B.Sc.

Physics
Complete Notes of
ELECTRONICS
SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
PN JUNCTION DIODE
TRANSISTOR
NPN & PNP TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
DC LOAD LINE
TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
LOGIC GATES
MULTIVIBRATORS
TRANSISTOR AS AN OSCILLATOR

B.Sc. Physics ELECTRONICS in Past Papers of University of Sargodha

B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2017

B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2016
B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2015
B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2014
B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2013
B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2012
B Sc Physics Electronics

ELECTRONICS

Energy Bands Theory in Solids

Energy levels
The angular momentum of an electrons is always quantized and is integral multiple of
. Thus the electrons can have certain orbital radii. The electrons in these orbits have only a
certain values of energy. These certain values of energy of electrons in an atom are called the
energy levels of the atom.
The energy levels of an isolated single atom are will defined usually represented by
series of horizontal lines. When the two identical atoms are close to each other, their
electrons move under the influence electromagnetic fields of two atoms. As the result, each
energy level split into two levels, one higher and other lower than the corresponding level of
the isolated atom.
Energy Band
When the numbers of atoms are brought together, as in a crystal, they interact with
one another. As the result, each energy level splits up into several sub-levels. A group of such
energy sub-levels are called an energy band.
The number of energy sub-levels in a band is equal to the number of atoms in a
crystal. The energy band in a crystal corresponds to the energy level in an atom. And an
electron in a crystal can have an energy that falls within one of these bands.
Forbidden Bands
The energy bands are separated by gaps in which there is no energy level. Such
energy gaps are called forbidden bands. The electron may jump from one energy band to
another by acquiring energy equal to the energy of forbidden energy gap.
Valence Bands
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valance electrons.
Therefore, the energy band occupied by valance electrons is called the valance band. The
valance band may be either completely filled or partially filled with the electrons but can
never be empty.
Conduction Band
The energy band next to the valance band is called the conduction band. The valance and
conduction bands are separated by forbidden energy gaps. The conduction band may be

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empty or partially filled. The electrons in the conduction band can drift freely in the materials
and are called free or conduction electrons.
The width of forbidden energy gap between valance and conduction band decide
whether a material is a conductor, insulator or a semiconductor.
Distinction between Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors on the
basis of Band Theory of Solids
Conductors
All metals are good conductors of electricity and their
resistivity is of the order of . In case of conductors,
there is no forbidden energy gap between the valance and the
conduction band. The valance band and conduction band are
partially filled at room temperature. So the electrons can easily
jump from valance band to the conduction band. Due to this
reason, the current can easily pass through conductors.
Insulators
The insulators have the very large value of resistivity which is of
the order of . In case of insulators, the valance band is
completely filled and the conduction band is empty. The energy gap
between the valance and conduction band is very large. Thus, no electron
can jump from valence band to conduction band. As there are no free
electrons in insulator, hence no current can pass through insulators.
Semiconductors
The materials which have intermediate values of resistivity (of the
order of ) called semiconductor materials. The energy gap
between the valance and conduction band is very small.
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and
insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current. A semiconductor in
its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator.
The most common single-element semiconductors are silicon,germanium,
and carbon. Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are also
commonly used.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
A pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic semiconductor. The most common
examples of intrinsic semiconducting materials are silicon. Each atom of silicon has four
valance electrons. Moreover each atom of silicon is surrounded by four
atoms.
A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares an
electron with each of its four neighbors to form covalent bond. This
effectively creates eight shared valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability.

The semiconducting materials have negative temperature coefficient of resistivity. At

low temperatures, the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty. Thus the semiconducting materials behave like insulator at low temperatures.
At comparatively higher temperature, the electrons in valance band acquire sufficient
energy to jump in conduction band. As the temperature increases, the probability of the
electrons to jump from valance to conduction band increases. Therefore, the conductivity of
semiconductors increases with increase in temperature.
At absolute zero, the intrinsic semiconducting materials behaves like insulators
because they have no free electrons. But as the temperature of increases, the thermal agitation
in the atoms breaks some covelent bonds which result in formation of electron hole pairs.
The electrons jump from valance band to conduction band by absorbing the thermal energy.
As the result, the conductivity of semiconductor increases with increase in temperature.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
The semiconductors doped with some impurity are called extrinsic semiconductors.
The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be drastically increased by the controlled
addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductive material. This process, called
doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons or holes). The two categories of
impurities are n-type and p-type.
N-Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent
impurity atoms e.g., arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb) are added.
Each pentavalent atom (antimony, in this case) forms covalent bonds with four adjacent
silicon atoms. Four of the antimony atom's valence
electrons are used to form the covalent bonds with
silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra
electron becomes a conduction electron because it is
not attached to any atom.
Because the pentavalent atom gives up an
electron, it is often called a donor atom. The number
of conduction electrons can be carefully controlled by the number of impurity atoms added to
the silicon.
Majority and Minority Carriers in N-Type Semiconductor
In an n-type semiconducting material, most of the current carriers are electrons. So,
the electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type material. Although the majority of
current carriers in n-type material are electrons, there are also a few holes that are created
when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. Holes in an n-type material are called
minority carriers.
P-Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon,
trivalent impurity atoms e.g., boron (B), indium (In), and
gallium (Ga) are added. All three of the boron atom's valence
electrons are used in the covalent bonds; and, since four
electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is
added. Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is
often referred to as an acceptor atom. The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the
number of trivalent impurity atoms added to the silicon.
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Majority and Minority Carriers in P-Type Semiconductor

In a p-type semiconducting material, most of the current carriers are holes. Holes can
be thought of as positive charges because the absence of an electron leaves a net positive
charge on the atom. The holes are the majority carriers in p-type material. Although the
majority of current carriers in p-type material are holes, there are also a few free electrons
that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. Electrons in p-type material
are the minority carriers.
PN-Junction
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that a part is n-type and the other part is
p-type, then the boundary between the p-type and n-type is called PN-junction.
The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a
few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers). The n region has many free
electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated
holes (minority carriers).
Formation of the Depletion Region
When a p-type semiconductor is brought close an n-type to form a PN-junction, then the free
electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the junction into the
p-type region where they combine with holes near the junction, as shown in figure below:

When the PN-junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the
junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine. This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two
layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region.
The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the PN-junction is depleted
of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction. After the initial

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surge of free electrons across the PN-junction, the depletion region has expanded to a point
where equilibrium is established and there is no further diffusion of electrons across the
junction. In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the further movement of
electrons across the junction.
Barrier Potential
In the depletion region there are many positive charges and many negative charges on
opposite sides of the PN-junction. The forces between the opposite charges form a "field of
forces" called an electric field. This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n
region, and energy must be expended to move an electron through the electric field. That is,
external energy must be applied to get the electrons to move across the barrier of the electric
field in the depletion region.
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the amount
of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field. This potential difference is
called the barrier potential and is expressed in volts. The typical barrier potential is
approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25°C.
Energy Diagrams of the PN-Junction and Depletion Region
The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at slightly lower energy
levels than the valence and conduction bands in a p-type material. This is due to differences
in the atomic characteristics of the pentavalent and the trivalent impurity atoms. The valence
and conduction bands in the n region are at lower energy levels than those in the p region, but
there is a significant amount of overlapping.
The free electrons in the n region that occupy the upper part of the conduction band in
terms of their energy can easily diffuse across the junction and temporarily become free
electrons in the lower part of the p-region conduction band. After crossing the junction, the
electrons quickly lose energy and fall into the holes in the p-region valence band as indicated
in figure below:

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As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form and the energy level of
the n-region conduction band decreases. The decrease in the energy level of the conduction
band in the n region is due to the loss of the higher-energy electrons that have diffused across
the junction to the p region. Soon, there are no electrons left in the n-region conduction band
with enough energy to get across the junction to the p-region conduction band. At this point,
the junction is at equilibrium; and the depletion region is complete because diffusion has
ceased. There is an energy gradiant across the depletion region which acts as an "energy hill"
that an n-region electron must climb to get to the p region.
Notice that as the energy level of the n-region conduction band has shifted downward,
the energy level of the valence band has also shifted downward. It still takes the same amount
of energy for a valence electron to become a free electron. In other words, the energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction band remains the same.
Biasing
Application of an external voltage to the PN-junction is called biasing. There are two
types of biasing:
Forward Biasing
Reverse Biasing
Forward Biasing
A junction diode is said to be forward biased if its P-type region is connected to the
positive terminal and N-type region is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

The emf of the battery should be greater than the barrier potential of the junction.
Under such conditions, the electrons from N-type region and the holes from P-type region are
pushed towards the junction and neutralize the positive and negative ions in depletion region.
So the width of depletion region is decreased during forward biasing.
When the depletion region is decreased, then the electrons from N-type moves
towards P-type and holes from P-type move towards N-type. This results in flow of current
across the junction. Hence the junction diode is conductive when it is forward biased.
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Reverse Biasing
A junction diode is said to be reversed biased, if its P-type region in connected with the
negative terminal and N-type region with positive terminal of the battery.

In reverse biasing, the negative terminal attracts the holes and the positive terminal
attracts the electrons away from the junction, so that the depletion region is widened and the
barrier potential increases with increase in
applied voltage. With increase of barrier
potential there is no possibility of majority
charge carriers to flow across the junction.
Hence a junction diode does not conduct when
it is reversed biased.
However a very small current (of the order of a few micro-amperes) flow in the
circuit due to minority charge carriers, which is called a reverse current.
Characteristics of a PN-Junction
A graph between current and voltage applied across the PN-junction is called characteristics
of PN-junction.
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias
When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This current is
called the forward current and is designated IF as the forward-bias voltage is increased
positively from 0 V. The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value that will not
overheat the diode and cause damage.
With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. As the forward-bias voltage is
gradually increased, the forward current and the voltage across the diode gradually increase.
When the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode
reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward current begins to increase
rapidly.

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With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. As the forward-bias voltage is
gradually increased, the forward current and the voltage across the diode gradually increase.
When the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode
reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward current begins to increase
rapidly.
It can be seen from the curve that the forward
current IF is very small until the forward voltage VF
the barrier potential, of about 0.7 volts for silicon. As
the forward voltage exceeds the value of barrier
potential, called knee voltage, the current starts to
increase rapidly. Beyond the knee of the forward
characteristic, IF increases almost linearly with
increase in VF.
V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode,
there is only an extremely small reverse current (IR)
through the PN-junction. With 0 V across the diode. there
is no reverse current. As you gradually increase the
reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small reverse current
and the voltage across the diode increases. When the
applied bias voltage is increased to a value where the

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reverse voltage across the diode (VR) reaches the breakdown value (VBR), the reverse current
begins to increase rapidly.
As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very
rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases very little above VBR. Breakdown, with
exceptions, is not a normal mode of operation for most PN-junction devices.
At breakdown voltage the covalent bonds of the crystal start breaking and charge
carriers produced which result in heavy flow of reverse current through diode.
Rectification
The conversion of alternating current into direct current is known as rectification. A
PN-junction diode can conduct current only when it is forward biased and a very weak
current flow across PN-junction when it is reversed biased. This action of junction enables us
to use it as a rectifier. Rectifiers may be placed into following two categories:
i) Half wave rectification
ii) Full wave rectification
Half Wave Rectification
A half-wave rectifier allow current through the load only during one-half of the cycle.
A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor RL forming a half-wave rectifier.
When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and
conducts current through the load resistor. The current produces an output voltage across the
load RL which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage as shown in
figure below:

When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the diode is
reverse-biased. There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V, as shown in
figure below:

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The net result is that only the positive ha]f-cycles of the ac input voltage appear
across the load. Since the output does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage with a
certain frequency as shown in the figure below:

Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage

The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value you would
measure on a de voltmeter. Mathematically, it is
determined by finding the area under the curve
over a full cycle, as illustrated in the figure below,
then dividing by 2 , the number of radians in a
full cycle.

∫ | |

[ ] [ ]

Note that is the instantaneous AC voltage.

Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output
In the previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal. When the practical diode
model is used with the barrier potential of 0.7 V taken into account, this is what happens.
During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential before
the diode becomes forward-biased. This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is
0.7 V less than the peak value of the input, as shown in figure below:

The expression for the peak output voltage is

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the load during
the entire 360˚ of the input cycle.
The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to the
secondary of a center-tapped transformer, as shown in figure below. The input voltage is
coupled through the transformer to the center-tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary
voltage appears between the center tap and each end of the secondary winding as shown.

For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the secondary voltages
are as shown in Figure (a). This condition forward-biases diode D1 and reverse-biases diode
D2. The current path is through D1 and the load resistor RL.

For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage polarities on the secondary
are as shown in Figure (b). This condition reverse-biases D1 and forward-biases D2. The
current path is through D2 and RL as indicated. Because the output current during both the
positive and negative
portions of the input
cycle is in the same
direction through the
load, the output
voltage developed
across the load resistor
is a full-wave rectified dc voltage.
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The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown in Figure 2-20_ When the
input cycle is positive as in part (a), diodes Dl and D2 are forward-biased and conduct current
in the direction shown. A voltage is developed across RL that looks like the positive half of
the input cycle. During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.

When the input cycle is negative as in Figure (b), diodes D3 and D4 are forward-biased and
conduct current in the same direction through RL as
during the positive half-cycle. During the negative half-
cycle, Dl and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave
rectified output voltage appears across RL as a result of
this action.
Transistor
The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor
regions separated by two pn junctions. The three regions are called emitter, base, and
collector. One type consists of two n regions separated by a p region (npn), and the other type
consists of two p regions separated by an n region (pnp). The term bipolar refers to the use of
both holes and electrons as carriers in the transistor structure.
The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-
emitter junction. The pn junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the
base-collector junction. The base region is lightly doped and very thin compared to the

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heavily doped emitter and the moderately doped collector regions. The schematic symbols for
the npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors is shown in the figure:

Transistor biasing
For the normal operation of a transistor, its emitter base junction is always forward
biased and collector base junction is always reversed biased.
To illustrate transistor action, let's examine
what happens inside the npn transistor. The forward
bias from base to emitter narrows the BE depletion
region, and the reverse bias from base to collector
widens the BC depletion region. The heavily doped n
type emitter region is teeming with conduction-band
(free) electrons that easily diffuse through the
forward-biased BE junction into the p-type base
region. The base region is lightly doped and very thin
so that it has a limited number of holes. Thus, only a small percentage of all the electrons
flowing through the BE junction can combine with the available holes in the base. These
relatively few recombined electrons flow out of the base lead as valence electrons, forming
the small base electron current.
Most of the electrons flowing from the emitter into the thin, lightly doped base region
do not recombine but diffuse into the BC depletion region. Once in this region they are pulled
through the reverse-biased BC junction by the electric field set up by the force of attraction
between the positive and negative ions. The electrons now move through the collector region,
out through the collector lead, and into the positive terminal of the collector voltage source.

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Transistor Currents
The arrow on the emitter of the transistor symbols points in the direction of
conventional current.
This diagrams shows that the emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector current
(IC) and the base current (IB), expressed as follows:
IE = IC + IB
Transistor Parameters
Consider a transistor is connected to dc bias voltages for both npn and pnp types. V BB
forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and Vcc reverse-biases the base-collector junction.
DC Beta ( )
The ratio of the dc collector
current (IC) to the dc base current
(lB) is the dc beta ( ), which is
the dc current gain of a transistor.
Typical values of lies in the

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range of 50 to 400.

DC Alpha ( )
The ratio of the dc collector current ( ) to the dc emitter current ( ) is the dc alpha.
Typically, values of range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater, but is always less than 1.

Transistor in a Circuit
Transistor has three terminals:
(i) Emitter (ii) Base (iii) Collecor
When we put the transistor in a circuit, one terminal acts as input terminal and the other as
output terminal. The third terminal acts as a common terminal to both input and output
circuits. Any one of the three terminals can be made common. So a transistor con be
connected in a circuit in three ways.
(i) Common Base Configuration
(ii) Common Emitter Configuration
(iii) Common Collector Configuration
Common Emitter Configuration
Figure shows the common emitter configuration of pnp transistor. It is called common
emitter configuration because emitter is common to both input and output circuits. Two sets
of curves are required to completely describe the behavior of CE configuration. One set of
curves are called input characteristics and the other set is called output characteristics.
Input Characteristics
The input characteristics show a relationship between input current IB and input
voltage VBE for different values of output voltage VCE. The set of curves obtained from input
characteristics is called base curves.
Base Curves
These are the curves obtained by plotting IB
against VBE with VCE as parameter as shown in the
figure. The characteristics are similar to that of a
forward biased diode. This is because of the reason
that base emitter region is forward biased. We
obtain two hybrid parameters or transistor constants
from the input characteristics.
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Input Resistance
It is the ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage ( ) to the change in base
current ( ) at constant . i.e.,

( )

Voltage Gain
It is the ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage ( ) to the change in base-
emitter voltage ( ) at the constant values of IB.

Voltage Gain = ( )

Output Characteristics
The output characteristics show a relation between the output current (IC) and the
output voltage ( ) for the different values of input current IB. the set of curves obtained
from input characteristics are called
collector curves.
Collector Curves
These are the curves obtained by
plotting against with used as
parameter. These curves shows
 increases rapidly with increase in
 These curves also show that for a fixed
values of , increases with increase
in .
The hybrid parameters obtained from output
characteristics are
Output Resistance
It is the ratio of change in collector-
emitter voltage to the change in collector
current at constant .

( )

Current Gain or Current Amplification Factor

The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current at constant . i.e.,

( )

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Relation Between and

is the ratio of collector current and emitter current . i.e.,

------------- (1)

is the current amplification factor for CE configuration, which is described as:

------------- (2)

Now as

Putting values in (2), we get:

Dividing the numerator and denominator by

⁄

This is the relation between and .

DC Load Line
It is the line on the output characteristics of a transistor circuit which gives the values
of IC and VCE when no signal is applied. Consider an npn transistor used as a common emitter
amplifier as shown in the figure below:

From the output circuit, we have:

------------ (1)

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This is the equation of dc load

line in VCE - IC plane. The dc load line
can be plotted the two end points on the
straight line.
To get the 1st end point on the IC axis,
we put VCE = 0 in equation (1). So

To get the 2nd end point on axis, we put in equation (1).

By joining the both end points, dc load line is obtained.

With the construction of dc load line on the output characteristics, we get the
complete information about the output circuit of transistor amplifier in the zero signal
condition.
Operating Point
The zero signal values of and are called the operating points. It is also called Q
point or quiescent point. It is the point where the load line intersects the collector curve for a
given base current. It is usually selected at the middle of the load line.
Cut Off Region
If the signal voltage is made negative then the base current decreases and point Q
moves downward along the load line. If the signal voltage is made very much negative, such
that the base current , then the transistor is said to be in cut off region.
So the point where the load line intersects curve is called the cut off point.
Saturation region
If the signal voltage is made positive then the base current increase and point Q
moves upward along the load line. If the signal voltage is made very much positive such that
, then the transistor is said to be in saturation region. So point where the
load line intersects the curve is called the saturation point.
Active region
The region between the cut off and saturation region is called active region. A
transistor is normally operated in active region.

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Transistor as an Amplifier
Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical
signal. In majority of the electronic circuits, transistors are basically used as amplifiers. An
amplifier is thus the building block of every complex electronic circuit.
Consider an npn transistor in common
emitter mode. The common emitter mode is
widely used, since it provides much greater power
gain as compare to common base or common
collector mode.
The input signal is applied between the
emitter-base junction and output is taken across
the load connected in the collector circuit. The
common emitter transistor as an amplifier is
shown in the figure:
DC Analysis
The battery forward biases the base
emitter junction and reverse biases the collector base junction. and are the input
and output voltages respectively. The base current current flowing through the input circuit
is given by the relation:

Where is the base emitter resistance of the transistor.

The transistor amplifies the base current times. So the current passes through the output
circuit is given by the expression:

The output voltage is determined by the applying the Kirchhoff Voltage Rule on the
output loop:

AC Analysis
When small signal voltage is applied at the input, the input voltage changes from
to . This causes a little changes in base from to due to which the
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collector current changes from to . As the collector current changes, the voltage
drop across i.e., also changes due to which the output voltage changes by .
Substituting the changed values in equation (1), we get:

( )

Subtracting equation (1) and (2), we get:

( )

Where is the voltage gain.

The factor is of the order of hundred, so the input signal is amplified. The negative sign

shows that there is a phase shift of between the input and output signals.
Example
Suppose in a common emitter circuit, there is a load resistance RC = 5 kΩ. Suppose
the change of 0.1 V in the signal voltage produces a change of 1 mA in emitter current. The
same change of current takes place in collector current i.e., 1 mA. This collector current
through RC produces a voltage = .
Thus a change of 0.1 V in the input signal has produced a change of in the output
signal. So the transistor has raised the voltage from to i.e., the voltage amplification

in this case is .

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Digital Systems

A system which deals with quantities and variables having two discrete values or
states are called is called digital system. In these circuits, the input and output can have any
one of the two values “1” or “0”. Following are the examples of such quantities:
 A switch can either open or closed.
 The answer of a question can be either yes or no.
 A certain statement can be either true or false.
 A bulb can be either on or off.
In all these situations, one of the states is represented by “1” and the other state by “0”.
 1 represents:
i. ON circuit
ii. High voltage
iii. True statement
 0 represents:
i. OFF circuit
ii. Low voltage
iii. False statement
Logic gates solve problems by using a special algebra, known as “Boolean Algebra”.
Boolean algebra is based upon three basic operations namely:
i. AND operation
ii. OR operation
iii. NOT operation
Logic Gates
The electronic circuits which implement the various logic operations are known as
logic gates. There are three basic types of logic gates:
i. AND Gate
ii. OR Gate
iii. NOT Gate
OR Gate
OR gate implements the logic of OR operation. It
has two or more inputs and a single output. The symbolic
representation of an OR gate is shown in the figure.
The output of the OR gate has a value “0” when

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

both of its inputs A and B is at 0. For all other operations of inputs [ ], the
output is “1”. It is also called “Any or All Gate”. Thus it
Truth Table of OR Operation
implements the truth table of OR operation. The
A B Output
mathematical notation of OR operation is:
0 0 0
0 1 1
Electronic Circuit Diagram of OR Gate
1 0 1
 If voltages A and B both are at 0, no current will flow
1 1 1
through output resistance and hence C will be at 0
potential. Thus if , then .
 If a positive voltage (say +5 V) is given at
A, then diode will be forward biased
and will conduct, so current will flow
through output resistance . Hence C will
be at same positive potential. Thus if
, then .
 Similarly if a positive voltage (say +5 V) is
given at B, then diode will be forward
biased and will conduct, so current will
flow through output resistance . Hence C will be at same positive potential. Thus if
, then .
 If a positive voltage (say +5 V) is applied both at A and B, then diode and will
be forward biased and will conduct, so current will flow through output resistance .
Hence C will be at same positive potential. Thus if , then .
AND Gate
AND gate implements the logic of AND
operation. It has two or more inputs and a
single output. The symbolic representation of
an AND gate is shown in the figure.
The output of the AND gate has a value
“1” when all inputs are “1” and “0” for all other
combinations of inputs. This gate is also called “All or Nothing Gate”. Thus it implements
the truth table of AND operation. The mathematical notation of OR operation is:

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Electronic Circuit Diagram of AND Gate

 If the potential at A and B are “0”, then both diodes Truth Table of AND Operation
(forward biased) will conduct and current will flow A B Output
through diodes and hence all potential will drop at . 0 0 0
Therefore potential at C will be “0”. Thus if , 0 1 0
then . 1 0 0

 If A is given a positive potential (equal to +VCC) and no 1 1 1

potential is applied at B , then diode will be reversed biased but diode will be
forward biased. Thus diode will conduct
and current will flow through it and hence all
potential will drop at . Therefore potential at
C will be “0”. Thus if , then
.
 If B is given a positive potential (equal to
+VCC) and no potential is applied at A, then
diode will be reversed biased but diode will be forward biased. Thus diode
will conduct and current will flow through it and hence all potential will drop at .
Therefore potential at C will be “0”. Thus if , then .
 If the positive voltage (equal to +VCC) is given to both A and B simultaneously, then
both diodes will be reversed biased and will not conduct. Thus no current will flow
through diode and hence potential drop at is “0” and as the result the potential at C
will become equal to +VCC. Thus if , then .
NOT Gate

It performs the operation of inversion or

complementation. That is why it is also known as
inverter. It changes a logic level to its opposite level,
i.e., it changes 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The symbolic
representation of NOT gate is shown in the figure. The Boolean equation Truth Table of
corresponding to NOT operation is described as: NOT Operation
Input Output
̅
0 1
1 0

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Electronic Circuit Diagram of NOT Gate

A simple electronic circuit working as NOT gate consist of a
npn-transistor in common emitter configuration is shown in the
figure.
 If the base of the transistor is at “0” potential, charge carriers
will not move from emitter to base. So collector current in load
resistance will also be “0”. So in this case the transistor will
not conduct and potential at B will be equal to i.e., if
then .
 If the positive voltage is given at A, the transistor will conduct. As the result the collector
current will flow through the load resistance . Now whole of will fall across
and potential at B will be nearly equal to “0”. Thus if then .
NOR Gate
If a NOT Gate is connected at the output of
an OR gate, then the combination acts as NOR
Gate i.e., in NOR gate the output of the OR Gate is
inverted. The symbolic representation of a NOR
gate is shown in the figure. The output of the
NOR gate is “1” when both inputs A and B are Truth Table of NOR Operation

“0”. And the output is “0” for all other Input Output
A B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
combinations of inputs. Its Boolean equation is:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
Electronic Circuit Diagram of NOR Gate
1 0 1 0
 If no voltage is applied at A and B, then none
1 1 1 0
of the two transistors will conduct. As a
result, no current will flow through . Hence
the potential at C will be equal to i.e., if
the .
 If positive voltage is given at the base of one or
both transistors, then one or both of them will
conduct. So current flow in , and potential at
C will be zero. Thus for all inputs
, the output .

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

NOR Gate as a Universal Gate

NOR gate is called universal gate because a NOR gate or combinations of NOR gates
can be used as OR gate, AND gate and NOT gate.
As NOT Gate
If two inputs of NOR gate are joined
together, then it acts as NOT-gate. Its symbolic
representation is shown in the figure.
As OR Gate
If a NOT gate (made of NOR gate) is connected at the output of a NOR gate, then this
combination acts as a OR gate.

As AND Gate

If the input are inverted by a NOT gate (made of NOR-gate) before they are fed to a
NOR gate, then the combination will act as AND-gate.

Input Output
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
A B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ ̅
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

NAND Gate
If a NOT Gate is connected at the output of an
AND gate, then the combination acts as NAND Gate
i.e., in NAND gate the output of the AND Gate is
inverted. The symbolic representation of a NAND gate
is shown in the figure. The output of the
Truth Table of NAND Operation
NAND gate is “0” when both inputs A and B
Input Output
are “1”. And the output is “1” for all other ̅̅̅̅̅
A B
combinations of inputs. Its Boolean equation
0 0 0 1
is: 0 1 0 0
̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1 0 0 0
Electronic Circuit Diagram of NAND Gate 1 1 1 0
 For inputs { },
any one or both diodes will conduct (forward biased). So in all these cases, current will
flow through R and potential at N will be “0”.
Since N is connected to the base of the
transistor, potential at the base of transistor will
be “0”. So transistor will not conduct. No
current will flow in and hence the potential
at C will be nearly equal to i.e., for inputs
{ } the output .
 if positive voltage equal to is given to
both A and B, none of the two diodes will conduct and potential at N will also be equal to
. Now the transistor will conduct and potential at C will become “0” i.e., for
, the output .
Thus this electronic circuit verifies the truth table of NAND gate.
NAND Gate as a Universal Gate
NAND gate is called universal gate because a NAND gate or combinations of NAND
gates can be used as OR gate, AND gate and NOT gate.
As NOT Gate
If two inputs of NAND gate are joined
together, then it acts as NOT-gate. Its
symbolic representation is shown in the figure.

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

As AND Gate
If a NOT gate (made of NAND gate) is connected at the output of a NAND gate, then
this combination acts as a AND gate.

As AND Gate

If the input are inverted by a NOT gate (made of NAND-gate) before they are fed to a
NAND gate, then the combination will act as OR-gate.

Input Output
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
A B ̅̅̅̅̅
̅ ̅
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1

Exclusive OR Gate (XOR Gate)

This gate has two inputs A, B and one output C. the output of XOR gate is “0” when
both inputs are same i.e., { } and the output is “1” when the inputs are
different. The symolic representation of XOR
gate is shown in the figure.
Its Boolean equation is:
̅ ̅

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

The circuit which acts as XOR gate consist of combinations of gates as shown in the figure:

Truth Table of XOR Operation

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

In XOR gate, A and ̅ (Complement of B) are applied to the inputs 1st AND gate and
2nd AND gate is gets the inputs ̅ (Complement of A) and B as shown in the figure. The
outputs from two AND gates are fed to OR gates. This circuit verifies the truth table of XOR
operation.

Exclusive NOR Gate (XNOR Gate)

if an inverter is connected in the output
of and XOR gate, then the combination is
called XNOR gate. It has two inputs A, B and
one output C. The output of XOR gate is “1”
when both inputs are same i.e.,
{ } and the output is “0”
when the inputs are different. The symolic representation of XOR gate is shown in the figure.
Its Boolean equation is:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ ̅
The circuit which acts as XOR gate consist of combinations of gates as shown in the figure:
Truth Table of XOR Operation
A B Output
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

In XNOR gate, A and ̅ (Complement of B) are applied to the inputs 1st AND gate
and 2nd AND gate is gets the inputs ̅ (Complement of A) and B as shown in the figure. The
outputs from two AND gates are fed to NOR gates. This circuit verifies the truth table of
XOR operation.
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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Multivibrators
Multivibrators are originally two stage amplifier circuits with positive feedback from
the output of one to the input of the other. Multivibrators are basically of three types:
 Astable Multivibrator
 Bistable Multivibrator
 Monostable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrator
The Astable Multivibrator has no stable state but two Quasi-stable states and keeps
oscillating between them without any external excitation. It has two available outputs which
are out of phase.
Astable Multivibrator consists of two CE amplifiers, each providing feed back to
other. The feedback is positive because each transistor produce a phase shift of 1800 so total
phase shift produced by the two
transistors will be 3600 or 00. Since the
feedback is very strong, therefore the
transistors are either driven to
saturation or to cut off.
Circuit Operation
When is switched on, one of
two transistors will conduct faster than
the other because of the characteristics
of no two transistors are exactly alike. Let’s suppose that the transistor starts conducting
earlier than . Thus is rapidly driven to the saturation and to cut-off. Afterwards, the
events occur in following sequence:
 Since is in saturation, whole of will drop at and the point A will be at zero
potential. Since the base of is connected to A, potential at the base of is zero, so
will be cut-off.
 Since is cut-off, no current will flow in and potential at B will be maximum
( ). This potential is given to the base of , which keeps in saturation. Thus
conduction of keeps cut-off and cut-off state of keeps in saturation.
 Since A is at zero potential, the capacitor will begin to charge through . When
the voltage across rises sufficiently (about 0.7 V), it forward biases base emitter
junction of . So begins to conduct and attains saturation very soon.

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B Sc Physics Electronics

 When begins to conduct in saturation, potential at B falls to zero. As a result,

potential at base of becomes zero. So goes to cut-off position.
 As soon as is cut-off, potential at A rises to maximum value ( ). As it is
connected to the base of , it keeps conducting in saturation.
 Since potential at B is now zero, capacitor will begin to charge through . After
some time, the voltage across rises to such a value that it provides sufficient
potential to the base of for forward biased of base-emitter junction. So starts
conducting and is cut-off.
Thus one-cycle completed which repeats itself periodically without any external excitation.
Monostable Multivibrator
In Monostable Multivibrator,
there are two transistors in common
emitter configuration. Each transistor
provides the positive feedback to the
base of the other. Also, the base of the
is kept at small negative potential by
battery . Also, an external signal of
positive voltage may also be given to the
base of through . If is called
Trigger Pulse.
Working
(a) When the Trigger Pulse is not Applied
 provides collector voltage to both and . But the base voltage is applied only
to , so it conducts at saturation.
 and reverse biases the base-emitter junction of so it keeps at cut-off. So
initially, is cut-off and is conducting in saturation state. It is the stable state
until a trigger pulse is applied.
(b) When Trigger Pulse is Applied
 If the positive voltage is applied at the base of , the base of will become
positive. So will start conducting and will attain saturation soon. The trigger pulse
must be of sufficient amplitude to over ride the negative voltage .

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B Sc Physics Electronics

 As conducts in saturation, the potential at A and hence at base of will become

“0”. Therefore, will go cut-off state and potential at B will rise to . Hence
potential at the base of will remain positive as long as is cut-off.
 Since the potential at A is zero, capacitor will begin to charge through . So the
potential at the base of will begin to rise. As soon as potential at base of attains
required minimum value, begins to conduct and potential at B falls to zero. As a
result, potential at base of is become negative and it goes to cut-off state which is a
stable state.
Bistable Multivibrator (Flip Flop Multivibrator)
It has two absolutely stable states and can remain in any one of the two states as long
as power is supplied to it. One state changes to the other state only when it receives a trigger
pulse from outside. It remains stable in its state. Also it goes back to its original state only
when it receives another trigger pulse at the base of the other transistor.
Working
 If is conducting, then point
A is at zero potential. Also,
makes the potential of
base of negative. Hence
will remain in cut-off position.
Therefore, potential at B is
equal to which provides
the sufficient positive voltage
to the base of and keeps it in saturation i.e., is on and is off. It is a stable
state.
 If a positive trigger pulse is applied at the base of , it begins to conduct and soon
saturation is attained. As a result, potential at B falls to zero and so potential at the
base of becomes negative due to . Therefore is cut-off. Moreover, the
potential at A becomes equal to which provides the positive voltage at the base
of and keeps it conducting in saturation. Now is off and is on. It is another
stable state.

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Oscillator
An oscillator is a device which is used to produce sine, square or triangular waves of
constant amplitude.
Electromagnetic Oscillations in LC Circuit
Consider an oscillating circuit which consists of a
capacitor and an inductor. If the capacitor is initially charged
and the switch is then closed, we find that both the current in
the circuit and the charge on the capacitor oscillate between
maximum positive and negative values. If the resistance of the circuit is zero, no energy is
transformed to internal energy. In the following analysis, we
neglect the resistance in the circuit. We also assume an
idealized situation in which energy is not radiated away from
the circuit.
When the capacitor is fully charged, the energy in
the circuit is stored in the electric field of the capacitor and is
equal to

At this time, the current in the circuit is zero, and

therefore no energy is stored in the inductor.

As the switch is closed, the capacitor begins to discharge

and the energy stored in its electric field decreases. The
discharge of the capacitor represents a current in the circuit,
and hence some energy is now stored in the magnetic field of
the inductor. Thus, energy is transferred from the electric
field of the capacitor to the magnetic field of the inductor.
When the capacitor is fully discharged, it stores no energy. At
this time, the current reaches its maximum value, and all of
the energy is stored in the inductor.
,
The current continues in the same direction,
decreasing in magnitude, with the capacitor eventually becoming fully charged again but with
the polarity of its plates now opposite the initial polarity. This is followed by another
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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

discharge until the circuit returns to its original state of

maximum charge . The energy continues to
oscillate between inductor and capacitor. When the
energy stored in the capacitor is maximum, the energy
stored in inductor is minimum and vice versa. But the
total energy remains constant.
As the energy in such circuit is used to oscillate
between capacitor and inductor, therefore, it is also
called ‘Oscillating Circuit’.
Feedback
The process of injection a fraction of output energy to the input is called feedback.
When the feedback energy (current or voltage) is in phase with input signal, it is called
positive feedback.
Positive Feedback Amplifier Oscillator
A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback acts as an oscillator i.e., it can
produce oscillation without any external signal (voltage).

Figure shows a transistor amplifier with positive feedback. A positive feedback amplifier is
that which produces a feedback voltage that is in phase with the original input signal.
A phase shift of 1800 is produced by amplifier and a further phase shift of 1800 is
produced by the feedback network. Hence the signal is shifted by 3600 and fed to the input
i.e., the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal.
This feedback signal is amplified by the amplifier. A portion of the output signal will
go to the feedback network again, which send it back to input. So the amplifier receives
another input cycle and another output cycle is produced. This process will continue and in
this way the amplifier produces oscillations with no external source.

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Essentials of Transistor Oscillator

The essential components of transistor oscillators are:
i. Tank Circuit
It consists of inductor and a capacitor connected in parallel. The frequency of
oscillations in the circuit depends upon the
values of inductance L of inductor and
capacitance C of capacitor.
ii. Transistor Amplifier
The oscillations of the tank circuit
are applied to the input of the transistor
amplifier. The amplifier amplifies these
oscillations.
iii. Feedback Circuit
The feedback circuit sends a portion of the output back to the input i.e., it provides
positive feedback.
TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR
This oscillator contains a tuned circuit which is connected with collector. That’s
why it is called tuned collector oscillator. The frequency of oscillations depend upon the
values of and :

√
The feedback coil in the base circuit is magnetically coupled to circuit. In fact,
and acts as primary and secondary coil of transformer.
Circuit Operation
When the switch S is open, the capacitor gets charged. When gets fully charged,
it discharges through inductance and
oscillations of frequency are set up. These
oscillations produce same voltage in by
mutual inductance. The frequency in the voltage
in the coil is the same as that of circuit.
The magnitude of voltage in depends on the
number of turns of in and coupling between
& .

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

The voltage across is applied between base-emitter junction of transistor and

appears in the amplified form in the collector. A phase shift of 1800 is produced by amplifier
and a further phase shift of 1800 is produced between the voltages of and by the
transformer function. Hence the signal is shifted by 3600 and fed to the input i.e., the
feedback signal is in phase with the input signal.
This feedback signal is amplified by the amplifier. A portion of the output signal will
go to the input. So the amplifier receives another input cycle and another output cycle is
produced. This process will continue and in this way the amplifier produces oscillations with
no external source.

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

B Sc 1st Annual Examination 2011

Q # 1. (a) How the N-type and P-type materials are formed? Explain.
(b) Describe action of a semiconductor diode for half wave rectification.
(c) What is the effect of temperature on the resistivity of intrinsic semiconductors
Q # 2. (a) Describe the input and output characteristics of a PNP transistor in common
emitter configuration.
(b) Explain the action of a transistor as oscillator.
(c) What do you understand by positive feedback on an electric circuit?
Q # 3. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a mono-stable Multivibrators and explain its operation.
(b) Describe the two input NAND gate, giving its symbolic representation, truth table and
use.
(c) What is the net charge on N-type material and P-type material?

B Sc 1st Annual Examination 2010

Q # 1. (a) Explain full wave rectification.
(b) What are logic gates? Describe the exclusive OR-gate.
(c) Differentiate among rectification and oscillation.
Q # 2. (a) What is load line? Define operating point, why does it select at mid-way of load
line in case of amplification.
(b) Explain transistor as an amplifier.
(c) Explain intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Also define hole.
Q # 3. (a) Explain mono-stable Multivibrator.
(b) If for the transistor in CB configuration and . Find and .
(c) Define the positive and negative feedback.

B Sc 1st Annual Examination 2009

Q # 1. (a) Explain the classification of solid on the basis of Band Theory.
(b) Explain the transistor as an oscillator.
(c) Is the net charge on P-type or N-type material zero. If so, why?
Q # 2. (a) Explain the characteristics of a transistor in common emitter configuration.
(b) At room temperature, a given applied electric field will generate a drift speed for the
conduction electrons of silicon that is about 40 times as greater as that for the conduction
electrons of copper. Why not silicon is better conductor of electricity than copper?
(c) In a common base circuit of a transistor, what value of causes . If
, and .
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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
B Sc Physics Electronics

Q # 3. (a) What is the difference between the Monostable and Bistable Multivibrators? Hence
write down the uses of Multivibrators.
(b) Explain the classification of non-sinusoidal oscillators.
(c) Identity the following as P-type or N-type semiconductors:
(i) Sb in Si (ii) In in Ge (iii) Al in Ge (iv) P in
Si

B Sc 1st Annual Examination 2008

Q # 1. (a) What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductor materials?
Explain the role of doping an impurity in a semi-conductor material.
(b) Explain the working of a bridge rectifier.
Q # 2. (a) Explain semi-conductor materials on the basis of energy band theory.
(b) What is depletion region of semi-conductor diode? What is the effect of biasing the diode
on this region? Graphically explain the variation of current due to variation in voltage by the
forward biased and reversed biased operations.
Q # 3. (a) Explain the hybrid parameters in common emitter configuration.
(b) Explain the transistor circuit as
(i) NOR gate (ii) NAND gate
(c) What is the importance of base in a transistor?

B Sc 1st Annual Examination 2007

Q # 1. (a) Explain the depletion region. What is the effect of forwad and reversed biasing of
diode on the width of depletion region?
(b) Explain the difference among electrical behavior of conductors, insulators and semi-
conductors on the basis of energy band theory.
Q # 2. (a) What is rectification? Explain the action of a semiconductor diode as:
 Half wave rectifier
 Full wave rectifier
Is transistor a voltage device or a current device?
Q # 3. (a) What is effect of temperature on semiconductor and conductor?
(b) Discuss two input OR and NOR logic gates giving the symbolic form and truth table.
Also write one application of logic gates in control systems.

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Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
 UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2017
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a) How the N-Type and P-Type materials are formed? Explain in detail.
(b) Describe the action of a semi-conductor diode for half wave rectification.
(c) What is the effect of temperature on resistivity of intrinsic semi-conductor?
Q # 2. (a) Explain the circuit of common emitter amplifier.
(b) Discuss two input AND logic gate giving their symbolic form and truth table.
(c) Name minority charge carriers in an N-type and P-Type semi-conductor.
Q # 3. (a) What is an oscillator? Explain the action of a transistor as an oscillator.
(b) What is load line? Define quiescent point.
(c) Define positive and negative feedback.
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a) State Compton Effect and derive an expression for Compton shift in wave length.
(b) A particular X-ray photon has a wavelength of 41.6 pm. Calculate the energy and frequency of photon.
(c) Why a threshold frequency is necessary for the photoelectric effect.
Q # 5. (a) Using Schrodinger wave equation. Discuss the motion of free electron.
(b) What do you mean by wave function? How it is related to probability of a particle?
(c) Does a photon have a de-Broglie wavelength? Explain.
Q # 6. (a) Derive a relation for the radii of quantized orbits for hydrogen atom and also for quantized energy.
(b) What is the wavelength of series limit for the Balmer series?
Q # 7. (a) What is magnetic moment? Find the relation for Bohr's magnetron and also calculate its numerical value.
(b) An LED is constructed from PN Junction based on certain semiconductor material whose energy gap is 1.97 eV. Find
the wavelength of emitted light.
Q # 8. (a) State the law of radioactive decay and show that it obeys exponential law. What is meant by half-life and mean
life of a radioactive element?
(b) The half-life of a radioactive isotope is 140 days. How many days would it take for the activity of a sample to fall to
one fourth of its initial decay rate?
Q # 9. (a) Describe the principle, construction and working of a nuclear reactor?
(b) A large electric generator station is powered by a pressurized water nuclear reactor. The thermal power in the reactor
core is 34000 MW, and l100 MW of electricity is generated. The fuel consists of 86000 kg of uranium in the form of 110
tons of uranium oxide, distributed among 57000 fuel rods. What is plant efficiency?
Q # 10. Write note on the following:
a) Space quantization.
b) Nuclear fission.
 UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2016
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a) Distinguish between a conductor, an insulator and a semi-conductor using the concept of energy bands.
(b) In common emitter amplifier, calculate collector current IC and β when IE= 12mA, IB=150 µA and α=0.98.
(c) Draw the symbols of NPN transistor and PNP transistor. Also name its regions.
Q # 2. (a) What is junction diode? Describe its application as rectifier.
(b) The current following into the-base of a transistor is l00uA. Find the collector current IC if β = 100.
(c) What is the net charge on N-type and P-type substance?
Q # 3. (a) Describe the two inputs AND gate and OR gate, using their symbol and truth table.
(b) A LED is constructed from PN junction based on a certain semiconductor material whose energy gap is l.97eV. What
is the wavelength of emitted light?
(c) Define biasing and rectification
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a) State Stefan Boltzmann’s law and Wein’s law. Give Plank’s assumption and Plank’s formula for energy
distribution in black body radiation spectrum
(b) Calculate intensity of the sun with a surface temperature of 5800 K.
Q # 5. (a) What is Compton effect? Explain this effect using quantum theory.
(b) X-rays with λ=100 pm are scattered from a carbon target. The scattered radiation is viewed at 900 to the incident
beam. What is Compton shift?
Q # 6. (a) Define Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Prove that . Also discuss behavior of uncertainty principle
and single slit diffraction.
(b) If de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is . Find the speed of electron.
Q # 7. (a) Define wave function and probability density. Find an expression for time dependent Schrodinger wave
equation.
(b) Calculate Fermi energy for copper, given the number of conduction electrons per unit volume is .
Q # 8. (a) Define excitation energy and excitation potential. Hww Bohr’s theory was verified by Frank Hertz Experiment.
(b) Consider an atom absorbs a photon of frequency Hz. By what amount does the energy of the atoms
increase?
Q # 9. (a) What is meant by the binding energy of a nucleus? Discuss variation of binding energy per nucleon as a
function of mass number.
(b) Calculate the binding energy of Deuteron 1H2 when the mass of 1H2 is 2.014l02 µ and mass of proton = 1.007825 µ,
mass of Neutron = l.008665 µ.
 UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2015
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). What is transistor? Explain pnp-transistor in common-emitter configuration used as amplifier. Also calculate
its gain.
(b). In common emitter amplifier, calculate collector current and , when and .
(c). What are the differences between hole and positive charge.
Q # 2. (a). What is pn-junction? Define depletion region, barrier potential and describe its forward and reverse biased
characteristics.
(b). What is the speed of a conduction electron in copper with K.E. equal to its Fermi energy 7 eV.
(c). Identify following as p-type or n-type semiconductors:
(i) Al in Ge (ii) In in Ge (iii) Sb in As (iv) P in Si
Q # 3. (a). What are logic gates? Describe:
(i) XNOR gate (ii) NAND gate
(b). A LED is constructed from pn-junction based on GaAsP semiconductor material whose energy gap is 1.97 eV. What
is the wavelength of emitted light and color?
(c). Differentiate among analog and digital quantities.
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a). What is Plank’s quantum theory? Derive Plank's law of radiation in terms of frequency and wavelength.
(b). Find the maximum wavelength shift for the Compton collision between a photon and free electron.
(c). What arc differences between a photon and a material particle?
Q # 5. (a). Describe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect and give its quantitative analysis.
(b). Find the maximum K.E (eV) of photoelectrons if the work function of material is 2.33 eV and frequency of radiation
is .
(c). In both photoelectric and Compton effect there is an incident photon and ejected electron. What is the difference
between these two effects?
Q # 6. (a). What is de-Broglie hypothesis? Explain Davisson and Germer experiment for its verification.
(b). Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an electron with energy 120 eV.
(c). lf the particle listed below all have same energy, which has shortest wave length: electron, proton, neutron and α-
particle.
Q # 7. (a). Find the radii and energy of different Bohr‘s orbits of a hydrogen atom.
(b). An atom absorbs a photon of frequency . By what amount does the energy of the atom increase?
(c). Why does the concept of Bohr’s orbits violate the uncertainty principle?
Q # 8. (a). Define mass defect and describe nuclear binding energy in detail.
(b). Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of carbon atom if mp=1.007660 µ, mn= 1.008665 µ and experimental
value of mass of carbon is 12.011 µ.
(c). Why is the binding energy per nucleon is low at low mass number and at high mass number?
Q # 9. (a). What is radioactivity? Show that the mean life of a radioactive element is greater than the half-life of that
element.
(b). The half-life of a radioactive element is 140 days. How many days should it take for activity of this isotope to fall one
fourth of its initial decay rate?
(c). Define critical mass.
Q # 10. Write note on the following:
i. Full wave Rectification
ii. Schrodinger Wave Equation
 UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2014
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). Distinguish between a conductor, an insulator and semiconductor using concept of energy bands.
(b). Calculate maximum wavelength that will produce photoconduction in diamond which have band gap of 5.5 eV.
(c). Define rectification. Give its types.
Q # 2. (a). What is load line? Define operating point and why it is selected at midway of the load line in case of
amplification?
(b). Explain the action of transistor as an amplifier.
(c). Does pure semiconductor obeys Ohm’s Law?
Q # 3. (a). Discuss the two inputs NAND logic gate giving their symbolic form and truth table.
(b). Derive the relation and , and .
(c). Name the minority charge carriers in an N-type and P-type semiconductors.
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a). State Compton effect and derive an expression for the Compton shit in wavelength.
(b) A particular x-ray photon has a wavelength of 41.6 pm. Calculate the photon’s (i) Energy (ii) Frequency.
(c) Why a threshold frequency is necessary for the photoelectric effect?
Q # 5. (a). What is de Broglie‘s hypothesis? Describe the experimental evidence in support of de Broglie’s hypothesis.
(b) Consider an electron confined by electrical force to an infinitely deep potential well, whose length L is l00 pm. What is
the energy of its lowest allowed state‘?
(c) Why the wave nature of large size object is not apparent in our daily life‘?
Q # 6. (a). Explain Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom and derive an expression for the energies of its stationary states.
(b) What is the wavelength of the least energetic photon in the Balmer’s Spectrum?
(c) Can a hydrogen atom absorb a photon whose energy is greater than l3.6 eV.
Q # 7. (a). What is meant by laser? Discuss the working of He-Ne laser?
(b) A He-Ne laser emits light of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 2.3 mW. How many photons are emitted each
minute by this laser when operating?
(c) Write down four uses of x-rays.
Q # 8. (a). What is meant by radioactive decay? Derive relation between the half-life and disintegration constant.
(b). In a sample of rock. The ratio 206Pb to 238U nuclei is found to be 0.65. What is the age of the rock if half-life of 238U is
.
(c). Does the temperature affect the rate of decay of radioactive nuclides? If so, how?
Q # 9. (a). Explain the basic process in nuclear fusion.
236 235
(b). How much energy is required to remove a neutron from U nucleus in its ground state, leaving a U nucleus
behind? The needed atomic masses are 236U=236.045563 µ, .
(c). What do you mean by critical mass?
Q # 10. Write note on the following:
i. Moseley’s Law
ii. Half wave Rectification
 UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2013
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). What is pn-junction? Define depletion region and potential barrier. Describe forward and reverse
characteristics of pn-junction diode.
(b). A LED is constructed from pn-junction based on certain semiconductor whose energy gap is 1.9 eV. What is the
wavelength of its emitted light?
(c). Distinguish between drift and Fermi speed of conduction electrons in metal.
Q # 2. (a). What is transistor? Describe the characteristics for common-emitter configuration.
(b). The current flowing into the base of transistor is , find its collector current and emitter current and the

ration ⁄ if .

(c). How does motion of electron in N-type substance differ from the motion of hole in P-type substance?
Q # 3. (a). What is an oscillator? Explain RL phase shift oscillator?
(b). What is load line? Define quiescent point.
(c). Define positive and negative feedback.
SECTION-II
Q # 4 (a). Define photoelectric effect. Explain photoelectric effect on the basis of Plank's quantum theory.
(b) Find maximum kinetic energy in eV of photoelectrons if work function of material is 2.33 eV and frequency of
radiation is .
(c) Why are photoelectric measurements so sensitive to the nature of photoelectric surface?
Q # 5 (a). Using Schrodinger wave equation, discuss the motion of free electron (particle).
(b) What do you mean by wave function? How it is related to probability of a particle?
(c) Does a photon have a de Broglie wavelength?
Q # 6 (a). Define Stern-Gerlach experiment and discuss its theory and result.
(b) A hydrogen atom state is known to have a quantum number . What are possible and quantum
numbers?
(c) Why does the concept of Bohr orbits violate the uncertainty principle?
Q # 7 (a). Define x-rays. Discuss continuous and characteristics x-rays spectrum.
(b) What is minimum p.d. across the x-ray tube that will produce X-rays with the wavelength of 0.126 nm.
(c) Write down four uses of x-rays.
Q # 8 (a). Define mass defect and describe binding energy of a nuclide.
(b) The mass no. of an atom is I20 and charge no. is 50. Find the binding energy per nucleon for its nucleus, if the mass of
nucleus is 119.902199 µ, mass of proton = l.007825 µ and mass of neutron = l.008665 µ.
(c) Define endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Q # 9 (a). What is alpha decay. Discuss the theory of alpha decay.
(b) Calculate the distance of closest approach for head-on-collision between a 5.30 MeV α-particle and nucleus of copper
atom.
(c) What do you mean by critical mass?
Q # 10. Write note on the following:
i. Full wave Rectification
ii. Half-life of a Radioactive Element
 UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2012
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). Describe qualitatively the formation of energy bands in solids and their classification into metal,
semiconductors and insulators.
(b). Calculate the maximum wavelength that will produce photoconduction in diamond which has a band gap of 5.5 eV.
(c). Do pure semiconductors obey Ohm’s Law?
Q # 2. (a). Explain the circuit of Common Emitter Amplifier.
(b). How does positive Feedback to an amplifier leads to sustain oscillations?
(c). Name the minority carries in N-type and P-type semiconductors.
Q # 3. (a). Discuss the two input AND logic gate giving their symbolic form and truth table.
(b). Describe the basic circuit for a bistable multivibrator.
(c). Does a slab of N-type material carry a net negative charge?
SECTION-II
Q # 4: (a) What are cavity radiation and the factors on which they depend? Also describe three interrelated properties of
cavity radiations which can be verified in any laboratory and can be explained by the theory of cavity radiation.
(b) Calculate the wavelength of maximum spectral radiancy and identify the region of electromagnetic spectrum to which
it belongs for your body assuming a skin temperature of .
(c) Is energy quantized in classical physics?
Q # 5: (a) What is de Broglie's hypothesis? Describe the experimental evidence in support of de Broglie’s hypothesis.
(b) Calculate the de Broglie's wavelength of virus particle of mass moving at a speed of 2.0 mm/s and an
electron whose kinetic energy is I20 eV.
(c) Why is the wave nature of matter not more apparent in our daily observations?
Q # 6: (a) Stale the Bohr postulates as applied to hydrogen atom. Also derive expression for the radius of permitted orbits.
(b) What is the wavelength of the least energetic photon in the Balmer spectrum? What is the wavelength of the series
limit for the Balmer series?
(c) Compare Bohr's Theory and wave mechanics.
Q # 7: (a) What are X-rays? How Kα and Kβ lines are produced?
(b) What is the minimum potential difference across an x-ray tube that will produce x-rays with a wavelength of 0.l26
nm?
(c) Can atomic hydrogen be caused to emit it-rays? If so, describe how? If not, why not?
Q # 8: (a) What is natural radioactivity? Define half-life of a radioactive material and determine an expression for the half
life?
(b) The radioactive isotope 40K decays at an absolute rate of I600 counts per second. The radioactive isotope constitutes
1.13% of l.00g sample of KCI. The molar mass of KCI is 74.9 g/mol. Avogadro's number = per mole. What
is the half-life in years for this decay‘?
(c) Explain why, in alpha decay, short half-lives correspond to large disintegration energies and conversely.
Q # 9: (a) Discuss the theory of nuclear fission due to Neil Bohr and John Wheeler.
236 235
(b) How much energy is required to remove a neutron from a U nucleus in its ground state, leaving a U nucleus
behind? The needed atomic masses are 236U: 236.045563µ.
(c) If it’s so much harder to get a nucleon out of a nucleus than to get an electron out of an atom why try?
Q # 10: Write the explanatory notes on the following:
i. He-Ne Gas Laser
ii. Radioactive Dating