DEFINITION

• Chromosomes are condensed threadlike bodies

consisting of DNA and special proteins.
• Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus-
not even under a microscope- when the cell is not
dividing.
• However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes
becomes more tightly packed during cell division and
is then visible under a microscope.
• Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.
• The complete set of chromosomes is called the diploid number, designated by the
symbol 2n.
• Some cells contain only half of the diploid number of chromosomes.
• These cells have a haploid chromosome number (n). since the diploid number in
humans is 46 and the haploid number is 23, we can represent these chromosome
number as 2n=46 and n=23.
• Body cells divide by means of mitosis.
• In Mitosis, a diploid (2n) parent cell gives rise to two daughter cells, each with a diploid
(2n) chromosome number.
• The daughter cells are identical to each other and to the parent cells
•
• In terms of chromosome number. The skin cells are 46 chromosomes.
• Meiosis is a special type of cell division, which leads in the formation of haploid (n)
gametes from a diploid (2n) parent cell.
• At the onset of puberty, a person starts producing gametes (egg cell for females and
sperm cell for males) from meiotic divisions of diploid cells within the ovaries and testes.
• CELL
• DIVISION
• “Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.”
• Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter
cells.
• In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division: a vegetative division,
whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis), and a
reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is
reduced by half to produced haploid gametes (meiosis).
• Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA
replication followed by two divisions. sister chromatids are separated in the second
division.
 • Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in
their life cycle.

• Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.

• Prokaryotes undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their genetic
material is segregated equally into two daughter cells.

• All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication.

•
Mitosis involves division of the nucleus (karyokinesis), followed by division of the cytoplasm
(cytokinesis).

• Mitosis is a continuous process.

• With the help of sophisticated techniques in cell biology, the sequence of events in mitosis can
now be observed

• KARYOKINESIS

• - organic process consisting of the division of the nucleus of a cell during mitosis or meiosis.

Prophase

When a cell is not dividing, the DNA exists as thin threads called chromatin.

The chromatin becomes highly condensed and appears as colored bodies

known as chromosomes.

Each chromosome is composed of two strands called chromatids, joined together at the center by a
centromere.

As the chromosomes become more condensed, the nucleolus and the nuclear membrane disintegrate.
Metaphase

• The double-stranded chromosomes become attached to

each spindle fiber by their centromere.

• The spindle fibers pull the chromosomes toward the center

of the cell (equator) where they line up.

• By the end of metaphase, the centromeres divide.

Anaphase

• The centromeres break apart and the chromatids are pulled apart by the
spindle fibers.

• The chromatids move away from each other and migrate toward the opposite poles
Telophase

• During this last stage of cell division, the centrioles and spindle fibers start to disappear.

• Chromosomes unwind and return to threads of chromatin

• And a new nuclear membrane forms around each mass of nuclear material.

Cytokinesis: Nuclear Division

• In animal cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by the pinching in of the plasma membrane and the
cytoplasm.

• This process of pinching in is also called formation of cytoplasmic cleavage.

• Plant cells cannot perform cytoplasmic cleavage because of their rigid cell walls.

• Instead, a cell plate forms at the middle, between the two daughter nuclei.

• New plasma membrane and cell wall later form from the cell plate.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life, each individual organism exists as the result of
reproduction.

REPRODUCTION

It is the process by which an organism produces its own kind.

Two types of Reproduction

produced by mitosis

Asexual

Reproduction

In Asexual reproduction, new organisms are produced from one parent. Offspring produced by asexual
reproduction have identical generic material (DNA) with that of the parent.

Bacteria

BINARY FISION

Most bacteria, including Salmonella and E.coli, are reproduced by binary fission

There are a number of benefits associated with reproduction through binary fission. A single bacterium
is able to reproduce in high numbers at a rapid rate

BINARY
MITOSIS
FISION

• The single DNA molecule replicates

• As the cell begins to grow and elongate, the distance

between the two DNA molecules increases.

• Once the bacterium just about doubles its original size, the
cell membrane begins to pinch inward at the center.

• Finally, a cell wall forms which separates the two DNA

molecules and divides the original cell into two identical
daughter cells.

• produced by meiosis
Sexual Reproduction

It involves the fusion of gametes or sex cells from two parents. The gamete from the male parent is
called the sperm and the gamete from the female parent is called the egg. The offspring contains
different genetic material from that of either parent.

produced by meiosis

A specialized type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half each genetically distinct
from the parent cell that gave rise to them

• EGG AND SPERM CELL

• FERTILIZED EGG-ZYGOTE
• FETUS

SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY REPRODUCING

• Many organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

It allows these organisms to produce rap

Aphids -A single aphid could produce 600 billion descendants in one season.

• Aphids thrive by the force of their numbersWhen environmental factors are favorable, asexual
reproduction is employed to exploit suitable conditions.

• When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is employed to exploit suitable
conditions.

• When food sources have been depleted these organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction.

• Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species.

• When food sources have been depleted these organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction.

• Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species.

Slime molds-

Sea Anemones
MEIOSIS

Meiosis is important in assuring genetic diversity in sexual reproduction.

STAGES

OF MEIOSIS

• Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

• Meiosis I reduces chromosomes number into haploid, thus, it is also known as reduction
division.

• Meiosis II deals with the separation of two chromatids in a chromosome. At the end of
meiosis, four haploid cells are formed.

• The different phases of each division are similar to those mitosis.

• MEIOSIS I

• Meiosis II deals with the separation of two chromatids in a chromosome. At the end of
meiosis, four haploid cells are formed.

• The different phases of each division are similar to those mitosis.

Prophase I

• Just like in mitosis, double-stranded chromosomes and spindle fibers become visible.

• The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disintegrate.

• In prophase I, something happen that does not occur in mitosis. This is the pairing of
homologous chromosomes, a process called SYNAPSIS.

• Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes that look alike. They have the same length and
centromere position.

• Synapsis produces a TETRAD (four chromatids).

Metaphase I

• The pairs of homologous chromosomes (tetrads), with their certromeres attached

to spindle fibers, independently align around the ceter of the cell.
Metaphase I

• The independent alignment of the chromosomes makes possible the different combinations of
the chromosomes in daughter cells.

Anaphase I

• The pair of homologous chromosomes in a tetrad separates from each other

and moves toward the opposite poles.

• Notice that each chromosomes is still double-stranded.

Telophase I

• The nuclear membranes and the nucleoli reform.

• Cytokinesis may or may not occur.

• Telophase I is absent in some species and metaphase II follow.

Interkinesis I

• After meiosis I, a period of growth, known as interkinesis, occurs.

• Interkinesis is similar to interphase, except that the chromosome do

not duplicate.

• This is because the chromosomes are still in their duplicated form.

• MEIOSIS lI
Prophase II

• The double-stranded chromosomes and spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.

Metaphase II

• The double-stranded chromosomes, which their centromeres attached to spindle fibers, align at
the center of the cell
Anaphase II

• The centromeres divide, and the chromatids are pulled by spindle fibers towards the opposite
poles.

• The two chromatids give rise to two daughter chromosomes.

Telophase II

• The spindle fibers disappear and the nuclear membranes and nucleoli reform.
 • Cytokinesis completes the division. At the end of the telophase II, there are four daughter cells,
each with a haploid number of chromosomes.

GAMETOGENESIS

• The process in which cells undergo meiosis to form gametes

• Meiosis is part of gametogenesis, the formation of gametes.

• Following meiosis, haploid cells undergo changes in their structure so as to form specialized
reproductive cells called gametes.

• Spermtogenesis (sperm-formation) occurs in the testes of males; while

• Oogenesis (egg-formation) occurs in the ovaries of females.

SPERMATOGENESIS

• In the testes of males are the primary spermatocytes which diploid number of chromosomes.

• Primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division and produce two haploid secondary
spermatocytes.

• Secondary spermatocytes divide and form four haploid spermatids.

• Each spermatid differentiates in a sperm.

OOGENESIS

• The ovary in females contains a number of diploid primary oocytes.

• A primary oocyte divides meiotically, forming two haploid daughter cells.

• The division is unequal because one of those cells, called the secondary oocyte , receives a
greater mass of cytoplasm.

• The other cell, which is much smaller, is called a polar body.

• The polar body may disintegrate or divide again.

• The secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II and produces two cells---one ootid and another
polar body.

• The ootid differentiates and forms the ovum (egg) while the three polar bodies disintegrate.

• After oogenesis, only one egg cell is produced.

• Is important in assuring genetic diversity in sexual reproduction?

• b. Cell Cycle c. Mitosis d. Gametogenesis

• 2.

• b. Oogenesis c. Spermatogenesis d. Meiosis

• 3. Just like mitosis ______ has 5 phases

• a. Spermatogenesis c. Cytokinesis d. Prophase

• 4. Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions

• a. MY & MZ b. MA & MB d. M+ & M-

• 5. After oogenesis, only ____ egg cell is produced

• b. 2 c. 3 d. 4