern must
be evenly distributed across the face of the tooth.

Fig. 54 TYPICAL WEAR PATTERN ON A STRAIGHT CUT

GEAR TOOTH

The wear pattern for a helical cut gear tooth is in the form of a “tadpole” shape
with the maximum bearing surface towards the “toe” of the tooth. The toe can
be defined as the part of the tooth which engages first.

The “heel” of a tooth can be defined as that part which engages last. It can be
appreciated that, as the tooth engages and takes up the drive, so it will accept
progressively more load. As it starts to disengage, so the load will tend to taper
off. Figure 53 shows a typical wear pattern for a helical gear tooth.

The larger shaded area shows the pattern under load, while the smaller area
towards the toe shows how the pattern will extend in that direction if it is
checked under no-load conditions.

To establish these wear patterns clean the gears thoroughly. Apply Engineers
Blue (Prussian Blue) (A blue ink-like substance used for marking ferrous
metals) to one gear only.

- 57 -
 Fig. 55 TYPICAL WEAR PATTERN ON A HELICAL
GEAR TOOTH

Assembly the gears and rotate them under load and no-load conditions. The
Blue will rub off the painted gear onto the other gear where contact is made.
This will show the contact wear pattern.

Remember to keep the rotation of the gears down to a minimum as they are
un-lubricated.

After the test:

* If wear patterns are excessive – check the overhaul manual –

change the gears, check bearings etc.
* If wear patterns are incorrect but within permissible wear limits,
clean gears of the Engineers Blue. Lubricate and assemble the
gears and adjust gears as per the manual to obtain correct wear
pattern.
* If wear patterns correct, dismantle gears, clean, lubricate and
reassemble.
* Carry out a functional, clear the paperwork and sign.

Fig. 56 GEAR PATTERN TERMINOLOGY

In most cases correct wear pattern can be established by setting correct

backlash and with some gears adjustment can be made to establish this. For
example with bevel gears shims can be used to move the gear wheel forward or
back thus adjusting the teeth engagement

- 58 -
 Fig. 57 TYPICAL GEAR TOOTH WEAR PATTERNS

Fig. 58 TYPICAL SHIM METHOD OF MOVING GEAR POSITIONS

TO ESTABLISH CORRECT WEAR PATTERN

It is possible for the user unit to check for correct wear patterns normally
using the “backlash” method and in some cases, adjustments made. If
overhaul facilities exist and the firm is approved, gears may be dismantled
(normally with the equipment off the aircraft) and wear patterns established.

End Float

This is the amount of axial movement that a gear is allowed. In some cases
gears have considerable axial movement – gear box systems for automobiles
for example. Either way, the end float has to be measured and readings
checked against the manual. The usual method of measurement is to use a
DTI. End float may be adjusted for by the use of washers/shims or screwed
end-fittings.

- 59 -
Dimensional Measurements

Normally carried out in a workshop facility using standard and specialist

measuring equipment to include micrometers, verniers (electronic and non-
electronic), bevel protractors, scaled projection equipment, template gauges
etc.

””””””

- 60 -
Book 11 Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 B2
AIRCRAFT HANDLING
CONTAMINATION & CLEANING
COLD WEATHER PRECAUTIONS

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 7A.17 ISSUE 09 1012

© Licence By Post

No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
BRITISH AEROSPACE
UK CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY

for permission to reproduce drawings.

ADDENDUM

Addendum action in response to student feed-back after taking the CAA

examinations.
***
Question on Hogging. This subject is not listed in the module 7 syllabus but is listed
in the module 11 syllabuses. It is the tendency of the fuselage to be bent after a
heavy landing. The front and rear of the fuselage are bent down low and the middle is
high. When it bends the other way (low in the middle and high at the ends) it is called
sagging. Tolerances will be allowed (AMM/SRM) in both cases and if within tolerance
the aircraft is returned to service after a thorough inspection for other damage. Where
no tolerances are given or where they have been exceeded then the manufacturer will
have to be consulted and the aircraft withdrawn from service until the problem has
been rectified.
***
Question on external flying control locks fitted to control systems fitted with spring
tabs. If the control lock fits to the control surface and does not cover the tab then the
control column can be moved as it is connected directly to the tab (and the tab will
move). In very general terms the control column is connected directly to the tab and
the tab is connected to the control surface via a spring.

*****
CONTENTS

Page
Ramp maintenance 1
Aircraft movement 5
Marshalling 5
Towing 10
Parking 13
Mooring/picketing 14
Jacking/trestling/shoring 18
Cold weather precautions 25
Ice and snow formation on aircraft 26
Ground de-icing 27
Ice and snow removal 28
Refuelling/defuelling 34
Aircraft cleaning 41
Ground service connections 49
Appendix – CAA essay questions 55
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Written to level 2 of the EASA Part 66 syllabus module 7A for the mechanical (B1)
and avionic (B2) aircraft maintenance engineer.

For the category A line maintenance engineer you are referred to the LBP book set
module 7 specifically written to the A standard. The B3 engineer should study the B3
book set.

This book deals with subjects having separate ATA chapters in the AMM:

Chapter 7 - Lifting and shoring.

Chapter 9 - Towing.
Chapter 10 - Parking, mooring and storage.
Chapter 51 - Cleaning.

Have a look at these areas for your aircraft and note any differences/ similarities to
the contents of this book.

Note. Drawings taken from CAPs (Civil Air Publications) may not be found in those
publications due to amendment action.

The author has used large aircraft as examples on the understanding that if the
student knows how to handle the bigger ones then the smaller aircraft will be the
same but without some of the procedures – also the CAA would expect that all B1/B2
engineers know the details to this level anyway.

The subject of Cleaning has been included, this is because the CAA have been known
to ask questions (essay) on this subject for module 7. Cleaning is listed as a subject
in modules 11 though it is not listed as such in module 7. It could, however, be
included as part of the listings, Aircraft Handling & Storage or Abnormal Events.

Note that with all procedures the AMM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual) must always
be consulted.
 RAMP MAINTENANCE

The CAA will expect you to be able to ‘see’ an aircraft in after a flight and ‘see’ it out.
It may be a small aircraft with no passengers, it may be large with several hundred
passengers on board. You must be aware of all the maintenance that has to be
carried out. The fundamental checks to be carried out on all aircraft are similar in
terms of refuelling, rectification of any defects, before flight inspections, after flight
inspections, etc.

There are, of course, variations and that is where the aircraft maintenance manual
(AMM) comes in – always refer to it to check for the correct procedures to be carried
out.

The following paragraphs indicate some general points to be considered for a

passenger aircraft. If you can understand how to cope with a large aircraft then the
smaller ones should be easy.

Aircraft Arrival (Figure 2)

1. Check AMM for procedure to be followed (after-flight inspection,

refuelling etc.)
2. Ensure the area is clear of all equipment and debris/snow etc.
3. Ensure that the required maintenance equipment is standing by,
eg, equipment for: baggage handling; refuelling; toilet servicing;
system maintenance – electrical – hydraulic etc.
4. Ensure servicing personnel available.
5. Ensure any spares are available – may have been radioed forward via a
datalink from the aircraft (automatic on some aircraft).
6. When aircraft arrives marshal it in, chock wheels, shut down engines,
put brakes off. Fit landing gear ground locks, flying control locks, and
fit airframe/engine/systems covers if aircraft is to remain on the ground
for a time.
7. Load/unload aircraft (cargo, baggage, passengers).
8. Carry out after-flight inspection. If aircraft taking off soon carry out
between-flight inspection, and replenish consumables. Clean cabin,
galleys and toilets. Rectify any defects.
9. Secure aircraft if it is not leaving straight away.
10. Complete details in the Tech Log and sign.
11. Secure aircraft.

Aircraft Departure (Figure 2)

1. Carry out before-flight inspection (AMM) or between-flight inspection as

necessary. Ensure correct fuel load. Ensure toilets and galleys are
serviced and provisioned and cabin areas cleaned.
2. Make up Weight and Balance Schedule.
3. Check loading (passengers/cargo) and fuel state – make up load sheet
(see later chapters in this book).
4. Remove all covers and ground locks.
 5. Ensure aircraft is free of ice and snow. Check weather conditions and
hold-over times.

-1-
6. Clear Tech Log and sign. Check deferred defects against the MEL
(minimum equipment list). Ensure pilot is informed of any deferred
defects carried. Pilot to sign Loading Data Sheet.
7. Check all doors, hatches etc are closed and passenger ramps pulled
back out of the way.
8. Connect mic/tel lead to aircraft.
9. Ensure ground crew in place and check with pilot.
10. Ensure equipment available for ‘push back’ (see figure 1).
11. Isolate nose wheel steering.
12. Connect correct towing arm to aircraft and tug.
13. Clear area – start engines, if allowed before push-back (at some airports
engines must be started only after pushback) – remove chocks.
14. After checking with pilot (he/she will get clearance from ATC) push
aircraft back using the tug. Ensure adequate clearance between aircraft
wingtips and tail – use look-outs if necessary.
15. After push-back reinstate nose wheel steering, disconnect towing arm,
hand over aircraft movement control to pilot and remove mic/tel lead.

Fig. 1 TOWING THE A310

The Ramp

The Ramp or Line is the area where cargo, passengers and crew are transferred to
and from the aircraft. It is also the area where a great deal of maintenance is carried
out. Some people call this first-line servicing, others call it ramp maintenance.

Besides rectification of minor defects that have occurred during the previous flight
and before-flight/after flight/turn round inspections are carried out the aircraft has
to have consumables replenished and be cleaned.

With most airlines the following tasks are performed using contractors:

* Refuelling.
* Toilet waste disposal and toilet tank replenishment.
 * Drinking water (potable water) tank/s replenishment.
* Oxygen/compressed air systems replenished.
* Cabin, galley, toilet cleaning.
* Galley stock replenishment.
* Aircraft snow removal/de-icing carried out.

-2-
Figure 2 shows the various external connections for the ramp maintenance of the
B747 as well as the location of the various maintenance vehicles during turn round
operations.

The B747 is taken as an example as it has most of the systems/equipment used in a

turn-around. Take a moment to study the drawing and note the various maintenance
vehicles and maintenance vehicle connections.

Although contractors may perform most of this work the aircraft is still ‘yours’ and all
work will come under your signature for clearance for flight. So you will need to know
what is going on.
Fig. 2 RAMP SERVICING THE B747 – AN OVERVIEW

-3-
 Fig. 3 AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT – GENERAL

With reference to figure 3. If the aircraft is to be moved using the engines then it
must be in accordance with company policy and the person running the engines
must be cleared to taxi the aircraft under power. With the other two methods of
aircraft movement a qualified person must be on the brakes.

Because of the complexities of ramp maintenance there has to be co-ordination

between various people/teams/contractors, to include:

* Engineer in charge of the technical side of the aircraft (you).

* Refuelling team.
* Galley replenishment team.
* Toilet effluent removal team.
* Aircraft cleaners (internal).
* Aircraft cleaners (external). Not often used.
* Baggage handlers/cargo loaders.
* Passenger administration (security, baggage, check-in, movement etc).
* De-icing team.

On small aircraft all of the appropriate items above would be completed by you so
you would know what is going on. On large aircraft this would not be possible so
often a Ramp Manager/Ramp Co-ordinator is used. His/her job is to co-ordinate all
of the above activities and ensure that all are completed in the correct order. You
would check with him/her on the readiness state of the aircraft.
 -4-
It would be up to the operator to set up this organisation and to define the
responsibilities of the individual groups/sub-contractors. This would be part of the
company’s exposition – including all safety aspects.

AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT

An aircraft may be moved:

* Under it’s own power using flight crew or ground crew (in some
organisations ground crew can be certified to taxi aircraft).
* Manually – pushing by hand. Quite easy for small aircraft but much
more difficult for the larger ones – though it can be done if needs must
and you have enough manpower. Remember there are some parts of an
aircraft that are not strong enough to be pushed on. These are indicated
in the AMM and have warnings painted on the area such as NO PUSH,
DO NOT PUSH HERE etc.
* Using a tug/tractor and towing gear.
* Using a special hand operated towing trolley that is self-powered and
connected to the nose/tail wheel direct.

MARSHALLING

When the aircraft is moving under its own power and it is in the ramp area it should
be marshalled by qualified personnel. It is difficult for the pilot to judge wing-tip and
tailplane clearances and it is also impossible for him/her to be fully aware of other
aircraft and vehicular traffic in the area.

The person-in-charge is the marshaller who should stand where the pilot can see
him/her – usually in front and to the left (port side) of the aircraft. The marshaller
should be able to see (and be seen) by all other ground crew involved in the
movement of the aircraft. The number of crew depends on the size of the aircraft but
in general there is:

* 1 marshaller.
* 2 wingwalkers – to check wing-tip/helicopter blade clearances from
nearby aircraft/equipment/buildings.
* 1 person at the tail.

All personnel should be aware of the dangers of aircraft moving under their own
power. These include:

* Noise.
* Blast from jet engines.
* Dust and airborne debris from jet engines, propellers, rotorblades.
* Dangers from jet engine intakes.
* Propeller blades.
* Helicopter rotor blades (main and tail).
If the engines are likely to be noisy then ear defenders are to be warn and if the
marshaller is required to walk backwards then he/she should ensure that the ground
behind him/her is free from equipment, safe to walk on and be aware if any
aircraft/vehicles move into the area.

-5-
CAP 637 Visual Aids Handbook published by the CAA show the recommended
signals to use and the ICAO recommended signals are similar. Also CAP 462
Helicopter External Load Operations show hand signals for helicopters. There are
variations depending on where in the world the marshalling is carried out and there
are also some signals, such as ‘thumbs-up’ (affirmative – positive) and ‘thumbs-down’
(cannot confirm –negative) used widely.

Illuminated wands should be used – particularly at night.

Reference figures 4, 5 and 6 Marshalling Hand Signals.

Note 1. Where the word ‘pilot’ is used the word ‘aircrew’ or ‘flightcrew’
can be substituted.
Note 2. When hand signals are given to the pilot it is important that the
marshaller ensures that he/she has made eye contact with the pilot.
Note 3. Hand signals (i) and (j). Raised fingers can be used to indicate the
engine referred to. The engines are numbered from the port (left) side
to the starboard (right) side of the aircraft:

1 finger 2 fingers 3 fingers 4 fingers

ENGINE 1 ENGINE 2 ENGINE 3 ENGINE 4

The ‘raised finger’ signal can be used by the pilot to indicate an

engine.
Note 4. Hand signals (m) and (n). These signals (and others) can be used by
the pilot to indicate the same meaning.
Note 5. Hand signal (q). The thumbs-down sign is used as a
negative/none affirmation signal. Used by ground and air crew.
Note 6. Hand signal ( r). The drawing shows the command to the pilot to
move
the tail to the right (starboard) whilst the aircraft is backing. The
hand signal with the right hand is a ‘move-back’ signal. For the
aircraft to move tail left the same signal is given but with the other
hand.
Some aircraft can taxi backwards (if allowed in the AMM). Some
piston engined aircraft with reverse pitch propellers for example. In
these circumstances it is important that the marshaller wear eye
protection as there may be a lot of dust and debris in the air.
Note 7. Hand signal (w). For unplugging ground power the signal is the same
except the movement of the right hand is reversed. It is pulled down
from the left hand in an ‘un-plugging’ movement..
Note 8. Many of the signals shown in figures 4, 5 and 6 can be used for both
fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft, however those showing the
helicopter symbol are specific to helicopters.
Note 9. Hand signal (aa) shows move-right. Move-left is similar but with the
hand positions reversed .
Note 10. Hand signal (ab) shows the command to move-up. To indicate move-
down the palms of the hands are turned down and a flapping-down
motion is given.
Note 11. Hand signal (ac). This move-back signal is given in CAP 637. In CAP
462 the move-back signal is shown as both arms down by the side of
the body sweeping forward to the horizontal position repeatedly. If
you get a question on this in a CAA exam you should bring this to the
attention of the invigilator.

-6-
Fig. 4 MARSHALLING HAND SIGNALS - 1

-7-
Fig. 5 MARSHALLING HAND SIGNALS – 2

-8-
Fig. 6 MARSHALLING HAND SIGNALS - 3

-9-
TOWING

In general when towing, it should be on firm level ground, and a towing arm may be
used attached to the nose wheel or tail wheel. When towing on soft ground a bridle is
used attached to the main landing gear with a steering arm attached to the tail wheel
or nose wheel.

Fig. 7 TOWING THE B747

Towing Bridle and Steering Arm

On soft or uneven ground, tail wheeled aircraft are towed forward by a towing bridle
or frame attached to the main landing gear. The steel cable of the bridle is threaded
through a towing attachment on the tug containing a pulley in which the cable rides.
The free ends of the cable are attached to towing lugs on the main landing gear. A
steering arm is attached to the tail wheel.

Fig. 8 TOWING BRIDLE

With aircraft fitted with nose wheels, the towing bridle may be used for forward or
backward movement (provided it says so in the AMM), and is fitted to the front or
back of the main landing gear.
 - 10 -
To tow the aircraft forward a towing bridle is used fitted with a special towing arm
attached to the nose wheel. The tug end of the towing arm contains a pulley through
which the towing bridle cable passes. This allows the aircraft to be steered by the
towing arm while even tension on the towing bridle cable is maintained to the main
landing gear.

Towing Arm

When towing an aircraft in the hangar or on hard level standing a towing arm only
may be used. It is fitted to the nose or tail wheel and usually incorporates a spring
shock absorber, and is fitted with a shear-pin to prevent excessive loads being placed
through the nose or tail unit. If a sudden load is placed through the towing arm by
the tug the shock absorber should cope with it and if it can’t, the shear-pin will shear
thus preventing the load being put through the landing gear which will damage it. On
some towing arms the shear pin may have positions for more than one aircraft type –
for example: B727, B737, etc. Ensure that the pin is in the correct position.

Towing Frame

A towing frame may be used on light aircraft. It provides positive control of the
aircraft by the tug and a steering arm is not required. May look antiquated but does
provide complete control of the aircraft during acceleration, turning and braking by
the tug/tractor driver.

Fig. 9 TOWING FRAME

QUESTION What are the checks and precautions required when towing an aircraft?
(10 mins).

ANSWER 1. Check the AMM. Check C of G is within limits and any

windspeeds (check ATC) are within limits consistent with tyre
coefficients of friction (wet conditions, ice on ground etc). Check
maximum angles of towing arm to fuselage centre-line (in the
AMM and painted on the nose gear).
2. Always ensure the aircraft is serviceable to tow eg:
(a) Landing gear ground locks fitted.
(b) ‘Three Greens’ on the flight deck landing gear indicator .
(c) The brake system is serviceable and pressurised.
 - 11 -
(d) The aircraft is structurally intact. All stress panels fitted.
Check if windscreen has to be fitted prior to movement
(applies to some small aircraft).
(e) The tyres and shock absorbers are correctly inflated.
3. Ensure that the correct number of personnel are used and
the person on the aircraft brakes is competent to use them (many
operators insist on the person having passed a test first before
he/she is issued with a ‘brakes ticket’).
4. Ensure power steering is off or disconnected.
5. The tug driver should be qualified and take his/her orders
from the person in charge.
6. The person in charge should be able to communicate with
all the others involved in the towing operation.
7. Look-outs should be positioned at the extremities of the
aircraft – wing tips and tailplane.
8. Turn corners with as large a radius as possible and do not
exceed the minimum turning radius as stated in the AMM.
9. Maximum towing speed is walking speed – unless local
regulations permit otherwise.
10. Ensure navigation (anti-collision) lights are on. Power will need to
be on.
11. Get permission from Air Traffic Control (ATC) before towing in the
ATC zone.
12. Tow only on firm level ground.
13. When finishing the tow ensure that the wheels have revolved at
least one revolution (some manuals give an actual distance) in a
straight line to relieve tyre and landing gear side and torsional
stresses.
14. Disconnect towing gear, re-instate nose wheel steering and chock
wheels. Secure aircraft if it is to be left and switch lights and
power off.

Towing should always be carried out using the correct equipment supplied for the
job. If it is absolutely necessary to tow an aircraft and the correct equipment is not
available then ropes may be used attached to the main landing gear. The best ropes
to use are polymer ropes such as Nylon, Dacron or Polypropylene. The aircraft
operator will have a policy for this and the chief engineer would normally be called.

Figure 10 shows the AMM details of the minimum turning radii for various parts of
the B747. Note the Pavement Width, the towing conditions and the steerable body
main landing gear. There is no need to commit the details to memory.

All aircraft manuals will have drawings similar to this showing details of the towing
equipment, speeds, wind conditions, minimum turning radii, straight line finishing
runs etc.

Remember, when towing an aircraft (helicopter or fixed wing) the minimum bend
radius must not be exceeded. If the aircraft is turned around too small a radii the
main landing gear on the inside of the bend is likely to suffer damage particularly if it
is of the bogie (multi-wheeled) type with a large ‘footprint’.

- 12 -
This is because when going round a bend the aircraft tends to move about the inside
main landing gear; the landing gear will resist this movement and high torsional
stresses will be set up. These forces can be high enough to cause the inside of the
shock absorber to rotate in the outer case and cause the torque links to shear.

Helicopters may have 2 main wheels and a nose or tail wheel or 4 main wheels.
Helicopters with skids have transport wheels fitted for towing purposes.

Fig. 10 TURNING RADII - B747

PARKING
When parking an aircraft the following precautions must be observed:

1. Refer to the AMM.

2. The aircraft should be parked in such a way so as not to obstruct the
movement of other aircraft or equipment.
3. Park nose into wind where possible on firm level ground.

- 13 -
4. Intake and Pitot-static blanks should be fitted, also undercarriage and
control locks and covers where specified in the AMM.
5. Chock wheels fore and aft and put brakes off.
6. Secure aircraft doors and hatches.

MOORING/PICKETING (Figures 11 to 16)

This is not too unlike parking an aircraft except that it is carried out when the
aircraft is likely to be left in the open for a long period of time. Whether the aircraft is
to be parked or moored will be a decision made locally but will be dependent on how
long it is to be left and what the expected weather conditions are likely to be.

It is advisable to moor an aircraft if it is to stand outside for long periods. This

applies particularly to small aircraft which would otherwise be damaged in high
winds. In very general terms the aircraft is tethered to the ground, all covers and
locks are fitted and the aircraft made safe. Tethering points on the aircraft are
classed as:

* Main picketing/mooring/tiedown points – usually the landing gear.

* Secondary picketing/mooring points – might include wing tips, tail
plane, helicopter blades.

After consulting the AMM the following points should be observed:

1. Move aircraft to an area where ground/mooring points are provided (if

available). These may be steel rings set in concrete flush with the
ground and spaced at regular intervals in a circle. The aircraft landing
gear is lashed to these. Some airfields have long lengths of thick cable
fixed to the ground in areas where mooring is permissible. The aircraft
is moved so the main gear can be tied with rope to the cable. If mooring
rings/cables are not provided then heavy items of equipment can be
used or screw pickets can be screwed into the ground (if mooring off the
hard standing).
2. Proceed as for parking.
3. Fit ‘weather’ covers to wheels, cockpits, engine intakes, exhausts, Pitot
static probes, TAT probes etc.
4. Isolate fuel tanks and battery (in some aircraft the main battery is left
connected to provide power to the fire detection and extinguishing
systems). In some cases the fuel tanks are filled so as to prevent the
linings drying out and cracking.
5. Secure the aircraft to the ground using the main and secondary
mooring points. Use ropes or chains.
 6. Drain drinking water (potable water), remove perishable goods and
valuable and attractive items, first aid kits etc.
7. Move aircraft regularly to avoid tyre flat-spots and bearing brinnelling.
8. Carry out regular checks of the aircraft in accordance with the manual
(weekly and/or monthly).
9. For helicopters remove or secure blades (folded and secured to the
fuselage or tethered to the ground).
10. For turbo-propeller driven aircraft secure propeller/s to prevent them
‘wind-milling’ in the wind.
11. Record all work done in the log book and sign.

- 14 -
Figure 11 shows the mooring of a Boeing 747 and figures 12 to 16 show details of
mooring a Shorts 360 turbo-prop aircraft. The B747 is typical of a large commercial
aircraft and the 360 is typical of a small to medium size aircraft. You need not
remember the details in each case but, you would be required to be able to explain
how you would go about mooring an aircraft.

Note the use of the following:

* Warning flags on covers and blanks.

* Blanks or bungs for all major aircraft orifices.
* Mooring harnesses for the propellers.
* Mooring rings in the ground.
 Fig. 11 MOORING THE B747

The tie-down may be performed using cables with end fittings to fit the aircraft tie-
down points. When ropes are used the best ones to use are Nylon, Dacron or
Polypropylene (stronger and less prone to rot than natural fibre ropes).

- 15 -
If manila is used it will shrink when wet and slack has to be allowed for this (about
1” for small aircraft, larger amounts for big aircraft). Anti-slip knots should be used
such as the bowline. Make sure that ropes/cables used are strong enough (have the
minimum breaking load as laid down in the AMM).

If the ropes are tight to the secondary mooring points damage may occur to these in
high winds. When the aircraft moves in the wind the stain on the secondary points
may be too much and damage might ensue. Secondary mooring points include wing
tips, tailplane on a nose wheel aircraft, possibly podded engines.

A slight amount of ‘give’ must be provided to secondary points and this may be by the
use of bungee cords (heavy elastic cord) or tying the rope from the ground mooring
point to the aircraft via a heavy weight (sack of sand). As the aircraft moves so the
mooring line has to lift the weight.

Fig. 12 PROPELLER HARNESS ATTACHMENT TO THE FUSELAGE

Fig. 13 PROPELLER TETHERING

blank

- 16 -
 Fig. 14 MOORING THE SHORTS 360

Fig. 15 BLANKS & COVERS - SHORTS 360

blank
 - 17 -

Fig. 16 TIE-DOWN DETAILS - SHORTS 360

JACKING & TRESTLING/SHORING

Aircraft are supported clear of the ground for manufacture and for maintenance
purposes. The equipment includes jacks, trestles, cradles, slings, gantries and
fixtures.

For maintenance purposes hydraulically operated jacks and trestles are usually
used.

Aircraft should be jacked on firm level ground in the hangar located in such a
position so as not to be in the way of other operations. If the aircraft has to be jacked
outside, the same applies but the AMM must be consulted as to the maximum
windspeed allowed and ATC contacted to find out the forecast weather conditions for
the period the aircraft is likely to remain on jacks.

The equipment to carry out a particular task is listed in the AMM as is the procedure
to be carried out. Some (large aircraft) aircraft are serviced in servicing docks and,
while the aircraft is supported, the area under the landing gear is lowered to leave the
aircraft supported clear of the ground. Most aircraft, however, are jacked up using
hydraulic jacks.

Trestles (Figure 17)

Usually used to support the aircraft after it has been jacked, but in some cases may
be used as a jack. They may be specially made or made up from various lengths of
‘angle iron’ joined together with nuts and bolts. They incorporate one or two jacking
heads which are adjustable by screw threads.
 - 18 -
A padded metal or wooden beam is secured to the jacking head/s shaped to fit under
the wing or fuselage. Universal trestles can be supplied, so that using various
lengths of angle iron, trestles of different sizes, height, and breadth can be
constructed. The jacking heads will be common to them all.

Fig. 17 TRESTLES

Precautions

1. Check that the trestle and beam is of the correct type.

2. Check security of nuts and bolts.
3. Check screw jack threads for serviceability and lubricate.
4. Check padding and security of beam.

Lifting Jacks (Figure 18)

These are usually hydraulically operated to raise and lower the aircraft but for long
periods when the aircraft on jacks, support trestles are used in conjunction with the
jacks once the aircraft has been raised to the correct height. Types of jacks include:

* Pillar or bottle jack.

* Bipod.
* Tripod.
* Quadruped.

Hydraulic jacks can range in height from about 3ft (1m) to about 15ft (5m). Some of
the larger jacks may have an operating platform part way up the main body reached
by a fixed step ladder. Some of the larger jacks also have provision to be connected to
a central power supply so they can be power operated.
In general the jack comprises a central hydraulic unit around which are the support
legs. The moving pillar has either a screw thread and locking collar or a collar and
locking pin which enables the jack to be mechanically locked when the aircraft is at
the correct height. This prevents the collapse of the jack due to any fluid leakage. To
release the locking device the jack must be raised slightly to off-load the collar.

- 19 -

Fig. 18 LIFTING JACKS

Raising the jack is usually by means of a hand pump. The fluid control valve is
closed and the hand pump operated. This pumps fluid from the reservoir to the jack.
Some jacks may be controlled pneumatically from a central control panel. The air
release valve must be opened whenever the jack is raised or lowered to allow air
into/out of the top of the reservoir.

To lower the jack, raise it slightly, release the locking collar and slowly open the oil
control valve to control the speed of fall. The air release valve must be closed when
the jack is stationary and the oil control valve must remain closed when the locking
device is engaged.

An adapter head is fitted into the top of the pillar and this locates into a jack plate or
pad which is fitted, usually by pip-pins, onto the underside of the airframe (check
location in the AMM and painted on the airframe). The adapter and plate form a ball
joint which gives a degree of flexibility when raising and lowering the aircraft. The
bottom of the legs of the jack fit into plates with a ball socket joint to allow for any
slight unevenness of the ground.

It is essential that the plates sit firmly on the ground and that the legs are aligned
with a small recess in the plate socket to prevent binding.

When jacking ensure all legs are adjusted so that they carry equal weight, all pins are
fully in, and that the jack is vertical (some have a spirit level fitted).

- 20 -

Fig. 19 BOTTLE OR PILLAR JACK

Fig. 20 ARC LIFT

Jacks differ in their lifting capacity, size, number and composition of legs:

(a) Bottle or Pillar jack. Used for wheel changes or brake maintenance
where the jack is fitted to the landing leg (via an adapter) to raise the
aircraft sufficiently to get the wheel clear of the ground (figure 19). For a
flat tyre this height would be the depth of the tyre plus a small amount
for tyre clearance.
(b) Bipod. One of the legs of a quadruped jack is removed to leave two load
bearing legs and one adjustable support leg. This is used for arc lifts
 where one side of the aircraft is significantly lower than the other (shock
absorber flat or flat tyre for example) (figure 20). The jack is placed so
that the two load carrying legs (lifting legs) are parallel to a line drawn
between the other main gear and the nose gear (or tail wheel).The jack is
angled against the third support leg so as to be at right angles to the
underside of the wing. As the lift progresses so the jack will straighten
through an arc with the support leg being continuously adjusted.

- 21 -
When the jack is vertical the lift stops and the other jacks are positioned
and a conventional jacking operation is carried out. This is a difficult
operation and is not often carried out. Always refer to the AMM
(c) Tripod. Three legs, equally disposed around the central body. Used for
vertical lifts only.
(d) Quadruped. Four legs, equally disposed around the central body. Two
are adjustable to allow for uneven ground. Used for vertical lifts only.

Larger jacks have transportation wheels fitted either permanently or temporary for
movement to and from the aircraft and can be towed – though very slowly. The
correct jack must be used (the maximum load is marked on the side of the jack) and
the correct adaptor and the aircraft should be raised and lowered slowing.

Servicing usually involves:

(a) Cleaning, lubrication and inspection for damage and corrosion.

(b) Checking oil level.
(c) All pins are in position and leg adjusting mechanisms work.
(d) Correct function of air and oil control valves.
(e) Correct operation of the jack and locking devices.

Jacking and Trestling a Nose Wheel Aircraft (Figure 21)

1. Consult the AMM for details of procedure, equipment used, position of

equipment, weight and C of G limits, fuel state, etc.
2. Check aircraft's C of G and fuel state.
3. Check aircraft is structurally sound to jack.
4. Configure the aircraft for jacking. Isolate appropriate electrical circuits
(pull C/B's). If this is not done the aircraft may think that it has taken
off and various services/warnings could operate.
5. Bond aircraft to ground.
6. Jack on firm level ground in the hangar or outside in a position so as
not to obstruct other aircraft movements. If jacking outside check wind
speed and direction with air traffic control and cross refer to the AMM.
7. Position ground equipment (one jack at the nose and one under each
wing – usually).
8. A person who knows what to do should be positioned at each of the
following:
 (a) Each jack and trestle.
(b) Look-out for overhead obstructions (fin hitting the hangar
roof).
(c) Levelling station (plum-bob or spirit level on the aircraft to
check aircraft is being raised level).
(d) A person in charge to be in contact with all the others.

9. Chock the wheels (unless the manual states otherwise – the wheels of
levered suspension undercarriages will roll forward as the aircraft
raises, so check) and put brakes off.
10. Raise the aircraft slowly and keep in a level position, follow up with a
tail trestle. This is used to prevent the possibility of tail over balance.

- 22 -
11. At the required height lock all jacks and position steady trestles. These
may be at the tail, mid fuselage, wing tips and mid wing positions.
Consult the AMM and the positions are also painted on the aircraft.

Jacking and Trestling a Tail Wheel Aircraft

Many of the points mentioned for a nose wheeled aircraft apply here but the general
procedure is different and is usually as follows:

1. Chock the main wheels and ensure the brakes are off.
2. Weight the tail either by attaching weights to the tail wheel or placing
weights inside the rear of the aircraft. The author has seen sealed sacks
of sand used and stacked in the rear toilet on one aircraft. These
weights ensure that the aircraft does not tip forward on its nose.
3. Raise the tail of the aircraft manually (small aircraft), or by use of a
crane and special adapter in the main spare of the tailplane (the tail of
small aircraft are raised using a frame under the tail supported by a
cross-beam with two men either side the tail is raised manually).
4. Place a trestle under the tail, lower the aircraft onto it, and tie it down.
5. Place main jacks in position under each wing and jack until the wheels
are clear of the ground.
6. Place trestles as per the AMM.

Lowering the Aircraft

This will vary with each type of aircraft but in general it is the reverse of raising with
the following additional checks:

1. Consult the AMM.

2. Ensure the landing gear is complete, serviceable, and locked down with
‘three greens’ showing and ground locks fitted
3. Check wheels and tyres for serviceability and ensure tyres and shock
absorbers are correctly inflated.
4. Hydraulic system pressurised with landing gear locked down.
 5. Wheel brakes are off and all unnecessary equipment and items clear
from under the aircraft.
6. All systems that require the aircraft to be jacked for testing have been
tested and cleared.
7. Stress panels are fitted.
8. Aircraft electrically/electronically configured for lowering (we don’t want
the spoilers deploying automatically for example).
9. Check aircraft loading and C of G.
Remove trestles and clear away from aircraft. Slowly lower the aircraft
to the ground keeping it level. This is done by releasing the lock ring on
each jack by 2 or 3 turns, opening the air release valve and slowly
opening the hydraulic control valve. The rate of descent is controlled by
this valve. When the jack ram lowers sufficiently to near the locking ring
then this is screwed up another 2 or 3 turns. This is a safety measure
so if the hydraulics was to fail the aircraft would only drop to the lock
ring.

- 23 -
10. When the aircraft is firmly resting on the ground and the jacking heads
are clear of the aircraft slide the jacks clear of the aircraft. Remove the
adapters from the aircraft (usually fitted with pip-pins and chock the
wheels.

Note. When removing the jacks from under the aircraft lower them clear of the
aircraft as quickly as possible as the aircraft oleos may stick and the aircraft might
‘jump’ down. Ensure hands are clear of the jacking head in case this happens.

With a tail wheeled aircraft the main jacks are lowered first; the main wheels
chocked; then the tail is lifted off its trestle, the trestle removed and the tail lowered
to the ground and all the weights removed.

Jacking and Trestling a Helicopter

This is similar to jacking and trestling a nose wheel aircraft and with helicopters
fitted with skids the amount of lift during a jacking operation is small as there is no
tyre deflection and little shock absorber deflection (there is some as the skid
structure is designed to flex to absorb shocks).

General

Remember to record and sign for all work carried out on the aircraft in the log book
or work cards – including jacking and trestling.

Note the jacking arrangements for the B757 in figure 21. Note the primary jacking
points and the secondary stabilising jacking point at the tail. Note the C of G range
and the Mean Aerodynamic Cord (MAC) length. For more details of these please refer
to the book in this series entitled Weight and Balance.
 Fig. 21 EXAMPLE - JACKING THE B757

- 24 -
COLD WEATHER PRECAUTIONS

In some countries this is never a problem but in others, those in the northern parts
of the northern hemisphere and the far south in the southern hemisphere, frost, ice,
slush and snow can be a problem. In general:

1. Keep all working areas clear of snow and ice.

2. When spreading sand/salt outside in the working areas. Keep sand/salt
away from aircraft, aircraft equipment, jet intakes, Pitot static vents,
etc.
3. Ideally keep aircraft in heated hangers. Not always possible
4. Work in heated hangars/heated areas as much as possible. Personnel
must avoid getting too cold as this produces Cold Stress.
If it is not possible to work in a heated hangar or in close proximity to a
portable space heater then periods must be allowed at regular intervals
for the person to return to a heated area to be warmed through.

After Flight (Check the AMM)

1. Fit all airframe, engine and Pitot/static covers, and landing gear locks.
2. If aircraft is wet apply anti-freeze liquid to the inside of covers before
fitting.
3. Allow any ice in intakes, water drains, etc, to melt, drain water then fit
covers and plugs.
4. Drain oil whilst hot (from piston engines in particular in extreme cold),
and drain water traps in Pitot/static systems.
5. Drain drinking (potable) water systems.
6. Drain and clean all toilet systems.
7. Clean, drain and remove any foodstuffs from galleys.
 8. Drain oil and water traps on pneumatic systems.
9. Park or moor aircraft – leave brakes off (prevents them freezing on).
10. Record all work done in the log book.

Before Flight (refer to AMM)

1. Remove covers, blanks and locks.

2. Remove ice and snow from airframe and engines using blower heaters
or fluid spray systems (see later chapters).
3. Pre-heat engines using blower heaters.
4. Fill any drained systems and check for leaks. Piston engines are usually
filled with pre-heated oil (in extreme cold conditions).
5. Check all heaters – windscreen – Pitot – TAT – drain masts – ice
detectors – EPR – heater mats etc.
6. Carry out normal before flight inspection.
7. Ensure all engine intakes are clear of snow/ice deposits. Rotate
fan/turbine with wooden stick to check freedom of movement.
8. Check that all control surfaces, flaps, slats, spoilers, landing gear
mechanisms, airframe, all air vents and probes, intakes, exhausts etc
are clear of frost and snow deposits.
9. If aircraft does not fly within a certain time (depending on ambient
temperature) re-do items 2, 3 and 7 above.

- 25 -
ICE & SNOW FORMATION ON AIRCRAFT

Icing on aircraft is caused by a combination of freezing conditions (low ambient

temperature or low outside air temperature (OAT) and moisture in the atmosphere. It
may also be caused by freezing rain or drizzle. The actual amount depends on
surface temperature, surface condition, duration of icing conditions, and the amount
of moisture present in the atmosphere.

Hoar Frost

Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the freezing point of
the adjacent air and, of course, below freezing point. It is formed in clear air when
water vapour is converted directly to ice and builds up into a white semi-crystalline
coating. Hoar frost is white, soft and feathery.

When hoar frost occurs on aircraft on the ground, the weight of the deposit is
unlikely to be serious, but the deposit, if not removed from the airframe, will interfere
with the airflow causing drag and possibly preventing it attaining flying speed during
take-off. The windscreen may be obscured, and the free working of moving parts such
as flying control surfaces may be affected.

Remove all frost deposits from the aircraft before dispatch.

Rime Ice
This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice but more dense than hoar frost,
is an opaque, rough deposit. At ground level it forms in freezing fog conditions and
consists of a deposit of ice on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime ice is light
and porous and results from the small water drops freezing as individual particles,
with little or no spreading. A large amount of air is trapped between the particles.

Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through clouds with the air
temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point; the icing
builds up on the leading edge, but does not extend back along the chord. Ice of this
type usually has no great weight, but the danger is that it will interfere with the
airflow over wings, etc, and may choke the orifices of the carburettor, air intakes and
Pitot-static vents.

Glaze Ice

Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond after a frosty night. On
aircraft, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters freezing rain with the air
temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point.

It consists of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy surface and results
from the liquid water flowing over the airframe before freezing; glaze ice may be
mixed with sleet or snow. Glaze ice is dense, tough and sticks closely to the surface.
It cannot easily be shaken off and, if it breaks off in flight it comes away in lumps
which can cause damage to the airframe.

- 26 -
The main danger of glaze ice is aerodynamic and debris damage, but to this must be
added, that due to the weight of ice, unequal wing loading and propeller blade
vibration may occur. Glaze ice is the most severe and the most dangerous form of ice
formation on aircraft.

Debris Icing

This is caused by slush/snow/moisture being throne/blown onto the aircraft by the

wind, or passing vehicular traffic or blown by propeller/jet efflux from other aircraft.

Pack Snow

Normally, snow falling on an aircraft does not adhere and will settle on the top
surfaces only. If the temperature of the airframe is below freezing point however,
glaze ice may form from the moisture in the snow. The icing of the aircraft in such
conditions, however, is primarily due to water droplets, though snow may
subsequently be embedded in the ice so formed.

Conclusions
If any ice or snow on aircraft is not removed before take-off then the following may
result:

(a) Decreased lift due to aerofoil change in shape. An ice layer 1/16th of an
inch (1.6mm) thick on the leading edge can reduce lift by up to 24%.
(b) Increased drag due to the rough surface of the airframe (skin friction).
(c) Decreased propeller efficiency due to alterations of the blade profile and
increased blade thickness.
(d) Propeller vibration due to uneven distribution of ice.
(e) Loss of control due to ice preventing movement of control surfaces.
(f) Increased risk of control surface flutter due to control surface
C of G change because of the ice.
(g) Increased aircraft all up weight and increased wing loading. The weight
of the ice may prevent the aircraft from taking-off.
(h) Higher stalling speed.
(i) Loss of inherent stability may occur due to displacement of the centre of
gravity caused by the weight of ice.
(j) Loss of vision if the windscreen becomes iced over.
(k) Ice debris damage.
(l) Malfunction of flight/engine instruments. This would occur if
Pitot/static and EPR probes/vents became blocked.

GROUND DE-ICING

The aircraft de-icing systems are designed to remove or prevent the formation of ice
on parts of the wings, tail, engine nacelles and various probes during flight and
would not normally be effective in removing deposits which have accumulated while
the aircraft is stationary. Their use may aggravate the situation by melting some of
the deposit which would then freeze elsewhere.

- 27 -
The use of cabin/airframe heating to remove deposits from the fuselage/wings etc is
not recommended. So ground de-icing by the ground crew must be carried out if
there are any deposits on the aircraft.

When aircraft are kept in a hangar during inclement weather any melted snow or ice
may freeze again if the aircraft is subsequently moved outside into sub-zero
temperatures. Complete protection could be provided by placing aircraft in heated
hangars, but for large aircraft this is not always possible except for servicing.

ICE & SNOW REMOVAL

In general, depending on ambient temperatures, ice deposits can be removed from

the airframe/engines using:

* Cold water (ambient temperatures above freezing).

* Hot air.
* Hot water (ambient temperatures above -3°C). Max water temperature
82°C (180°F) followed by de-icing fluid (rare).
* De-icing fluids(common)/de-icing pastes.
Hot air blowers are powered electrically or by the use of fuel and are very effective for
smaller aircraft. For larger aircraft their use is limited to local area warming for work
purposes.

For most aircraft ice is best removed by the use of de-icing fluid (eg DTD 406 or
similar, or, in severe conditions, Kilfrost ‘Arctic’ or equivalent).

These fluids normally contain ethylene glycol and isopropyl alcohol and may be
applied either by spray or hand. It should be applied as close to the departure time
as possible and repeated if aircraft departure is delayed.

De-icing fluids may adversely affect glazed panels, composite structures or the
exterior finish of aircraft, particularly when the paint is new. Only the type of fluid,
and it’s method of application, as stated in the AMM should be used.

Some fluids, particularly those with an alcohol base, may cause dilution of oils and
greases. Spray nozzles should not therefore, be directed at lubrication points or
bearings and an inspection of areas where fluid may be trapped is necessary. The
AMM may specify re-lubrication in these areas whenever de-icing fluids are used.

Frost and ice may also be removed from aircraft surfaces using a mobile hot air
supply. The air is blown on to the wings, fuselage and tail surfaces and blows
away/melts the ice. Operators using this equipment should ensure that any
meltwater is dried up and not allowed to accumulate in hinges, structure etc, where
re-freezing could occur.

When using hot air blowers, remember that the air can heat some polymers (plastics)
to near melting point, can melt greases out of bearings and may even over-heat some
aluminium alloys (if prolonged close exposure is allowed). Exercise care when
directing the hot air stream so as not to give prolonged exposure to these areas as
well as to any inflammable liquids.

- 28 -
Soft laying snow can be removed from the top surfaces of the aircraft with a long
handled brush or squeegee, care being taken not to damage aerials, vents, stall
warning vanes, vortex generators, etc, which may be concealed by the snow. In at
least one aircraft manual the procedure for snow removal on top of the fuselage is to
use a soft rope thrown over the fuselage and pulled to and fro and backwards over
the fuselage. Again the same precautions should be observed re aerials, stall warning
vanes, vortex generators etc.

Snow should be brushed off the aircraft structure and should not be allowed to go
into cowlings, intakes, vents, shrouds etc. Light snow can be removed by blowing
with cold air. It is important to remove the snow from around the aircraft and keep
the working area clear. Should snow and ice be allowed to accumulate on the ground
it will make working in the area difficult, cause obstruction and may be sucked into
intakes.
Remember, when walking on the surface of the aircraft it is slippery at the best of
times. When there is snow about then the aircraft surface can be treacherous to walk
on. Always use a safety harness or tackle the job from a set of steps or a gantry.

Fluid Sprays

Fluids may be used hot or cold and are of two main types:

Type I AEA fluid (unthickened). Has a high glycol content and a low viscosity.
Good de-icing but has short ‘hold-over times’.

Type II AEA fluid (thickened). Has a minimum glycol content of 50%. Good de-
icing with longer ‘hold-over times’.

The above classifications are fairly old and some (modern) aircraft manuals make
mention of type I, II, III and type IV fluids. For example, type II and IV fluids are used
when:

Temperature down to (°C) Dilution ratio by volume (de-icing

fluid/water)

-3 50/50 (Type I fluid used neat also.)

-14 75/25
-25 100/0
below -25 Insure ambient temperature at least 7° higher
than freezing point of de-icing fluid.

Ice and frozen snow deposits can be removed by fluid spraying. It is important to
ensure that all surfaces are de-iced including all airframe external surfaces
(including wings, tailplane and fin); control surfaces; high lift devices; spoilers;
propellers; rotorblades (on helicopters); windscreens; engine intakes; ram air and
other intakes; landing gear up and down locks; fluid drains; Pitot and static probes;
EPR probes; TAT probes; A of A vanes etc.

- 29 -
In general do not direct the fluid:

(a) Into the wheel brakes.

(b) Into control surface shrouds and structure openings.
(c) Into Pitot/static vents, TAT probes, EPR probes, drains etc.
(d) Onto windscreens and transparent panels - in some cases
delamination may occur (if fluid incompatible, use approved windscreen
de-icing fluid).
(e) Into air intakes and exhausts - engines and air-conditioning systems.
(f) Into fuselage vents/drain holes.
(g) Into bearings and greased mechanisms.
(h) Close to the structure or other equipment, particularly if the fluid
 spray is high pressure - it could cause damage and erosion.

In general always:

(a) Consult the AMM.

(b) Remove heavy deposits of snow symmetrically about the aircraft
longitudinal and lateral axes so as to prevent possible overbalance.
(c) Blank off Pitot/static vents, intakes and exhausts and vents and
drains where possible.
(d) Ensure the aircraft is completely snow and ice-free. Some manuals allow
a small amount (depth specified) of ice on the underside of the wing and
some hoar frost on the top of the fuselage. Check the AMM.
(e) Carry out a visual inspection after removal to check for (d) above, check
structure for impingement damage and ensure that fluid has not entered
into areas where it should not be, eg:

* Probes – pressure and temperature sensing.

* Structure drains.
* Brakes.
* Structure.
* Drain masts.
* Normal and emergency exits.
* Cargo doors.
* Windows and windscreens (through vent holes etc).
* Inspection panels.
* Control surface shrouds.
* Control surfaces.
* Air conditioning intakes/exhausts.
* Engine intakes/exhausts.

(f) Record and sign for the work done in the aircraft log book. Record the
fluid used, the dilution ratio, the date and time of application, the fluid
temperature and the ambient temperature.
(g) Monitor the aircraft and the ambient temperature and if the
temperature drops then consider re-de-icing the aircraft, or if the
aircraft does not take off within the Hold Over time allowed then re-de-
ice.

- 30 -
 Table from CAP 512 (now withdrawn)
TABLE 1 GUIDE TO HOLD-OVER TIMES

After de-icing the fluid will have a period during which time it will remain effective -
depending on ambient conditions. It is important to read the fluid manufacturer’s
instructions regarding this ‘hold-over time’ and to re-treat the aircraft if the aircraft
does not take-off within the time period.

If in doubt about the ‘hold-over time’ re-treat the aircraft prior to departure anyway.
In general, fluid sprays may be applied cold or hot (hot is the best) and may be low
pressure or high pressure (about 100psi).

Do not exceed the pressure and temperature stated in the aircraft manual, and do
not put the fluid nozzle too near the structure to reduce the possibility of
impingement damage.

Table 1 gives some idea of hold-over times, but it is important to remember that it is
only a guide. You should at all times consult the de-icing fluid manufacturer’s
literature/AMM.

Jet Engines

Jet engine icing can occur if the ambient temperature is less than 10°C (50°F) and
there is visible moisture present such as fog, rain, sleet or snow.
 - 31 -
For ambient temperatures down to -30°C (-22°F) the engines can normally be started
without any additional precautions – other than making sure intakes, exhausts,
inlets, outlets and probes are clear of snow and ice. The fuel control is set to RICH
and the oil pressure is likely to read high and the quantity indication likely to read
lower than normal for the first few minutes of running. After this period the values
should normalise.

It the aircraft is taking off the engines should idle for a minimum period of 5 minutes
to allow the engine to warm through. If the engines are just being started to warm
through then they must run for a minimum period of 10 minutes.

If the ambient temperature is lower than -40°C (-40°F) then the engine core must be
pre-warmed for a period of time using hot air blowers (max air temperature 121°C
(250°F). Damage will occur to the bearings otherwise as the oil viscosity will be too
high to allow it to flow. The process will take some time for the core to properly heat
through.

Piston Engines

In very general terms similar conditions apply as to jet engines. It is common at very
low temperatures to drain the oil immediately after engine shut-down. The engine is
pre-warmed before start-up. The oil is pre-warmed before being put back into the
engine and the engine started immediately.

Fluid spray equipment may be:

(a) A bucket and hand operated pump – for small aircraft.

(b) A trolley with a tank and an air pressure supply.
(c) A motorised vehicle with heated pressurised tank and a hydraulically
operated boom spray nozzle. These are operated by specially trained
personnel (normally a driver and boom operator) but it is your aircraft
and you must sign for the work done.
(d) A fixed gantry spray system (car wash system) that the aircraft is towed
through (or taxis through – check engine operation under these
conditions) for those airfields that suffer prolonged icing conditions
during winter.

Hot Fluid Spray

Heated to about 82°C (tank temperature), the heat also has a part to play in removing
the ice so is better than cold fluid spray. Because the fluid is not diluted by the ice
quite so much as the cold fluid spray, it also is better than the cold fluid spray in
preventing further ice formation.

If a ‘car wash’ system is used it is important to note that the fluids used must be
non-toxic and diluted enough to ensure that they are not a fire hazard (hot exhausts
etc). When taxiing through, all cabin conditioning air vents/engine tapings should be
off – to minimise de-icing fluid fumes in the aircraft.
 - 32 -
Anti-icing

(Anti-icing is the prevention of ice build-up and De-icing is the removal of ice
deposits).

The above systems will prevent ice formation building up for a time. This depends on
ambient conditions of course. The hot fluid spray being better at this than the cold
fluid spray. However, there is a special dual purpose spray that is much better at
anti-icing than either the cold or hot fluid systems.

This anti-icing barrier compound is mixed with water (check manufacturer’s

instructions) and sprayed at a temperature of about 80°C when used as a de-icing
fluid. When used for anti-icing the fluid is sprayed onto the aircraft cold and
undiluted either before the onset of icing conditions or immediately after the aircraft
has been de-iced. A film of anti-icing compound is left on the sprayed surfaces which
prevents the formation of further ice deposits (depending on ambient conditions).

When used as a de-icing fluid it may give protection from freezing for up to 2 hours.
When used as an anti-icing fluid it will give protection for longer periods - but check
the ambient conditions.

On some aircraft not equipped with an aerofoil de-icing system the use of a de-icing
paste may be specified. This paste will prevent the accumulation of ice deposits.
When spread smoothly by hand over the leading edges of the wings and tail unit the
paste presents a chemically active surface on which ice may form but cannot bond.
Any ice which does form will be blown off in the airflow.

The paste should be reactivated before each flight in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions and replaced after approximately four flying hours.

De-icing pastes do not constitute an approved method of de-icing when approval for
intentional flight into icing conditions is required.

Table 2 shows an extract from an AMM. It is interesting to note that cold water is
recommended for ice/snow removal if the ambient temperature is above 1deg C. The
engineer should check that ground temperatures are also above 1deg C and that
forecast temperatures are set to rise.

blank
 - 33 -
SNOW FROST ICE
A B C
Ambient temperature Ambient temperature Ambient temperature
34deg F (1deg C) 27deg F (-3deg C) below 27deg F
or above to 34deg F (1deg C) (-3deg C)

1
COLD WATER USE NOT ALLOWED NOT ALLOWED

2
HOT USE USE NOT ALLOWED
WATER Optional to apply
(200deg F 93deg C) de-icing fluid.
followed by de-
icing fluid.

3
DE-ICING FLUID NOT RECOMMENDED USE USE
(200deg F) ON COST GROUNDS

4
ANTI-ICING NOT RECOMMENDED Apply after method 2 to Apply as protection if
FLUID ON COST GROUNDS keep ice, frost & snow to ice, snow or frost
a minimum. Apply after expected.
method 3 if necessary.

Table 2 EXAMPLE TAKEN FROM AN AMM

REFUELLING/DEFUELLING

Refuelling is the filling or partial filling of some or all of the aircraft tanks and
defuelling is the removal for the fuel from those tanks (normally for maintenance
purposes).

Refuelling is normally carried out at the end of each long flight. The amount of fuel
uplifted depends on the operational requirements. With some aircraft all tanks are
filled completely whilst on others the uplift requirement and tanks to be filled will
depend on the duration of the next flight.

Refuelling systems can be categorised into two groups:

* Open orifice refuelling (over-wing, open vent or gravity refuelling).

* Pressure refuelling, under-wing refuelling or closed line refuelling.
Open Orifice Refuelling

This method of fuelling an aircraft is similar to the way most road vehicles are fuelled
on the garage forecourt. It is common on small aircraft and some larger aircraft have
the facility as well as a pressure refuelling system.

- 34 -
On the top surface of the wing (or fuselage in some cases) there is a filler cap and
tank opening. After operating the quick release fastener and opening the refuelling
panel the refuelling cap is unscrewed from the tank. In figure 22 the refuelling cap is
fitted flush with the wing surface and lifting the tab on the cap allows the cap to be
removed (by twisting the tab or operating a lever).

The filler port may be connected to pipework delivering the fuel to all tanks or, more
often, directly into the individual tank. The cap is usually connected with a lanyard
to the structure to prevent loss and there is usually a bonding point.

To refuel, the fuel nozzle from the bowser is bonded with its bonding lead to the tank
and the nozzle placed inside the tank orifice. The nozzle lever is operated to allow fuel
to flow into the tank. Care needs to be exercised as the tank starts to get full, as it is
a high delivery rate and the fuel will spray back out of the tank when the tank
becomes full. Towards the end of the filling operation flow rates should be reduced
and preparation made to shut-off the control handle on the refuelling hose quickly.

In addition care is needed when opening the refuelling cap to prevent contamination
of the fuel – by rain (if raining) or by debris such as sand etc, if a gale is blowing.

Other potential pitfalls include the danger of walking on the top surfaces of wings
and the possibility of damage to the wing from filler caps, fuelling hoses, people’s
shoes etc. Also there is a risk of fuel imbalance between the tanks (port and
starboard wing tanks for example).

After refuelling the bonding lead should be disconnected and the cap closed.

The biggest disadvantage is that of time to refuel. Access to the top of the tanks can
be difficult and may require step ladders, high rise platforms etc and the actual filling
process can be slow.

Most small aircraft only have the one method of refuelling – gravity refuelling, but
most larger aircraft have both systems fitted. The B747, for example, has the option
of over-wing fuelling, but using this method would require up to 8 hours to fill the
aircraft.

Over-wing refuel points on large aircraft are rarely used but if the aircraft has landed
at an out-station which does not have pressure refuelling equipment then they can
become very useful. Some aircraft are not fitted with them at all, eg the B777.

Pressure Refuelling
This is a system of refuelling where fuel under pressure [max about 50psi (345kPa)]
is supplied from a bowser, tanker, or refuelling pumping vehicle. (It is common at
large airports to have the fuel pumped underground. A pumping vehicle connects into
the ground connection (after lifting a steel cover plate) and pumps the fuel into the
aircraft tanks. The bowser’s (fuel tanker)/pumping vehicle’s fuel hose is connected to
the refuelling point of the aircraft via self sealing connections, both on the aircraft
and on the hose (figure 23). From this single point there is a pipework system within
the aircraft connected to all the tanks in the aircraft. The fuel is controlled into each
tank (by a computer on modern aircraft) by energising solenoids within the refuel
valves, float valves etc.

- 35 -

Fig. 22 OVER WING FUELLING POINT

As each tanks becomes full so its refuel valve shuts off and when all tanks are full
refuelling ceases.

Advantages of pressure refuelling include:

* Higher pressures and flow rates and shorter fuelling times.

* Less risk of spillage.
* Ability to fill individual tanks with any desired quantity of fuel using the
aircraft’s on-board refuelling control system. Electrically or computer
controlled.
* Reduced risk of fuel contamination.
* Better access. Fuelling points are on the underside of the wings and
accessed from the ground.
* Reduced fire risk.

Refuelling Operation
Check the AMM.

The electrical power supply must be ON to operate the various valves, indicators,
refuelling panel and computers etc. This can be provided from the aircraft 400Hz
supply or even from the aircraft battery. Usually power to the refuelling systems is
removed when the aircraft becomes airborne, preventing inadvertent fuel transfer in
flight. The refuelling panel is usually located at the refuelling point and usually
within easy reach of the ground (figure 24).

With power available, and the refuel panel door open, the indications on the refuel
panel will show (the system may go through a BITE check first).

- 36 -

Fig. 23 PRESSURE REFUELLING CONNECTION

The dust cap is removed from the refuelling point and from the hose connector. The
aircraft bonding clip is connected to the refuelling hose and the hose connected to the
aircraft fuelling point via the quick release bayonet type connector.

The action of connecting the hose to the aircraft opens both the valves on the aircraft
refuelling point and the fuelling hose.

When the bowser starts pumping, the pressure will open the non-return valve and
fuel will flow into the system that supplies all the tanks (sometimes called a fuelling
gallery).
As the fuel flows into each tank so a fuel quantity measuring system will measure the
amount of fuel in the tank. The fuel will be shut off to the tank by an electrically
operated shut-off valve when:

(a) The tank becomes full, or

(b) When the fuel reaches the level (quantity) as selected by the engineer at
the refuelling panel.

The fuel flow will continue into the aircraft system until all tanks are full or have
reached their selected quantity level. The bowser/pumping vehicle operator will then
switch the pumping operation OFF.

The system may have provision to allow all tanks to be filled at the correct rate.
However, care still needs to be exercised to ensure an imbalance doesn’t develop (for
example, more fuel on one side of the aircraft than the other would up-set the
aircraft’s C of G laterally).

- 37 -

Fig. 24 REFUELLING CONTROL PANEL

Sometimes additional refuel points are provided to increase the speed of the fuelling
operation – so more than one bowser/pumping unit can be used simultaneously.

Refuel valves can be mechanically operated but they are normally solenoid operated,
using the fuel pressure to actually operate them open. This type of refuelling requires
overfill protection to prevent tank rupture or fuel spillage.
Also, with some aircraft care has to be taken when refuelling /defuelling so as not to
put the longitudinal C of G outside the range between the main gear and the nose
gear.

The aircraft’s C of G, for a nose wheeled aircraft, is just forward of the main gear and
with some aircraft with highly swept wings it might be possible to fuel some tanks in
the wings such that the C of G is moved aft passed the main gear – this would cause
the aircraft to tip back onto its tail.

For tailed wheeled aircraft the C of G is behind the main gear and the tanks are so
situated so that it is not normally possible to overbalance the aircraft forwards.

Defuelling

For overwing refuelling type aircraft this is usually carried out using drains situated
at the bottom of the tanks. For some aircraft the system can be drained from the
engine supply connection (check the AMM).

- 38 -
The fuel is drained into cans (suitably bonded) and returned to the fuel supplier
suitably marked as contaminated to be filtered and re-used.

For pressure defuelling aircraft a bowser in connected (with defuel selected), the non-
return valves are de-seated and the defuel handle is turned. On newer aircraft this
may be a switch selection on the refuel panel. This connects the engine feed manifold
to the refuel points. The engine fuel feed boost pumps are used to provide fuel to the
engine feed manifold and through the defuel valve to the bowser.

Once the bowser has positive flow the pumps on the bowser can be selected to suck.
Again, consideration has to be given as to where fuel is being taken from on the
aircraft to prevent imbalances developing.

Precautions

Fuel is highly combustible and fuel flow will cause a build up of static electricity –
which could cause a spark if the correct bonding has not been carried out.

The following precautions should be observed (also check the book in this series
EASA Module 7 entitled Safety):

* Ensure the correct grade of fuel is used. Check the AMM, also indicated
at the refuelling point and marked on the bowser/ground refuelling
point. (For the mechanical engineer see also the books in this series
EASA module 15 for jet fuels and 16 for gasoline and Diesel fuels).
Check the bowser driver’s log book to ensure that the required dip
checks/water drain checks (quality control checks) have been carried
out on that particular batch of fuel. This will also indicate the specific
gravity of the fuel.
 * Bonding. The aircraft needs to be bonded to earth, ideally through a
purpose built bonding line but CAAIPs state alternatives for ‘field’
operations. The bowser must also be bonded to earth and this is often
done through the tyres or a bonding chain/lead hanging underneath.
The bowser and aircraft are bonded together by a bonding lead being
reeled out from the bowser to the aircraft and connected to the aircraft
earth point, which is often (but not always) near the refuel point. The
refuelling hose is bonded to the aircraft.
* The aircraft (and bowser) must be in a designated refuel zone that
should contain any spillage (minimum 20ft or 6m radius).
* No smoking, naked lights or unauthorised equipment allowed. NO
SMOKING signs displayed 50ft (15m) distance from the outermost tank
vent.
* Aircraft power should not be connected or disconnected during the
refuel process. APU’s, if running, should be left running for the duration
and should not be started or stopped during this time.
* Ensure fire cover is available - provided by the airport fire service or
through individual hand held CO2 or Dry Power extinguishers.
Refuelling should not be performed in a hanger unless additional fire
cover is available.
* No radio or radar transmissions allowed during the operation.
* No refuelling during an electrical storm.

- 39 -
* Check that there is clearance under the aircraft from any ground
equipment as the aircraft will settle.
* Aircraft engines should not be running. Some exceptions are allowed to
this rule such as some helicopter operations.
* All vehicles should be parked such that they have a clear exit path – in
case of fire.
* Keep all connections, maintenance areas and equipment clean to
prevent the possibility of fuel contamination. Avoid spillage.
* Any engine driven ground equipment that is required should be cleared
to run in fuelling areas (spark proof exhausts etc) and parked as far
away as possible from the actual refuelling operation.
* If any portable electrical equipment is to be used (torches etc) then
these must be of the approved safety type).
* No flash photography within 20ft of filling points or vents. Do not use
mobile phones of any other personal electronic equipment.
* All combustion heaters must be OFF. Some older aircraft have these.
* Complete the bowser operator’s record of fuel taken or received by the
bowser (gauges at the refuelling control station on the bowser). Compare
these values to those of the aircraft system gauges. Dip tanks if
necessary (a very accurate method of ascertaining the quantity of fuel in
each tank).
* Record fuel up-lift or fuel removed in the aircraft log book and sign.

Draining
This may be required if access is required to the fuel tanks or for certain
maintenance operations such as tank removal.

While defuelling will remove nearly all of the fuel it is often necessary to remove the
residual fuel in each tank using the drain valve/port.

Drain ports are also used for taking fuel samples.

Figure 25 shows a typical drain valve. They are located at the bottom of the fuel tank.
For fuel sampling the primary poppet is pushed up, this de-seats the valve and
allows the fuel from the bottom of the tank to drain into a container.

Fig. 25 TYPICAL DRAIN VALVE

- 40 -
Fuel Spillage

Clear-up all fuel on the aircraft and on the ground. If a major spillage occurs
evacuate all personnel, try and stop the fuel flow, and call the fire services. Do not
start aircraft engines or vehicles until all fuel has been cleared from the area.

Do not allow fuel into drains, waterways etc. If this does occur inform the local water
authority and follow their advice.

Fuel can be mopped up using fuel absorbent agents or emulsion compounds.

These should be disposed of in accordance with the local authority regulations.

All tools and equipment used are to be flame proof and/or spark proof.

AIRCRAFT CLEANING

By aircraft cleaning we do not mean the domestic cleaning of the cabin after the
passengers have left the aircraft but the cleaning of the structure/components either
as a routine procedure or after a spillage of some kind.

For some operators the job of aircraft cleaning is contracted out so the engineer
normally does not get involved – except for checks and inspections afterwards. For
other operators the aircraft engineers have to do it all. In either case, you as the
engineer are expected to know how to go about things. As far as the syllabus is
concerned it is not clear whether this applies only to the B1 person so if you are a B2
person it would be advisable to, at least, read through the subject – particularly
battery electrolyte spillage . The responsible engineer would be required to know:

* The materials to use.

* The precautions to be taken.
* The processes to be carried out.
* The checks and inspections to be carried out afterwards.

External cleaning is carried out:

* As a routine measure to keep the aircraft ‘looking good’ and to help

reduce aerodynamic drag. The airframe will get naturally very dirty over
a period of time and dirt increases skin friction and drag.
* To help prevent deterioration/corrosion as a result from dirt build-up.
* As a routine measure when carrying out certain operations where
fluids/chemicals might contaminate the airframe. Such as alighting on
sea-water (float plane, sea plane etc), crop spraying/ dusting, or flying
in a corrosive atmosphere (low level over the sea, for example).
* As part of a rectification procedure when something goes wrong and
fluids are spilt. For example, chemical fluid spillage, hydraulic fluid
spillage, battery electrolyte spillage, mercury spillage, leaks from toilets
etc.

The aircraft as a whole and its component parts should be kept clean. This helps to
reduce wear, allows for leaks to be more readily detected, reduces crevice corrosion
and makes the aircraft more aerodynamic (for surface cleanliness anyway). It also
helps to promote a good image to customers – and makes the aircraft more pleasant
to work on.

- 41 -
For general exterior cleaning a non-acid soapy solution diluted in water can be used
and the area rinsed off with clean water and dried. Turco Air Tech (or similar) is
suitable.

Materials

Various cleaners are available including Teepol, Turco Air Tec, Ardrox 6025 and PD
680. They all meet various MIL specifications and should be used in accordance with
the cleaning manufacturer’s instructions and the AMM.

These are all listed in Chapter 20 of the AMM.

Table 3 shows part of a listing from an aircraft manual. There is no need to commit
the details of any of these materials to memory but reading through the table does
give you some idea as to the range available.

In this book we will deal with the following episodes but always check the AMM
Chapter 51 for specific cleaning instructions. Cleaning after:
 * Chemical crop spraying/dusting.
* Salt water contamination.
* Toilet water leakage.
* Hydraulic fluid contamination.
* Battery acid spillage.
* Mercury contamination.

The procedure to be followed will depend on the actual contaminant and the extent,
but in general terms:

1. Refer to the AMM Chapters 20 and 51.

2. If components are affected, remove for cleaning.
3. If control cables or carpets are affected they are replaced.
4. Inspect area after cleaning.
5. Refit components removed and any systems disturbed are tested.
6. Details of the work carried out are recorded in the log book and the
work signed for.

AFTER USE AS A CHEMICAL CROP SPRAYER

Refer to the aircraft manual for cleaning/inhibiting the powder-hopper/spray-tank

and the distribution system (if needed), also for the cleaning of the external
airframe/engines. Refer to the liquid chemical/powder supplier manual (or check on
the instructions on the containers) for any special cleaning instructions/safety
precautions.

If the aircraft is to be washed, check with the local authority responsible for the
drainage system that wash-water is acceptable going into the drains. If it is not
acceptable wash-water must be collected in tanks and removed by a specialist
chemical disposal firm.

- 42 -
DESIGNATION SPEC USES

Aircraft exterior Turco Air Tec USA General purpose aircraft exterior
(MIL-C-087936) cleaner.

Liquid detergent concentrate Ardrox 6025 Cleaner and stain remover.

USA
(MIL-C-87936)
Varsol/white spirit UK Cleaning solvent for mechanical
USA parts.
Trichloroethane Genklene Cleaning solvent.
(Methyl chloroform) USA

Trichlorotrifluoroethane FreonTF Cleaning oxygen system pipe lines.

 Isopropyl alcohol Air3660 General cleaning.
France
USA

Rain repellent cleaner Altupol Cleaning rain repellent off

windscreens.

Safety solvent USA Odour free solvent cleaning agent.

Stain remover Teepol

(MIL-D-16791)
Dry cleaner PD 680 Solvent for cleaning mechanical
(BS 245:76 type 1) parts.
Plastic polishing compound (fine PP-560 Paste for polishing Plexiglas.
grade) USA
VDU cleaner Alglas V Anti static flight-deck CRT screen
cleaner.

TABLE 3 – CLEANING AGENTS

Various cleaning agents are listed in the AMM for both general cleaning and
specialist cleaning. All are supplied with user instructions and health warnings
where necessary.

Always keep all fluids/powders off the skin. Ensure they are kept out of the eyes and
are not breathed in. Wear protective clothing, eye protection and breathing apparatus
where specified in the chemical manufacturer’s manual.

For general exterior cleaning a non-acid soapy solution diluted in water can be used
and the area rinsed off with clean water and dried. Turco Air Tech (or similar) is
suitable.

- 43 -
Clean all air filters (carburettors intakes and air conditioning intakes etc.). Ensure all
water traps are drained and cleaned (Pitot static systems, pneumatic systems etc.).

After airframe cleaning move aircraft to a dry area and check all aircraft drains to see
that they are clear and make sure water/cleaning liquid has not entered parts of the
airframe such as:

* Engine intakes and exhausts.

* Pitot static vents etc.
* Windows, doors and hatches.
* Air conditioning vents.
* Cooling grills.
* Drain holes.
Glass windscreens can be washed with a non-acid soapy solution and cleaned with a
chamois leather and plastic windows can be washed with the same solution and
cleaned with a fine grade plastic polishing compound (listed in the AMM).

Inspect all surfaces and external components for corrosion/erosion and rectify any
damage found as per the aircraft manual (SRM).

Ensure all control surfaces have full and free range of movement.

Record details of the work carried out in the aircraft log book and sign CRS.

After airframe cleaning check all drains to see that they are clear and make sure
water/cleaning liquid has not entered parts of the airframe such as:

* Engine intakes and exhausts.

* Pitot static vents etc.
* Windows, doors and hatches.
* Air conditioning vents.
* Cooling grills.
* Drain holes.

SALT WATER CONTAMINATION

Flush area affected with clean water. Wash area with cleaning agent as specified in
Chapter 51 diluted with water. Rinse again and dry with warm air. Inspect the area
for corrosion/damage and repair as laid down in the manual.

TOILET WATER CONTAMINATION

Does not happen often and when it does it is usually because of an incorrectly seated
valve or a pipe/union leak, or toilet overflowing – on older toilet systems.

Wear protective clothing including goggles.

Find source of leak and rectify.

- 44 -
Remove as much liquid as possible using a cloth or a liquid certified vacuum cleaner.
Remove and discard carpets etc. Thoroughly wash area using a mixture of 100g of
Bicarb of Soda to 1 litre of water. Rinse area and dry. Inspect area to see that all
contaminants have been removed, is corrosion free and all anti-corrosive treatments
are in place. Fit replacement soft furnishings.

HYDRAULIC FLUID CONTAMINATION

Wear protective clothing. Rectify source of leak.

Mop up as much of the fluid as possible. Apply cleaning agent as recommended in
Chapter 51 (in some cases after application it must be left to 30 minutes). Flush with
clean water and dry with air dryer. Inspect area to see that all fluid has been
removed and check that electrical insulation, rubber and plastic items etc have not
been contaminated. If they have, change.

If hot hydraulic fluid (above 132°C) has leaked onto titanium then embrittlement will
result.

The fluid may leave a light brown/dull black residue. Remove this using acetone and
a wooden/plastic scraper. If the protective paint has been damaged or the metal has
been contaminated then the part must be replaced.

BATTERY ELECTROLYTE SPILLAGE

In the event of electrolyte spillage in the aircraft, the following action must be taken
immediately.

Rubber gloves and protective clothing must be worn and use eye protection.

1. Check (and rectify) the cause of the spillage. Check the battery – if suspect,
change. Remove the battery for access.

2. Remove all pools of electrolyte by mopping with a clean rag moistened with
water, care being taken to prevent spreading of the electrolyte. The rag
should be frequently rinsed out in water to remove electrolyte during this
process.

3. Provided the electrolyte has not become trapped in any structure, rinse the
area with clean, cold water, taking particular care not to contaminate
adjacent or below floor electrical equipment. Should carpet become
contaminated, this should be replaced and adjacent structure checked for
evidence of contamination/corrosion.

4. Dry the affected area thoroughly, using a clean rag.

5. Replace any contaminated control cables.

6. If it is suspected that electrolyte has contaminated the structure, perhaps

by capillary action, the following action should be taken.

- 45 -
(a) For lead/acid electrolyte (dilute sulphuric acid) apply sodium
bicarbonate powder to the affected area and wash down with a
saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate.

(b) For Ni-Cad electrolyte (potassium hydroxide solution) rinse the

affected area with 5% solution of acetic acid. If not available,
ordinary household white vinegar may be used neat.
 In either case, finally rinse area with clean cold water, taking the same
precautions as in Item 2. Dry the area thoroughly.

If there is any doubt that this procedure has not been effective,
consideration should be given to removal of units and de-riveting the
structure for separate cleaning and inspection.

As sodium bicarbonate (alkali) is in itself mildly corrosive to light alloys,

testing the effectiveness of the cleansing operation may be carried out
using a piece of pH Universal Test Paper. Colour changes indicate the level
of acidity (red) or alkalinity (blue).

Alternatively, litmus paper may be used, satisfactory cleansing being

indicated by no colour change of either blue to red (acid) or red to blue
(alkaline).

NOTE. Acetic acid (5% solution) is not too detrimental to aircraft

structure/light alloys.

7. If any corrosion has occurred to the structure, carry out corrosion removal
procedures (refer to the AMM and to EASA module 7 book entitled
Corrosion in this series) and re-protect structure.

8. Fit and connect the battery (if removed) and test the system as per the
AMM.

9. Record (and sign) all the work done in the appropriate work
cards/Logbook. In all cases of electrolyte spillage, an ADD should be
raised detailing the area affected, the level of cleansing effected
(units/cables removed, etc) and calling for the area to be re-inspected after
24 hours and 14 days for signs of corrosive attack.

Should corrosion then be evident, appropriate action must be taken and

consideration given to repeat inspection at a later date.

CAUTION: In the event of the skin becoming contaminated with electrolyte, wash the
affected area immediately with plenty of clean cold water.

Should eyes become contaminated, flush immediately with plenty of clean cold water
or a propriety brand of eye cleaner such as Steriflex.

In either event seek immediate medical treatment.

- 46 -
MERCURY SPILLAGE

Refer to Chapter 5 of the AMM.

Mercury is found in manometers and in some instruments. It may also be carried as
cargo on transport aircraft. If spilt on metals it can cause rapid corrosion and
embrittlement. The mercury will ‘run’ on the surface like small ball bearings and
quickly run into crevices, and joints.

The rate of corrosion can be so quick as to be apparent in just a few minutes and is
more serious than battery acid corrosion. It is, therefore, important that it is detect,
removed, and treated quickly. You should, of course, follow the procedures laid down
in the AMM/SRM for the aircraft but the following information is generally applicable.

Safety Precautions

1. Wear protective clothing, particularly gloves.

2. Do not swallow mercury or inhale the fumes, report to the medical
centre immediately if this happens.
3. Work in a well ventilated area.
4. Discard all contaminated clothing and materials. Dispose of in
accordance with the local authority regulations.
5. Wash hands, tools, and other equipment contaminated with mercury.
6. Do not smoke, eat or drink, while working with mercury.

Detection Methods

1. Visually. When spilt, mercury will form into ball-bearing like globules.
These will ‘roll’ along surfaces, into crevices, and into joints.
2. X-rays. If unsure of the exact location of mercury it can be seen clearly
on X-rays.
3. ‘Sniffer Gun’. A sniffer gun will pick up mercury vapours and give an
aural and visual warning.

Recognition of Corrosion Products

Mercury corrosion is impossible to rectify in-situ. The only suitable rectification of

corroded areas is by repair (patch or insertion) or by replacement.

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. Shows as a greyish powder or whiskery growth.

This growth often occurring within minutes of initial contamination.

Silver, Cadmium and Zinc. Shows as a slightly brighter area where the corrosion has
occurred. The area might be difficult to see.

- 47 -
 Fig. 26 LOCALLY MADE-UP MERCURY TRAP

Tackling Mercury Spillage

1. Take action immediately. Corrosion rates can be very quick so the

sooner action is taken the better.
2. Do not move aircraft as the movement can cause the globules to ‘run’
into other parts of the structure.
3. Isolate the area. Place rag or paper towels around the spillage area to
keep globules within the original area. Prevent people walking through
area (if on aircraft floor) to prevent spread of mercury on footwear.
4. Remove source of contamination (broken instrument etc.) - carefully.
5. Remove globules by:
(a) Suction. Use a standard vacuum cleaner with a locally made up
‘liquid’ type trap in the suction line before the vacuum cleaner. (A
glass jar with a screw top lid and two pipes entering through
holes in the lid will do. Figure 26).
(b) A special pick-up brush. This is drawn lightly over the mercury
which will ‘pick up’ on the bristles. Shake the brush carefully into
a glass container.
(c) Foam pad. Pressing the pad into the mercury and releasing it will
cause it to suck up the mercury. Squeeze into a glass container
to remove the mercury from the pad.
(d) Adhesive tape. This will pick up the smaller globules.
(e) Chemical application. Mix up a thin solution of calcium
polysulphide. Mixing this with the mercury will convert the
mercury into an inert mercuric sulphide. Allow the mixture to dry
for 2 hours then vacuum up with a normal vacuum cleaner.
6. X-ray the area to check that all mercury has been removed.
7. Remove panels, de-rivet structure as necessary. Any contaminated drills
should be disposed off as contaminated products.
8. Apply a thin film of oil to area provided corrosion has not started. This
will help prevent the onset of corrosion but cannot be guaranteed to
stop it.
 - 48 -
9. Where mercury attack has started on structure it will have to be
removed and a patch/insertion repair carried out. Use the SRM for the
aircraft, and it is important that all the affected area is removed - with
an extra allowance for safety. If the corroded area exceeds the repair
limits the panel must be replaced. Corroded components should be
changed, appropriately labelled and returned to the manufacturers.
10. Record and sign for the work in the log book.
11. Call up for a further inspection to be carried out in the Tech log – say, 3
to 4 days later.

Note. When disposing of mercury and mercury products it is important to

follow local regulations. The mercury should be kept in clearly marked
glass or ceramic containers - sealed and annotated as contaminated.

Contaminated clothing should be stored (dry) in plastic bags and labelled.

The mercury and contaminated material should end up at a special site

suitably equipped to be able to handle these products. Contact your local
authority/local waste contractor (a fee is likely).

GROUND SERVICE CONNECTIONS

Ground service connections include all those connections that are made to the
aircraft to provide power or some other form of supply/return service. These
connections could include:

* Refuelling/defuelling.
* Potable water (drinking water).
* Toilet system drains.
* Pitot/static systems.
* Pneumatic supply.
* Hydraulics – fill system provision and pressure supply and return
connections.
* Electrical connections.

Most of these are dealt with in the appropriate LBP book on the subject. Here we will
deal with just three – electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic ground supplies.

Pneumatic Ground Supplies

On some aircraft this would be taken as the supply of compressed gas for the
charging of gas bottles, oleos etc. On other aircraft the term ‘pneumatics’ would mean
the supply air for cabin air conditioning/pressurisation – usually from the
compressor side of the jet engine to the air conditioning packs/de-icing systems.

When dealing with compressed gas from pressurised transportation gas bottles
always check the following:

1. Check transportation bottles are within test date.

 2. Ensure that the correct gas is used – air – nitrogen etc (check AMM).
3. Ensure system is serviceable to charge.
4. Charge slowly.

- 49 -
5. When using an adapter gauge always ensure that the pressure readings
from the various gauges – charging bottles, adapter, aircraft – all read
the correct reading. Stop the charging if readings do no correlate, and
investigate the reasons why.
6. Ensure that adapter gauge is within test date.
7. Allow pressure to stabilise after charging.
8. Check any pressure/temperature graphs.
9. Fit all blanks.

Air supplies for aircraft pneumatic systems can come from the engines, APU or
(whilst on the ground) from an engine driven ground supply trolley/cart. The duct
connection must be clean and the system must be checked that it is not pressurised
before connection is made. The system must also be checked that it is serviceable
before air supply commences.

The air supply cart should have a certificate of serviceability both in relation to it’s
motive power, exhaust emissions, and quality and rate of air supply.

When operating the unit ensure:

* A fire extinguisher is available.

* It is placed as far away from the aircraft as possible consistent with the
ability to connect the supply hose.
* Its air supply rate is within the parameters laid down in the AMM
(pressure and supply rate).
* When disconnecting ensure that the pressure is released.
* The aircraft is configured to accept the supply and the pneumatic
system is serviceable.

Electrical Ground Supplies

For dc supplies a set of batteries mounted on a trolley or an engine driven dc

generator may be used. The master switch on the trolley is off before connection is
made. The aircraft services switches are either off or their position corresponds with
the service selection – ie flaps up, selector switch up.

The AMM is consulted before power is applied.

The power supply plug (and the aircraft socket) may vary in design. A typical dc
supply plug is shown in figure 27. The plug consists of three pins, handed so it
cannot be fitted to the aircraft the wrong way round. The centre large pin is the main
supply pin, the other large pin is an earth/ground pin. The small pin is a relay
control pin. When plugged in and the master switch on, it supplies a small current to
operate a relay on the aircraft which switches out the aircraft battery supply and
switches in the external supply (centre pin) to the dc bus bars. It also causes a
cockpit indicator to show that external power is on.
When the external master switch is switched off the relay resets, external power is
switched off and internal power (batteries) are switched onto the bus bars.

For ac supplies an engine driven ground cart is used. The power supply socket
usually contains 6 pins, handed, so fitment to the aircraft can only be made in the
correct orientation.

- 50 -

Fig. 27 EXTERNAL DC POWER SUPPLY PLUG

Three large pins are for the supply of the 3 phases, with the forth large pin being a
ground/earth connection. The two small pins are dc control pins which operate
relays on the aircraft to switch in/out the external power supply.

Figure 28 shows the external power panel of the B777. There are two power supply
connections – the primary and the secondary. The primary is to be used first with the
secondary being connected if more power is required. On many aircraft there is only
one external power connection.

Fig. 28 EXTERNAL ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY PANEL – B777

The panel shows the connection status of the supplies together with support
strapping for the (heavy) power supply cable.
In general, power supply panels may have the following equipment/indications:

* 3 external ac power circuit breakers.

* dc control circuit breakers.
* Power connected/power ON lights.
* Panel illumination lights, interphone socket and pilot’s call button.

- 51 -
Figure 29 shows the indications on the flightdeck for power supply status. It is the
B777 electrical panel and is a good example of a large aircraft electrical supply
indicator. Note the status indications of the primary, secondary and APU supplies.

To connect power:

* Check the AMM.

* Ensure all systems are serviceable.
* Ensure all switches are off or set to the position of the service to which
they relate (to prevent any service from moving when power is switched
on).
* Check that supply cart engine is running correctly and voltage and
frequencies are correct. The same safety precautions apply here as for
any internal combustion engine powered equipment running in the
vicinity of aircraft.
* Insert ground power plug and support using restraining straps.
* Turn power on at the supply.
* Check ‘power available’ lights come on, on the aircraft panel. If they do
not then supply voltage or frequency may be a problem.
* If ‘power available’ lights are on, press ground service power switch on
panel to apply power to the aircraft ground service bus bar. Note
indications.
* Press the primary power switch to apply power to the aircraft power
supply bus bars. Note indications.
 Fig. 29 ELECTRICAL POWER INDICATION

Hydraulic Ground Supplies

This could include refill connections, system selector valves etc, but we will
concentrate on the supply of external hydraulic power.

The hydraulic system may require the use of more that one external power test
rig/cart – check the AMM.

- 52 -
The test rig/cart is usually powered by an internal combustion engine and should
meet the safety requirements applicable to all these type of engines when operating in
the vicinity of aircraft.

The test rig must be fitted with the same type of pump that is fitted to the aircraft -
constant volume (2 connections, pressure and return) or constant pressure (three
connections, pressure, return and idle lines) - or as specified in the AMM. The rig
must be run at the rpm as specified on the rig instruction panel to meet the pressure
and volume flow rate requirements as required by the aircraft system/s.

Fig. 30 HYDRAULIC EXTERNAL POWER PANEL

OF THE AIRBUS AIRCRAFT

The test rig should be checked to see if it contains the correct hydraulic fluid –
normally marked on a plate fixed to the rig – if it doesn’t, get a rig that does. It is
connected to the aircraft using hoses with self-seal quick release connections. They
are sized so that the hoses cannot be cross-connected:

* For 2 hose connections (constant volume pump). Large = suction line.

Small = pressure line.
* For 3 hose connections (constant pressure pump). Large = suction line.
Medium = pressure line. Small = idling line.

Check the following when connecting/disconnecting hydraulic power:

1. Check the AMM.

2. Carry out the normal safety precautions in relation to the running of an
internal combustion engine in the vicinity of aircraft.
3. Check that the hydraulic system and all associated systems are
serviceable and ready to be tested (fluid levels, accumulator gas
pressures, completeness etc).
4. If the landing gear is to be tested the aircraft should be on jacks and
suitably trestled/shored.
5. Check flight deck selectors correspond with actual position of systems.
6. Have electrical power on.
7. Connect hydraulic hoses.
8. Start hydraulic test rig – adjust to correct rpm – allow to warm-up.

- 53 -
9. Operate clutch to engage pump – note that no services move. If they do,
either dis-engage the pump or note they are supposed to move and are
prepared for it (check AMM).
10. Check pressure gauges, low pressure warning lamps etc in the flight
deck.
11. After all testing is completed and the landing gear is locked down with
‘3
greens’ showing the clutch can be dis-engaged and the rig shut down.
12. Using a ‘C’ spanner or special tool to undo the self-seal couplings.
13. No fluid should leak, but if it does then ensure the self seal coupling
seals correctly and the leak stops, fit the blank and check the level of
the reservoir.

””””””
 - 54 -
APPENDIX – ESSAY QUESTIONS

This appendix has been added to provide the reader with some idea as to the essay
questions being asked by the CAA, and the answers. This has been thought
necessary because the areas being asked questions on are actually in other modules
(principally jet engines module 15 and airframes module 11). But because the way
the syllabus is written it has meant that the CAA can include them in module 7.

Module 7 syllabus states, amongst other things, “Types of defects and visual
inspection techniques” (BI and B2) and “Inspections following abnormal events such
as heavy landing and flight through turbulence” (B1).

The answers given here are our own and you must give your own in any CAA
answers. They are quick to pick up what are called ‘model answers’ and
memorised/copied answers come into that group.

Our answers are an answer to the question but also include information about the
question – which helps you to learn. It is most important that when you answer any
CAA question that you answer that question and not one you think it is, or should be.

Note that some of the information in the answers might be better understood if the
appropriate book is read in the module 11 or 15.

Note also that we produce an EE programme specifically written to cover the essay
questions for modules 7, 9 and10. It provides a guide as to the technique of the essay
answer and gives the student questions to be attempted. When completed they are
returned to the appropriate LBP tutor for marking and comment. The programme
also contains a list of the sort of questions asked and indications as to the answers.

The questions in this book are additional to those in our EE programme with question 1
being almost certainly for the B1 person only.

1. QUESTION. The pilot reports a smell from the flight deck air conditioning system.
Detail the possible causes and state your action to clear the aircraft for flight.
Confirm if it is a burning smell. Confirm if it is an electrical smell, an oil smell, a
hydraulic smell or a debris smell and that its actually coming from the air
conditioning ducts.

Check for any shorting of electrical parts in any part of the air conditioning system –
any part of the system up to the mixing chamber where the cold air (after the air
cycle turbine) meets the hot air from the engine/engine compressor, and carry out
any BITE checks.

Change any overheated wiring/electrical components as per the AMM.

If an engine oil smell, and air tapped from the engine carry out investigation as to
engine/s oil consumption over past few flights and any reports of engine/s over-
heating. Carry out a visual check of engine oil seals. Change engine if found
defective. If hydraulic smell check the hydraulic reservoir pressurisation system (non-
return valves in particular) and rectify as necessary.

- 55 -
If air delivered from engine driven compressor check compressor oil seals and
compressor for over-heating. Change compressor if found defective. Check engine
overheat detectors/air duct temperature detectors (recorded on aircraft fault
computer if fitted) and take appropriate action.

For heating systems that use heat exchangers using engine exhaust pipes as the heat
source and combustion heaters check heat exchangers for leaks and change if
defective. Check CO2 detectors in cabin for correct operation.

Examine combustion heaters for serviceability and correct operation and leakage.
Change if not functioning correctly.

If smell is a debris type smell check ducts for cleanliness, change all air filters,
change coalescer in water separator and check all lagging for dampness and smell.

Check cold air unit for oil leaks. Change if found.

Record all work done and certify and issue CRS.

2. QUESTION. Describe how you would check for water contamination in fuel and
what other checks would you carry out at the same time.

Checking for fuel contamination in not actually in the module 7 syllabus, though
refuelling/de-fuelling is. The CAA have asked essay questions based on fuel sampling
on both B1 and B2 examinations.

To check for water contamination proceed as follows:

1. Allow the aircraft to stand for a few hours after refuelling.

2. Ensure the aircraft is in the attitude as laid down in the AMM -
usually laterally level and longitudinally as specified.
3. Using a clean glass container (clean using alcohol isopropyl) drain
each aircraft tank in turn from its drain valve until no more water
comes out with the fuel. Use the drain valves provided and/or a purging
tool (AMM).

If unsure if water is present use a colour indicator (eg a soluble food

colouring) is added to the container which will show up the water as a
colour. Alternatively a water detector kit may be used, eg the Shell
Water Detector kit. Also a hydrometer may be used to check the specific
gravity.

Any water present may show up as suspended droplets which will make
the fuel show up as cloudy when looked at using a back-light. Free
water will show up as larger droplets or a layer of water at the bottom of
the glass. If water is found continue to drain until all water is removed.

4. If the amount drained is within normal limits as per the AMM discard
the drained liquid as laid down in the local airfield regulations.
5. Close and lock drain valve. Secure panel and record details in the
aircraft log book.

- 56 -
6. If excessive water is present carry out the following:

* Refer to the AMM and/or the aircraft manufacturer for any

specific instructions.
* Wait a further period of time and drain each tank again.
Take note if significantly more water came from one tank
more than the others. This might mean local rain water
ingress or tank water ejector failure.
* Get the fuel supplier to check the fuel supplied either in
the tanker (bowser) of from the bulk underground supply
system. Get a report from the supplier. (Tankers/fuel
supplies should be water drained at least daily). If it is a
bulk fuel supply problem then this must be rectified by the
supplier.
* Check for obvious signs where water (rain water) could get
into the aircraft tank (rare). Rectify as necessary.
* Check that the automatic sumping pump (water
ejector/ejector pump) is working. If not change.
* Check the Tech Log to see if pilot reports include any
engine problems.
* If fuel is seriously contaminated (which is rare) then the
tanks must be drained and refilled with ‘good’ fuel, the
airframe system re-primed, the engine/s system/s re-
primed and an engine run carried out.
Remember that the fuel will be drained back into the
bowser so the bulk fuel supplier must be informed why the
aircraft tanks are being drained.
 If the contamination is the bulk fuel supplier’s fault then
there will be some financial adjustment to the aircraft
operator’s fuel account.
* All work carried out on the aircraft must be recorded and
signed for in the airframe and engine log books.
* Consult the bulk fuel supplier re the disposal/treatment
of the drained fuel.

7. If bacteria contamination suspected carry out a microbe/fungus

detection check as follows:

* From the tank drain, drain a small quantity of fuel into a

clean container.
* Use a commercially available tester kit as per the AMM.
* Put a fuel sample in each of two clean glass containers (1
and 2). One container (say container 2) will have a
quantity of biocide added from the tester kit. +
* Cover and allow the two containers to stand for 48 hours.
If there is a colour change in container 2 then there is fuel
contamination.
* Check all remaining tanks. Any that show contamination
must be drained and inspected internally for
discolouration (brown or black), corrosion or any
deterioration. Any damage must be repaired as per the
AMM/SRM or the tank replaced.

- 57 -
* Check fuel system components (including filters) for
internal damage and debris blockage. Clean/replace as
necessary.
* Carry out an engine run if any components have been
replaced.
* Carry out any duplicate inspections as necessary.
* Record all work done in the aircraft/engine log book/s and
sign.

+ Some kits use detection papers.

While carrying out a water sampling test it would be obvious to also check for
other contaminants besides bacteria. If debris is found such as particles of metal,
rubber, etc then further checks are to be made, eg:

1. Check the AMM/engine manufacturers manual.

2. Check the fuel filters.
3. Check the oil filters and any magnetic plugs.
4. Depending on what is found in the filters determine if any
component (fuel tank, bearing, pump etc) is breaking up.
5. Carry out a particulate laboratory test such as a SOAP
(Spectrometric Oil Analysis Programme) test to determine
what the particles are and what component/s they came
from (up to 11 elements can be detected by these tests).
 6. Change the offending component/s.
7. Depending on the size, the amount and the source of the
debris the engine/s may have to be changed and returned
for overhaul. The system may also have to be flushed out
depending on where the particles originated from –
pumping clean fuel from the fuel tanks to an open fuel
pipe at the engine.
8. If not too severe carry out an engine run and carry special
checks for fuel/oil contamination over the next few flights.

The above answer is long and the author would not expect that this amount of
information can be written down in the time allowed in the examination, but it is
comprehensive and provides the reader with a sound background as to how fuel
contamination can be examined for.

””””””

- 58 -