Poultry Health

Handbook
FOR YUKON FARMERS
 Contact Information

Government Contacts
The Yukon Livestock Health Program
Animal Health Unit, Yukon Government
The Yukon Livestock Health Program is a collaboration between Environment Yukon, 10 Burns Road, Whitehorse, YT Y1A 4Y9
the Government of Yukon’s Animal Health Unit ( AHU) and Chief Veterinary Officer: (867) 456 -5582
Agriculture Branch, and local Yukon veterinarians. The program Program Veterinarian: (867) 667-8663
provides support to Yukon farmers by producing educational Email: [email protected]
publications and workshops on livestock health, biosecurity,
and food safety. The program will also support access to livestock Agriculture Branch, Yukon Government
health services through private veterinarians. Room 320, Elijah Smith Building, 300 Main Street, Whitehorse, YT
Yukon farmers with livestock health and disease concerns Phone: (867) 667-5838
can contact the AHU for advice, and are encouraged to get Toll Free: 1-800 -661-0408 ext. 5838
in touch any time there is an unexpected change in the Email: [email protected]
health of their poultry flock.
Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) District Office
2008 - 8th Street, Unit 2, Dawson Creek, British Columbia
Phone: (250) 719- 6855
Email: [email protected]

Yukon Veterinary Clinics

All Paws Copper Road Oakley Vet Services

Veterinary Clinic Veterinary Clinic Haines Junction, YT
9 Metropolit Lane 128B Copper Road (867) 335-5894
Whitehorse, YT Whitehorse, YT
(867) 667-7387 (867) 633-5184

Alpine Veterinary Dawson

Medical Center Veterinary Clinic
107 Copper Road Dawson City, YT
Whitehorse, YT (867) 993-5205
(867) 633-5700
© 2013 Government of Yukon
ISBN: 978 -1-55362- 659- 6

Photos by Yukon government

1
 Useful Websites A Note About the Table of Contents
Poultry Icons
CFIA: How to Prevent and Detect Disease in Backyard Flocks A Note About Disease
www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/diseases/bird- Diseases and conditions described in Symptom Icons.................4
health-basics/eng/1323643634523/1323644740109 this book may affect different types of Biosecurity........................6
British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture: Poultry Health poultry, including laying hens (layers),
meat birds (broilers), and turkeys. Some Top 10 Poultry
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/ahc/poultry/index.htm
of these conditions may also affect other Health Tips.......................9
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food: types of birds such as geese or ducks. Healthy Poultry,
Poultry Health Management and Biosecurity
Poultry icons are found along the edge Healthy People............... 14
www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/poultry/health.html
of each page, indicating which type(s)
Good Poultry
Government of Saskatchewan: of poultry are most commonly affected
Slaughter Practices......... 16
Poultry Health and Disease Fact Sheet by a specific condition or disease.
www.agriculture.gov.sk.ca/Poultry_Health_Disease Descriptions of
Diseases.......................... 18
Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine: Layers:
Atlas of Avian Diseases Refers to hens raised for the Index..............................72
http://partnersah.vet.cornell.edu/avian-atlas/ purpose of laying eggs for
LAYERS
consumption or hatching.
University of Florida: Poultry Health and Nutrition
Also includes pullets prior
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topic_poultry_health_and_nutrition
to laying age and diseases
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ps044
which affect the egg.
Best Practices Guide to Open Air Poultry Slaughter
http://smallfarms.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/ Broilers:
bestprxopenairpoultryslaughter_september_2012.pdf Refers to chickens raised
Intervet Schering-Plough Animal Health: for meat, including birds
BROILERS that are slaughtered
Important Poultry Diseases
www.canadianpoultry.ca/cms_pdfs/Important%20Poultry% after six weeks, and heavy
20Diseases%20060058%20-%20CPC%20website.pdf birds (roasters) raised
to older ages.
The Poultry Site
www.thepoultrysite.com/diseaseinfo/
Turkeys:
Refers to domestic turkeys
raised for meat or egg
TURKEYS
production.

2 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 3

 Recognizing Signs of Disease

A Note About Disease Symptom Icons

Diseases and conditions described in this book will have a variety of Reproductive „„This may involve the hen or the eggs/
symptoms and signs of illness that you may notice. Disease symptom chicks; chicks may be small or weak
icons can be found next to the “What will I see?” section of each after hatching
condition, indicating key symptoms that may be seen with a specific „„In laying hens there is a drop in egg
condition or disease. production, eggs may be soft-shelled
or deformed
Skin, Feathers, „„Feathers are ruffled, misplaced or
Beak, Legs damaged, and may see birds scratching
Diarrhoea „„May be off feed and have an empty crop,
„„Recent wounds will be red, open
and Intestines or have a swollen crop
and oozing
„„Wet litter is often an early and common
„„Older wounds may become enlarged,
sign of diarrhoea
crusty, and scab-like
„„Diarrhoea can be red (bloody), green
or white, or see pasted vent with feces
Bones, Joints, „„Swollen or enlarged hocks and joints smeared on feathers
Muscles or thickened bones
„„Reluctant to walk, one leg held up
Nervous System „„Some birds use their wings to
constantly, or may sit on hocks
“walk” around
„„Birds are lying down but are alert
„„Birds may be paralyzed and
and watchful
unable to move
„„Birds may use their wings to
„„Birds that are able to move may have
“walk” around
poor balance, fall over to one side,
or walk in a circle to one side or
have a head tilt
Respiratory „„Birds may have open gaping beaks
(“mouth breathing”), and may or may
not have a cough, often “snicking”
Dead „„Birds are found dead, some near-dead
when they breathe
birds may be convulsing
„„Birds may have a swollen head,
„„Birds may be seen to “flip over” and die
discharge from nose, eyes or mouth
„„The position of a dead bird (back or side)
„„Birds are frequently laying down,
may indicate cause of death
and are depressed and dull

4 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 5

 Biosecurity

What is Biosecurity? Take these steps to prevent bacteria, viruses and parasites from
spreading throughout your property:
Biosecurity is how you separate poultry from anyone or anything that „„Tend to young and healthy birds that are more vulnerable
could carry disease. These actions will reduce the chances of your birds before tending to older or sick birds.
getting sick and can reduce the impact disease will have on your flock.
„„Place sick or poor-doing birds into quarantine, away from
healthy birds, until they either improve or are culled.
„„Remove and replace all bedding and litter material, and clean
How Do You Practice Biosecurity? visible feces, dust and debris from walls, nests, roosts and
floor of barn before introducing new birds to the barn.
Avoid visitors to your barn: The single most important step
you can take to protect your poultry flock is to limit the number „„After cleaning the barn, spray down all surfaces with
of visitors to your barns, especially people who have contact a disinfectant before introducing new birds.
with other poultry.
Leaving a barn vacant and exposing it to fresh air and sunshine
Bacteria, viruses and parasites that cause disease in poultry can for several weeks between flocks is helpful to reduce the amount
be brought onto the farm by: of bacteria in the barn. Freezing temperatures can actually preserve
bacteria, parasites, and viruses though, so it is important to clean
„„People: attached to shoes and clothing
your barns and remove all feces, old bedding, and debris before
„„Vehicles: in the mud or manure on tires closing barns up for winter.
„„Objects: on tools, wire cages, bedding and litter
„„Poultry: poultry can carry bacteria, viruses and parasites
but may not show signs of disease Biosecurity is Cleanliness
„„Wildlife: rodents and wild birds can carry bacteria,
This means: Clean BOOTS
viruses and parasites that can make your birds sick
„„Visitors can use disposable shoe and boot covers.
Take these steps to prevent bacteria, viruses and parasites from entering „„Visitors can bring their own boots as long as they scrub
your property and being transmitted to your birds: them with disinfectant before and after entering the area
where poultry are kept.
„„Divide your farm or property into different areas with respect
to where poultry are kept. „„Keep a boot dip filled with disinfectant (e.g. 10% bleach water)
and a scrub brush beside the door of the barn.
„„Minimize entry of people, vehicles and wildlife into the area/barns
where poultry are kept—allow only essential movement into „„Ensure that all visitors, owners and staff step into the boot dip
this secure area. and scrub their boots with the disinfectant before entering
and after leaving the barn.
„„While entry doesn’t need to be restricted to the rest of the farm,
it is a good idea to keep a record of visitors to the farm—especially „„Change the boot dip disinfectant regularly, as organic material
those people who come from other farms with livestock. such as feces, litter and feathers can deactivate the disinfectant.

6 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 7

 Top 10 Poultry Health Tips
Clean CLOTHES Top 10 Poultry Health Tips
„„After you supply visitors with coveralls, ensure they are laundered
between visitors. 1. Have an isolation/quarantine area
„„Both visitors and farm owners or staff should put on clean (or „„Have a separate barn or separate room in your barn, ideally
washed) boots and clothes/coveralls before entering the barn. with a separate entrance, that can be used as an isolation
and quarantine area.
Clean PEOPLE
„„Isolate new birds for 30 days before introducing them to
„„Keep the number of visitors to your poultry barns to a minimum. your existing flock.
„„Wash your hands with soap and water before entering the barn, „„Quickly isolate any sick birds and put them into the quarantine
and particularly before handling birds. This minimizes the area to limit the spread of disease to other birds.
possibility of introducing bacteria or viruses to your birds that „„Sick birds should stay in isolation for two weeks AFTER they
may have been on other animals or objects around your farm. STOP showing signs of being sick.
„„Wash your hands with soap and water after leaving the barn.
This minimizes the spread of bacteria or viruses from poultry 2. Inspect your flock daily
to other animals or people.
„„Healthy birds will move out of the way when you enter the barn.

Clean BIRDS „„Assess if feed and water consumption each day is what you
would expect for the number and type of birds you have.
„„Know the source of any new birds that you bring onto the farm
„„Assess the attitude of the flock; all birds should be active, bright
by inquiring about the health status and vaccination program
and alert. Examine any individuals that seem depressed or dull,
of the source flock.
and separate them from the rest of the flock for treatment and
„„Avoid introducing new chicks to an established flock. If possible, to prevent illness from spreading to healthy birds.
practice “all-in, all-out” management.
„„Sick birds are unlikely to eat their feed, and are more likely to stay
„„If you do add new birds to an existing flock, isolate the new birds in one spot, looking depressed and sleepy.
in a separate barn for at least 30 days and observe their health
„„Contact your veterinarian or the Animal Health Unit
closely. Since stress may occur from transport, new birds may be
(Yukon government) if you see an increase in death rate,
more likely to get sick. If they are separated, you can treat the
unusual behaviour, or unexpected decreases in feed
new birds without risk of getting the rest of your flock sick.
consumption or egg production.

8 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 9

 Top 10 Poultry Health Tips
3. Disinfecting is different than cleaning „„When a flock is sold or culled for any reason, and before you
introduce a new flock to the property, wash surfaces of barn
„„Your barn should be cleaned regularly, but should also be
or room with soap and water, wash surfaces of barn or room
disinfected before introducing a new group of birds to the barn.
with soap and water, disinfect the surfaces with a disinfectant
„„Disinfectants are chemicals that destroy or inactivate bacteria, such as 10% bleach water, and allow time for the surfaces
fungi, and viruses. Not all disinfectants have the same to thoroughly air-dry (3 –5 days up to 2 weeks).
effectiveness, but if used properly most will kill the potentially
harmful bugs in your barn. 6. Change food and water every day and keep feed
„„A common disinfectant is a 10% bleach solution which is effective and water containers clean
against a wide range of bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
„„Check that your birds are eating all of the feed you provide
„„Disinfectants cannot kill bacteria until all the organic materials each day, and adjust the amount you are feeding so all food
(feces, litter, mud, feathers) have been washed away. in the feeders is eaten by the end of the day.
„„Most soaps work as both a cleanser and a disinfectant, „„Do not add fresh feed to feeders that are caked with old food
so cleaning with soap and water is essential. and/or feces without cleaning the feeders first.
„„Wash and disinfect waterers regularly (i.e. on a weekly basis, or
4. Clean your barns regularly more frequently). Always provide plenty of fresh water for your
„„Clean your barns regularly and remove organic materials birds. Snow is not a sufficient source of water for poultry in pro-
(feces, litter, mud, wet bedding) from the barn on a regular basis. duction.
„„Check the area around feeders and waterers daily, and remove
soiled, wet, or packed bedding. Wet bedding can lead to fungal 7. Feed the right food
growth that can cause pneumonia. „„Poultry have unique diet requirements, and the correct diet for
„„Before introducing a new flock to your barn and before poultry depends on the age of birds and the stage of production.
closing up the barn for winter, wash all surfaces with warm „„Ensure that you are feeding the appropriate diet for the types
soapy water and rinse to clean away organic materials. of birds you are raising.
„„Once the surface looks clean, spray the surfaces with „„Proper diet is important, and correct calcium/phosphorus balance
a disinfectant such as 10% bleach water. in feed is essential for growing birds and layers. Provide green
feed/vegetable scraps for your birds to ensure they get adequate
5. Have a “clean period” between flocks vitamin A.
„„This is called an “all-in, all-out” system. „„Ensure that your birds are getting the appropriate mineral
supplements in their feed. Grains must be balanced with
„„To reduce the chance of introducing disease, do not add new
minerals and supplements.
birds to an existing flock—treat each flock as a separate group,
and replace the entire flock at the same time. „„Always provide abundant fresh water for your birds.

10 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 11

 Top 10 Poultry Health Tips
8. Slaughter your birds with care 10. Keep good records
„„Designate a site for slaughter and processing poultry that is clean, Records on flock health allow you to better understand or recognize
well-drained, and free of pests and trash. changes in your flock.
„„Separate your processing site into one area for killing, scalding, Keep records on:
and plucking; a second area for evisceration; and another area
for chilling and final packaging. „„How many birds you have

„„People who are processing poultry should wash their hands often „„Where they came from
during processing and wear clean clothes and boots. Smoking, „„When new birds are introduced and their source flock
eating, and drinking should be done in a different area away „„How many die each week
from the processing site.
„„How many eggs are produced each day
„„Prevent contamination of equipment and carcasses through
„„Who you have sold birds or products to
attention to cleaning and sanitation of equipment, and
by only processing healthy birds. „„Any visitors to your barns, for tracking movements
in case of a disease outbreak
„„Chill poultry carcasses to 4°C within 4 – 6 hours after processing.
The larger the bird, the longer it will take to cool.

9. Do not let wildlife near your birds

„„Wild birds can carry diseases that will make your birds sick
(such as avian influenza and Newcastle’s disease). Remember…
„„Make sure that bird houses are completely closed off Flock owners are legally required to
to wild birds. notify government authorities about
„„Use fences and electric fence outriggers to keep predators serious bird diseases like influenza to
away from your flock, and chicken wire to keep your flock help prevent spread. You can meet this
in a designated area. Chicken wire will keep poultry in,
obligation by contacting the Animal
but it will not keep predators out.
Health Unit for advice if you suspect
„„Keep grass around the outside of the poultry area short to deter
any serious infection.
predators that could hide in tall forage, and feed the mowed
grass/weeds to your birds. Government contact information can
be found on page 1 of this handbook.

12 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 13

 Healthy Poultry, Healthy People

Healthy Poultry, Healthy People

Food-borne disease If you develop a food-borne illness due to improper handling of
poultry, signs of illness may include:
Poultry can carry bacteria such as E. coli, salmonella, campylobacter,
„„Vomiting and diarrhea which may or may not have blood in it
clostridum, listeria, staphylococcus and streptococcus,
among others. „„Extreme stomach cramps
„„Fever, chills and lack of appetite
„„Sometimes these bacteria make birds sick, but in some
cases poultry may shed bacteria but appear healthy. „„Delirium and death in very rare cases
„„Always see your doctor if you become sick after handling
These bacteria can also make you sick if:
or eating poultry products
„„You eat undercooked poultry or eggs.
„„You prepare raw meat on the same kitchen surface as uncooked Principles of food safety
foods (e.g. salad) without cleaning with soap and water
„„Use soap and water to thoroughly wash any surface touched by
in between. raw meat before placing other food onto the same surface.
„„You handle dead or live birds, litter, feces, or feathers then eat
„„Cook raw meat to an internal temperature of 74°C (for pieces)
food without washing your hands first. or 85°C (for whole bird) to kill any bacteria.
Children and immunocompromised people (elderly people, or those „„Collect eggs the day they are laid and wipe them with a dry
living with a chronic disease such as tuberculosis, AIDS, or cancer) cloth to remove large pieces of dirt.
are most at risk of becoming sick after handling or eating raw or
„„Eggs that require further washing due to excessive soiling should
improperly cooked poultry products. be used within 1–2 days of washing because of damage to the
You can prevent getting sick with these bacteria by keeping healthy shell that can occur with washing.
poultry. This means: „„Keep all meat and eggs refrigerated until ready for use.
„„Only purchasing chickens and turkeys from reputable sources „„Frozen meat should be thawed in the refrigerator and not
with a good vaccination history and with disease-free status. at room temperature to help limit bacterial growth.
„„Practicing good biosecurity.
„„Cleaning out your barn on a regular basis.
„„Practicing good pest control, as rodents and other pests can
carry bacteria like salmonella that can contaminate your
birds or their feed.
„„Washing your hands thoroughly with soap and water for at
least 20 seconds (the time it takes to sing “Happy Birthday”
twice) after handling your birds or their eggs.

14 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 15

 Good Poultry Slaughter Practices

Good Poultry Slaughter Practices

„„Animals that are obviously diseased or injured should never „„Wash and sanitize knives regularly during processing.
be sold or used for human consumption. Any knives that cut into intestines must be washed
„„Poultry slaughtered on-farm for own use or farm gate sales and sanitized before using again.
must be killed humanely. Humane slaughter must quickly „„If fecal material or intestinal contents contaminate a carcass, use
and effectively make an animal unconscious and unable a sharp clean knife to trim off the affected meat or skin. Do not
to feel pain before they are bled out. spray with water because that will spread the contamination.
„„Options for humane slaughter in poultry include neck disloca-
tion, beheading with a sharp axe or hatchet, or stunning fol- Keep it COOL—Prevent bacterial growth
lowed by bleeding out. The person responsible for killing birds „„Meat spoilage results from bacterial growth, which occurs with
should be experienced and confident to ensure a humane death. increasing temperature and length of time before carcasses are
Meat spoilage or contamination can occur if good processing chilled. Defeather, process, and chill birds immediately after
techniques are not followed. Meat contamination can occur with: slaughter. Have as many people as required to ensure each
bird is processed quickly.
„„Incorrect handling of carcasses during processing
„„Poultry carcasses should be chilled to 4°C in the following time
„„Careless butchering and contamination of carcass frames: 2 kg carcass in 4 hours or less, 2– 4 kg carcass in 6 hours
with fecal material or intestinal contents or less, and 4 kg or larger carcass in 8 hours or less.
„„Infrequent cleaning and sanitation of processing equipment, „„Replace ice water in chill tank often to maintain correct
cleaning water/solutions, and chill tubs or tanks temperature.
„„Failing to chill carcasses to the correct temperature within
an appropriate time frame Keep it SAFE
It is important to prevent meat contamination and spoilage in order „„Protect meat from intestinal contents or fecal contamination,
to reduce the risk of illness in people who consume the meat. which contain bacteria and parasites.
„„Wash and sanitize knives frequently, but only sanitize knives
Keep it CLEAN—Prevent bacterial contamination
that are clean of debris, feathers, and blood. Keep a bucket
„„Butcher poultry in a clean area that is free of pests (rodents or tub of sanitizing solution handy throughout processing.
and insects) and trash, and does not have standing water, Sanitizing solution can be made of 200 ppm of bleach in cool
mud, soil or leaves, which can carry bacteria. water (e.g. 1 tablespoon of bleach into 1 gallon (or 3.8 litres)
„„Wash your hands before and after butchering birds and of cool potable water).
wear disposable gloves if possible. „„Trim contaminated meat from rest of carcass and wash the
„„Avoid contact between your clothes and carcasses while knife after trimming.
processing, because clothes can carry bacteria. Consider „„Label meat packages with the date and freeze. Use within
having personnel wear vinyl or plastic aprons that can 12 months for best meat quality.
be easily cleaned.

16 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 17

 Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis
How can I prevent it? LAYERS
Respiratory „„Purchase birds from a good, clean hatchery.
What will I see? „„Use clean, dust and mold-free, good quality
litter and feed.
„„Silent gasping and rapid, laboured breathing
„„Remove bedding completely between flocks. BROILERS
„„Off feed but may have increased thirst causing wet litter Dead
„„Ensure that litter stays dry.
„„Drowsiness, depression, huddled or isolated behaviour
„„Do not let feed accumulate and develop
„„Loss of body condition and general weakness
mold in feeders.
in individual birds TURKEYS

Commonly affected ages?

„„All ages may be affected.
What else should I know about it?
„„Mortality spike by 14 days if infected in hatchery
or during brooding on moldy bedding. It is also called fungal pneumonia, but actually affects
„„Occurs in turkeys at onset of sexual maturity when the bird’s air sacs as well as the lungs. Fungal spores
males are strutting and stirring up fungus spores are found naturally in the environment, and are highly
in moldy bedding. resistant to common disinfectants so complete
cleaning is required to prevent young birds from
being in contact with heavily contaminated bedding.
What should I do if I suspect it? Barn conditions, and especially litter conditions, must
„„There is no treatment and birds do not recover. be kept optimum with proper heat and ventilation
to prevent growth of the mold.
„„Severely affected birds should be culled for
humane reasons. Death losses can be up to 50% of birds in a flock if
„„Ideally replace all bedding (down to the soil or floor) it occurs due to contamination at hatchery.
from the affected poultry house when pneumonia
Birds are infected when they breathe in fungal spores,
is suspected. At minimum replace visibly moldy or
often from moldy litter. Straw is more often a problem
damp bedding (especially from around waterers)
than shavings so shavings may be preferable bedding
because this is most likely to contain mold spores.
for mature turkeys since they are more likely to develop
the disease due to their behaviour.

18 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 19

 Arthritis
Arthritis
„„Ensure chicks and poults have an ideal environment
at placement to prevent generalized bacterial infection LAYERS
Bones, Joint, Muscles or navel ill that can become localized as arthritis.
What will I see? „„Always remove and replace all bedding between
flocks of poultry. Turkey poults are especially prone to
„„Lame, reluctant to walk
developing arthritis of their toes from dirty bedding. BROILERS
„„Swollen joints, often the hocks
„„Ensure that birds cannot injure themselves on sharp
but also the toes (older breeding birds)
objects like nails or rough perches.
„„May be litter caked on toes
(especially turkey poults) TURKEYS

Commonly affected ages?

„„All ages may be affected.

What should I do if I suspect it? What else should I know about it?
„„Cull birds that have very swollen joints or that are unable Arthritis is often a result of a generalized bacterial
to move their joints as they are unlikely to recover. infection (septicemia) in chicks or poults. Bacteria from
„„Birds with hot, swollen or red leg joints may respond to a blood infection tends to settle in joints and does not
antibiotic treatment for a bacterial infection or should be respond well to drug treatment. These birds are often
culled. These infections may spread to other body tissues. infected near the time of placement, remain poor-doing
and may be condemned at slaughter.
„„Seek veterinary advice to determine whether treatment
is required. Viruses (reovirus, adenovirus) can cause arthritis and birds
will often recover from this, but the virus infection does
How can I prevent it? predispose them to bacterial infections, especially if they
are housed on damp litter with lots of feces accumulation.
„„Dirty or caked litter can cause arthritis, so keep the Viral arthritis can also lead to ruptured Achilles tendons
bedding clean and remove wet bedding from in heavy chickens.
around waterers regularly.
„„Ensure the birds have appropriate nutrition, especially
Vitamin D, since rickets will predispose to arthritis.

20 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 21

 Avian Tuberculosis (TB)
Avian Tuberculosis (TB)
How can I prevent it?
„„Avoid introducing older birds (especially of exotic LAYERS
Bones, Joint, Muscles species) to the flock unless you know they come
from a TB -free farm.
What will I see?
„„Avoid keeping laying hens in production for more than
„„Gradual weight loss despite a one year (slaughter as soup hens) because older birds
good appetite, loss of breast muscle Diarrhoea and Intestines can be a source of TB infection to younger pullets.
„„Ruffled feathers, depressed „„Maintain good barn management and hygiene,
„„Sporadic deaths in an older flock with regular clean-out of nest boxes, replacing nest
litter or pads.
„„Lameness, reluctant to walk
„„Ensure poultry feed and bedding is stored to protect
„„Pale comb
it from contamination by feces of rodents, wildlife
„„White to yellow lumps on internal organs of slaughtered birds and wild birds.
„„Clean and disinfect all cages before and after they
Commonly affected ages? are used to house or transport birds.
„„Older birds, laying hens over a year old

What should I do if I suspect it? What else should I know about it?
„„There is no treatment. Affected birds die and should be culled
Other bird species, including ducks, pheasants, and game
to prevent transmitting infection to others.
birds, are at risk for this infection.
„„Consult a veterinarian to confirm a suspected diagnosis.
Infected birds will shed large numbers of the bacteria
„„To eliminate tuberculosis it is essential to cull all birds in the
in their feces throughout their life.
flock and dispose of the carcasses appropriately.
It is not the same as TB in people or cattle but is caused
„„Before restocking all bedding must be removed, the barn
thoroughly cleaned and all barn surfaces disinfected. by a related bacterium, Mycobacterium avium.

„„Can persist in soil for an extended period, from months to years This bacterium can cause illness in many species including
pigs, sheep, rabbits and cattle and can infect people.
„„Be aware that the strain of bacteria that causes TB in poultry
can infect people if they inhale bacteria in dust or dander, It can be spread to other farms on clothing, boots and
so if the diagnosis is confirmed, it is important to take equipment. Illness and death rates can exceed 50% of
precautions when cleaning a barn. a flock over time.

22 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 23

 Blackhead / Histomoniasis
Blackhead / Histomoniasis
How can I prevent it?
„„The parasite that causes Blackhead is carried in
Dead
the eggs of a cecal worm that is present in both
What will I see? chickens and turkeys. Chickens don’t develop
„„Depression and emaciation
illness from the parasite as severely as turkeys but
can heavily contaminate pastures so keep turkeys
„„Off feed and poor growth
separate from mature chickens (laying hens).
„„Sulphur-yellow diarrhoea
„„Encourage turkeys to roost on elevated perches—
„„Cyanosis (blue/black colour) of head heritage breeds take to this behaviour readily.
„„Swollen, spotty livers at slaughter; sections of gut It prevents them from huddling on the floor or TURKEYS

(cecal pouches) filled with yellow debris ground and being exposed to parasite eggs in feces.
„„Use concrete flooring in the barn so it can
be disinfected.
Commonly affected ages? „„De-worming poultry may be helpful for
long-lived flocks.
„„All ages of turkeys may be affected.
„„Chickens are only rarely affected but do carry the parasite.

What should I do if I suspect it?

„„There is no treatment—no drugs are currently available
What else should I know about it?
to treat this parasite. The histomonas parasite (Histomonas meleagridis) is passed
„„Separate sick birds from healthy birds to provide supportive in feces of affected birds and also in the eggs of the cecal
care. They may recover enough to reach slaughter weight. worm (Heterakis gallinarum). These are highly resistant
„„Cull birds if they are severely depressed and emaciated.
and can survive up to three years in the environment.

„„Decontaminate the environment before introducing new birds. Cecal worms occur in mature poultry, but are less likely
in most broiler chickens that are slaughtered by
four months of age.

Wild pheasants and grouse may carry the parasite.

24 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 25

 Breast Blisters
Breast Blisters
LAYERS
Skin, Feathers, Beak, Legs

What will I see?

„„A visible cyst on the keel bone What else should I know about it? BROILERS
over the breast of the bird
This condition is associated with leg weakness and there
Commonly affected ages? may be infection with bacteria such as Staphylococcus spp.
Caked or wet litter conditions may cause this condition
„„All ages may be affected, but frequency and up to 50% of a flock may be affected. It is more TURKEYS
increases as birds age. common in meat birds raised to roaster size than
those slaughtered as broilers.
What should I do if I suspect it? Affected birds will have this area trimmed at slaughter,
„„This is most often seen at slaughter and the cyst
but unless there are other signs of disease, the carcass
is trimmed. It is not cause for condemnation of will be acceptable for consumption.
the carcass.

How can I prevent it?

„„Avoid overfeeding because heavy birds are more
prone to this condition.
„„Prevent conditions that cause lameness and
difficulty walking, such as rickets, arthritis or twisted
legs, since birds that spend time squatting are
more prone to developing blisters.
„„Ensure that birds have clean dry bedding.

26 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 27

 Cage Layer Fatigue/Osteoporosis
Cage Layer Fatigue/
Osteoporosis LAYERS

How can I prevent it?

Bones, Joint, Muscles „„Provide free choice oyster shell to pullets during
What will I see? growth and to hens while in egg production.
„„Provide vitamin D3 in water.
„„Thin-shelled eggs initially, then eggs
without shells „„Ensure hens have opportunity for exercise as pullets
Reproductive and when in egg production.
„„Drop in egg production after thin
shelled eggs „„Provide a proper developer diet during the pullet
rearing period.
„„Lameness or reluctance to move,
squatting
„„Fragile bones—fractures occur with
routine handling of birds

Commonly affected ages? What else should I know about it?

„„Laying hens, occasionally turkeys Egg production places high demands on the body for
„„Typically near peak egg production (30 weeks of age) calcium to produce shells. Hens that are producing an
„„More common in high-production strains of hens egg a day will draw on calcium in bones to form eggshell
(e.g. white leghorn) if the diet is not adequate. This weakens the bones and
results in fractures. Hens may die when rib fractures
„„More common in hens that are confined to cages
interfere with breathing.

What should I do if I suspect it? Hens may recover if diet is supplemented, but egg
production may not return to normal if it has
„„Provide vitamin D3 in water. dropped significantly.
„„Provide free choice oyster shell as top-dressing on feed.

28 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 29

 Cannibalism
Cannibalism How can I prevent it?
„„Practice good flock management to reduce stress
and allow birds lots of space. LAYERS
Skin, Feathers, Beak, Legs
„„Commercial chicks (layers) have their upper beak
What will I see? trimmed at the hatchery to reduce their ability to pinch.

„„Birds are often found dead, with entrails „„High light intensity or constant light can make
picked out. pecking worse. BROILERS
Reproductive
„„Individual birds may be seen pecking others „„Feed at an appropriate level to keep laying hens
on the vent, limbs or head. from getting overly fat. This is especially important
in hens kept through a moult to a second lay cycle.
„„Affected birds will appear weak and may
Their nutrition needs drop during moult and if they TURKEYS
be pale from loss of blood. Dead
continue to get full feed, they can gain a lot of weight.
„„Birds that seem to be constantly cannibalizing other
Commonly affected ages? birds may need to be culled.
„„All ages may be affected, but it is rare in broiler chickens.
„„In turkeys it is typically in poults—toe picking.
„„In older laying hens it occurs after laying, there may
be partial vent prolapse when a hen lays an egg. What else should I know about it?
Turkeys are easily stimulated to peck by bright colours
What should I do if I suspect it? and shiny surfaces as part of their search for food.
„„Remove or cull injured birds from the flock— They will peck shiny toenails of others or peck the vent
they will continue to be picked on. area when another bird defecates.
„„Reduce bird density—crowding can lead to Laying hens selected for high egg production tend
increased pecking. to be high strung and are more likely to peck others.
„„Provide enough feeding space to reduce competition.
If hens are allowed to get overweight, they are more
„„Control barn temperature to avoid overheating. likely to prolapse the vent when they lay eggs, and
„„Provide roughage (greens, brightly coloured vegetables) the red colouration attracts other hens to peck them.
for distraction.
Once an area of the body is pecked and inflamed,
„„Feed a balanced diet fortified with salt, vitamins it is more attractive and stimulates more pecking—
and amino acids. a vicious cycle.

30 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 31

 Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis How can I prevent it?
„„Drugs to prevent coccidiosis (coccidiostats) are routinely
LAYERS
used in commercial poultry until 10 weeks of age and
Diarrhoea and Intestines
can be added to the feed.
What will I see? „„Though there is no withdrawal period for these drugs,
„„Depressed, huddled, ruffled feathers, closed eyes they are potentially toxic to other species and care
must be used if they are administered. BROILERS
„„Diarrhoea with wet litter
Dead
„„Vaccines are available for layers or breeding flocks.
„„May be blood or mucus in feces
Appropriate farm hygiene, especially thorough
„„Loss of appetite clean-out between a previous flock and new chicks
„„Weak with pale comb or beak can help to prevent coccidiosis by reducing
„„Poor egg production parasite numbers.

Commonly affected ages?

„„Young birds—most often between 4 –16 weeks of age
What else should I know about it?
„„Laying hens may show signs when they start egg
production—20 weeks There are many species of coccidian parasites that
damage different parts of the intestine and cause varying
severity of disease.
What should I do if I suspect it?
Different coccidia species affect turkeys and chickens.
„„Drugs called “coccidiostats” (like Monensin® or Lasalosid®)
added to feed or water are effective for controlling Even birds that survive coccidiosis will have damage to
the parasite, but are only effective as a preventative the intestine, making it difficult for affected birds to
medication, and must be given before symptoms absorb nutrients from thier feed.
are seen.
The coccidia shed eggs in poultry feces, which can survive
„„Use these medications on the advice of a veterinarian a long time in the litter until they infect another bird.
and carefully follow label instructions.
Coccidia eggs are very hardy and can be difficult
„„Coccidia develop drug resistance so you must rotate the
to destroy.
drug type that is used every 4 – 6 months.
„„Thoroughly clean the barn, removing and disposing of Coccidiosis can pre-dispose poultry to necrotic enteritis
all used litter before placing a new flock of birds. which will also cause death.

32 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 33

 Flip-Over/Sudden Death Syndrome
Flip-Over/
Sudden Death Syndrome
What else should I know about it?
Respiratory Sudden Death/Flip-Over occurs in broilers from lines
What will I see? selected for rapid growth rate. Similar sudden death BROILERS

can occur from heart failure in turkeys. The rapid

„„Sudden death of large, well-grown birds
growth, especially of breast muscle, exceeds the
„„Found dead lying on their back ability of the heart to function.
Dead
„„Dead birds with swollen, fluid-filled belly TURKEYS
Ascites (water-belly) occurs for similar reasons but is
(water-belly)
not as sudden, and the failure of the heart over time
„„Birds in convulsions prior to death results in fluid buildup in the abdomen. This may
be complicated by cold temperatures, high altitude,
Commonly affected ages? diets high in carbohydrates, or poor air quality
(lack of ventilation) in the barn.
„„Young, healthy and fast-growing birds are most
commonly affected. Though death is not due to an infectious cause, carcasses
of birds with terminal heart failure are condemned at
slaughter, so even if these birds are close to market size
What should I do if I suspect it? when culled, they would not be suitable for consumption.
„„There is no treatment.
„„Birds in convulsions or severe respiratory distress should
be culled immediately.

How can I prevent it?

„„Feed a restricted carbohydrate diet and/or restrict the
quantity of feed, especially when birds are young and
growing most rapidly.
„„Use low intensity light and dawn-to-dusk simulation
to prevent very rapid growth at a young age.
„„Select birds from genetic lines that are not bred for
very rapid growth rates.

34 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 35

 Fowlpox
Fowlpox
LAYERS
Skin, Feathers, Beak, Legs What else should I know about it?
What will I see? Fowlpox is a slow-spreading virus.
„„Wart-like scabs on comb and wattle This virus can survive in the scabs that form over BROILERS
„„Depressed, off feed, poor growth the skin lesions.
Respiratory
„„Poor egg production This virus can survive for long periods of time in
the environment.
Commonly affected ages? The virus can be spread by insects, so insect control
„„All ages may be affected. may be helpful.

Birds that develop respiratory signs frequently end

What should I do if I suspect it? up with severe disease and can die.
„„There is no treatment for this virus.
„„Antibiotics and local treatment may help in cases of severe
trauma to the skin or where there are open sores.
„„Cull severely affected birds if sores interfere with feeding
or breathing.

How can I prevent it?

„„Consult with a veterinarian to obtain a vaccine if this is
a persistent problem in a flock that will have a long life.
„„Chickens should be vaccinated at 12–16 weeks of age,
before egg production.
„„Since the vaccine produces a mild form of the disease,
all birds in the flock should be vaccinated at the same time.

36 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 37

 Gangrenous Dermatitis/Cellulitis
Gangrenous Dermatitis/
Cellulitis How can I prevent it?
„„May occur after a stressful event, something that causes
birds to pile up such as a thunderstorm,
Skin, Feathers, Beak, Legs predator threat or power outage. Scratches from
crowding allow bacteria to enter and cause infection.
What will I see? BROILERS
„„More likely to occur when litter is deep or has been
„„Birds are rarely seen sick; they are found dead re-used between flocks, so replace litter for each flock—
„„Green skin under the wings and on the hips, Dead don’t allow the bacteria to accumulate.
breast or neck of sick or freshly dead birds „„Keep litter clean and dry, and keep humidity in poultry
house under control with adequate ventilation—
Commonly affected ages? even in winter.
„„Culled birds and carcasses should be disposed of quickly
„„Typically broiler chickens at 4 – 8 weeks of age
to prevent contamination of the barn.
„„Not as common in turkeys, but when it does
occur it is in older birds—12–20 weeks of age
and often on the back and tail area
„„May occur in breeding flocks due to damage to the hen’s
back by the rooster during breeding activity What else should I know about it?
What should I do if I suspect it? It occurs when the bacteria Clostridium septicum,
Staphylococcus spp., or E. coli enters the body through
„„Reduce stress to the flock, ensure there is plenty small injuries to the skin and infection progresses very
of individual space. quickly. As many as 50% of all birds in a flock can
„„Ensure predators cannot threaten birds (may need to die from this disease.
provide shaded areas of outdoor enclosures to help A suppressed immune system can predispose birds to
poultry feel secure from avian predators). this bacterial infection, especially viruses such as chicken
„„Ensure there are enough hens for the number of roosters, anemia virus and infectious bursal disease. Breeder flocks
so the males are not excessively breeding females. are often immunized against these viruses, so chicks
„„Severely affected birds will not recover (without extensive usually have immunity when they are purchased from
antibiotic treatment) and should be humanely culled. most hatcheries.
„„This is a cause for carcass condemnation if found
at slaughter.

38 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 39

 Inclusion Body Hepatitis
Inclusion Body Hepatitis
LAYERS

Dead
What will I see? „„Practice good sanitation and barn hygiene to help
„„Depressed with ruffled feathers, closed eyes,
prevent hepatitis from spreading if it occurs.
BROILERS
isolated, huddled „„Good management and husbandry to minimize
„„Pale comb and wattle
stress on the birds may help

„„Off feed
„„Found dead—death losses may be 10%
or more in young birds

What else should I know about it?

Commonly affected ages?
Caused by a virus that infects young chickens and
„„Chicks as young as five days of age but more
can cause very high death rates very quickly.
commonly three to eight weeks
Birds that survive may have reduced immune
What should I do if I suspect it? function, therefore they may be more susceptible
to other infections.
„„There is no treatment for this virus, and infection
The virus is usually spread from hens to chicks.
will run its course in an affected flock.
The disease typically appears at around 10 days
„„Supplementing with water soluble vitamins may of age and, if it starts to spread from chick to
support recovery. chick, it may go on to four weeks of age or more.
„„Cull severely affected birds as they are unlikely to recover.
The virus is resistant to most disinfectants and to high
temperatures. It is essential to remove bedding and
How can I prevent it? wash surfaces and equipment well in barn before
„„Wild birds may carry the virus so prevent contact disinfection to prevent infection of a new flock.
with them.
„„Chicks from highly selected, high health status flocks
may be more susceptible to infection.

40 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 41

 Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT)
Infectious
Laryngotracheitis (ILT)
„„This is a virus infection, so antibiotics do not help.
„„There is no treatment; the infection needs to run its course.
„„Birds that recover are immune but may still shed the LAYERS
virus and infect others.

What will I see? Respiratory

How can I prevent it?
BROILERS
„„Gasping, open-mouth breathing „„It is essential to quarantine new additions to a flock
„„Rasping cough, with neck extended separately for 30 days to be sure they are not
showing signs of disease.
„„Coughing up mucus and blood Reproductive
„„If possible, practice an “all-in-all-out” operation; introduce
„„Discharge from the nose and eyes
whole flocks at the same time and do not add new birds
„„Sinusitis—swollen face to an established flock.
„„Severe drop in egg production „„Vaccines are available but some types produce a low
Dead
level of disease, and may cause symptoms.
Commonly affected ages? „„Vaccinated flocks must be kept separate from
non-vaccinated birds.
„„All ages may be affected.
„„The whole flock will often develop severe signs
very quickly.
„„Often occurs after introduction of new birds What else should I know about it?
(especially bantam fowl or guinea fowl) to the flock.
The introduced birds are more resistant but can Infectious laryngotracheitis ( ILT ) is caused by a very
infect the existing flock. contagious herpes virus.
The virus does not survive well in the environment
and is killed by sunlight and most disinfectants.
What should I do if I suspect it?
Signs of disease resolve after two to four weeks in birds
„„You are encouraged to contact the Animal Health Unit that recover, but in most outbreaks many birds will die.
any time there is an unexpected change in the health
Birds that recover will continue to shed the virus and
of your flock.
will infect new birds. Do not mix birds of different
„„Isolate birds showing signs of illness from the rest of the flock backgrounds and ages if possible.
immediately if possible.
Some forms of the virus cause a mild version of the
„„Cull severely infected birds—they are not suitable for slaughter. disease that flocks will recover from, but egg
„„Provide optimal barn conditions for affected birds, warmer production will not return to normal.
than normal barn temperatures may help.

42 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 43

 Influenza
Influenza How can I prevent it?
„„Avian influenza is spread to poultry from other birds,
LAYERS
Respiratory so do not add new birds to an existing flock, if possible.
„„Keep new birds separate from main flock for quarantine
What will I see? period (at least 30 days) to ensure they adapt to the
„„Sudden loss of appetite, depression farm and are not ill.
Nervous System BROILERS
„„Sudden, sharp drop in egg production „„Discourage wild birds from using water sources that are
used for poultry. Especially wild waterfowl, which can
„„Coughing, gasping for air, sneezing
carry influenza viruses without showing signs of illness.
„„Swollen head, eyes or neck
„„Store poultry feed securely to prevent contamination
„„Sudden death of multiple birds Reproductive TURKEYS
by wild birds.
„„Tremors, lack of coordination, „„Have feeders protected as well as possible from wild
nervous system signs waterfowl; vary feeding times (wild birds will actually
„„Comb/wattle may appear swollen learn feeding schedules).
Diarrhoea and Intestines
and purple „„If you use surface water for poultry, consider a
disinfection system.
Commonly affected ages?
„„Meat birds and layer pullets may be affected Dead
and will show respiratory system signs What else should I know about it?
and poor production.
Avian Influenza is very contagious and spreads quickly
„„Laying hens with influenza show drop in egg among birds.
production along with respiratory symptoms.
People can spread human strains of influenza to poultry.
Some strains may have no to mild symptoms and other
What should I do if I suspect it? strains cause severe disease.
„„You are encouraged to contact the Animal Health Unit Strains can mutate quickly when they circulate within
any time there is an unexpected change in the health a population.
of your flock. Wild birds can carry avian influenza, shed the virus in
„„Avian influenza can infect other farm animals and people, their feces and not show any illness.
so early diagnosis and control is important. People can be vaccinated to prevent human strains of
„„There is no treatment for this virus, the infection will run influenza, and poultry producers may wish to discuss
its course and death losses may be high. this with their doctor.

44 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 45

 Internal Layer / Egg Yolk Peritonitis
Internal Layer/
Egg Yolk Peritonitis How can I prevent it? LAYERS

„„This is typically an individual bird situation and not

a flock problem.
Reproductive
„„If more than one bird is affected, clean all nest boxes
What will I see? and replace litter or liners.

„„Individual hens will stop producing eggs, „„Ensure that the floor litter is cleaned and replaced
appear depressed and off feed when contaminated by excess manure.
Dead
„„Affected birds tend to be heavier than „„Increase the number of roosts available to encourage
breed standard roosting rather than resting on the floor or in nests.

„„Damaged vents „„Allow hens the opportunity for exercise, as pullets

and once they are in egg production, to maintain
„„Distended abdomen and prolapsed
fit body condition.
cloaca (vents) are common sequelae
„„Some birds may “lay” a mass of pus
instead of a normal egg
„„Mature hens may be found dead
What else should I know about it?
Commonly affected ages? Egg peritonitis may be caused by infection with bacteria
„„ Older laying hens (over 45 weeks) that enter through the oviduct from contact with
contaminated nest boxes or from hens sitting or
What should I do if I suspect it? huddling on the floor in manure.

It may occur from internal laying when the yolk is

„„Affected birds should be isolated from the flock to prevent
released into the belly cavity and not into the oviduct.
others from picking at them.
This yolk will deteriorate and cause inflammation.
„„There is no effective treatment once illness develops. Often many yolks are present in the belly and the bird
If the hen does not recover rapidly when given supportive will be quite swollen, but have a prominent keel due
care, it should be culled. to loss of condition and not eating.

46 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 47

 Leg Deformities
Leg Deformities
Bones, Joint, Muscles „„Limit the amount of high nutrient feed
(e.g. poultry feed or grain) and supplement
What will I see? with vegetation and more plant material
„„Legs angled at incorrect positions to slow growth rate.
BROILERS
„„Difficulty walking, wing-walking „„Ensure adequate vitamin D and access to a source
of balanced calcium/phosphorous supplement.
„„Lameness, not using affected leg
„„Spread feeders around the pen or barn to
„„Swollen, warm and red skin over joints
if there is a bacterial infection (arthritis) encourage exercise.
TURKEYS
„„Provide perches to encourage activity and
support bone development.
Commonly affected ages?
„„Young, rapidly growing birds are most commonly affected
with bone deformities—these are not usually painful or
reddened but there may be swelling.
„„Birds of any age can develop a bacterial infection
in the joints of the legs (arthritis). What else should I know about it?
Leg deformities occur because the rapid growth rate
What should I do if I suspect it? and heavy muscling of meat type poultry puts excess
„„There is no treatment, some birds will manage to feed strain on young, soft, developing bones.
and grow even with leg deformities. Some strains of poultry are more predisposed to
„„Severely affected birds should be culled if required leg problems.
for humane reasons. Severe deformities may result in condemnation at
„„Provide more access to feed and water and low perches slaughter due to damage to surrounding muscles.
to accommodate birds that have difficulty moving. Rickets can be an underlying cause or can contribute
to leg deformities and there is a genetic predisposition
How can I prevent it? to some of the leg abnormalities. Specific deformities
include valgus and varus deformity of the hock joint,
„„Dual purpose and heritage meat breeds of chickens and rotated tibia, and tibial dischondroplasia.
turkeys have fewer problems than commercial meat breeds,
so select slower-growing poultry.

48 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 49

 Marek’s Disease
Marek’s Disease
„„The tumors in the body cavity of affected birds will
result in them being condemned at slaughter.
LAYERS
Nervous System „„DO NOT SELL affected birds or birds from
an infected flock.
What will I see?
„„Paralysis of legs or wings due to damage How can I prevent it? BROILERS
to the nerves, usually in pullets Dead
„„Purchase vaccinated birds—most hatcheries will
„„Blindness with cloudy eyes in older birds
vaccinate day-old chicks.
„„Lumpy skin, swollen feather follicles,
„„Vaccines may not prevent infection, but they do
usually in broilers
minimize the risk of severe illness and death.
„„Death losses persisting for weeks,
„„Thoroughly clean out your barn before introducing
up to 50% in a flock
a new flock of birds.
„„Swollen, pale liver and lumpy tumors
„„This virus does not survive freeze-thaw cycles,
on internal organs
so having the barn vacant over winter will
reduce the amount of virus present.
Commonly affected ages?
„„Infection with this virus occurs in very young birds,
usually within the first week after hatch.
„„Paralysis commonly appears at 12 weeks of age but What else should I know about it?
can appear as early as 6 weeks.
This virus produces tumors in a wide variety of body
„„The tumor form occurs in older birds, usually layers tissues including liver, eye, brain and nerves.
after the start of egg production and during the
first part of the lay period (20 –24 weeks). The virus can survive in infected dander for up to a year
and is very contagious between birds.

What should I do if I suspect it? Infected birds can still spread the virus even if they
do not appear to be sick.
„„You are encouraged to contact the Animal Health Unit
any time there is an unexpected change in the health Chickens also get lymphoid leucosis—a very similar tumor
of your flock. disease. You may see depressed birds with tumors in the
abdomen and slightly increased mortality (1.5% above
„„Cull affected birds, they will not recover and there
normal). There is no treatment and the vaccine for
is no treatment.
Marek’s disease does not prevent lymphoid leucosis.

50 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 51

 Necrotic Enteritis
Necrotic Enteritis
Diarrhoea and Intestines
How can I prevent it?
What will I see?
„„It can be prevented by use of antibiotics in feed,
„„Wet litter indicating diarrhea if this is consistent with desired production practices.
BROILERS
„„Depression, ruffled feathers „„May use anticoccidials to prevent coccidiosis which
Dead
„„Weight loss, swollen belly, pasted vent can predispose birds to necrotic enteritis.

„„Dark-coloured diarrhoea „„Avoid sudden changes in ration, especially a change

from a low-nutrient density ration to a higher one.
„„Unable or unwilling to move TURKEYS
This can upset the bacteria in the gut and produce
„„Sudden death, found dead this infection.
„„Probiotics may be of some benefit, but this is not
Commonly affected ages? fully established.
„„Chickens: aged 2–5 weeks
„„Turkeys: aged 7–12 weeks

What should I do if I suspect it?

What else should I know about it?
„„In most cases this disease occurs as a result of a sudden
change in feed to a more highly digestible ration, Necrotic enteritis is caused by the bacteria Clostridium
often with a higher level of grain. If this is the case, perfringens, bacteria that are normally present in the
reduce feeding of concentrate or grain. environment and in the intestines of poultry. It causes
disease when intestines are damaged from parasites
„„Seek veterinary advice on possible treatment with antibiotics,
(e.g. coccidia) or the normal gut bacteria are upset
since they may be effective in reducing death losses and
by a rapid change in diet to a more highly digestible
help the flock recover.
or more viscous ration.
„„If coccidiosis is the primary cause, it can be treated with
anticoccidial drugs in the water. Mortality can be as high as 50% in a flock but rapid
treatment with antibiotics can stop death losses.

52 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 53

 Respiratory Tract Infections/Airsaculitis/Pneumonia
Respiratory Tract Infections/ How can I prevent it?
Airsaculitis / Pneumonia „„Avoid dusty or moldy litter and provide roosts
LAYERS
to encourage birds to rest off the floor.
„„Remove and replace all floor litter between flocks to
Respiratory eliminate bacteria and viruses that may persist in litter.

What will I see? „„Impervious floors (like concrete) in the barn are
BROILERS
desirable since they can be disinfected between flocks,
„„Coughing, snicking, sneezing but removing litter is the most critical step.
„„Off feed, depression, ruffled feathers Reproductive „„Vaccination will be effective to prevent some infections
„„Discharge from the eyes and nose such as Infectious bronchitis.
TURKEYS
„„Swollen nose and head „„Heated barns in winter often have high humidity
„„Slow growth, stunting, reduced egg production and ammonia levels because ventilation is reduced.
It is essential to have fresh air circulation in all seasons
„„Symptoms and severity vary greatly and
to reduce the chance of respiratory infections.
depend on the cause

Commonly affected ages?

„„All ages may be affected. What else should I know about it?
„„Mature birds often have only mild illness.
In most cases, respiratory viruses like infectious bronchitis
„„Bacterial infections or infection of young birds spread rapidly between birds, but often cause only mild disease.
can produce death losses. These infections may cause a drop in egg production.
„„Viral infections of breeder flocks may decrease
Some viruses like Newcastle’s disease can come from wild birds.
hatchability and chick survival.
When poultry have a viral infection, the damage to the airways
What should I do if I suspect it? makes it possible for bacteria, such as E. coli, to invade the lungs.
This often results in more severe illness. Some bacteria may cause
„„Increase ventilation in the barn to improve air quality. respiratory tract infections without an underlying viral infection.
„„Check air quality at the level of the bird; ammonia from dirty Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection can cause severe disease in
litter will be more noticeable at bird level. turkeys, resulting in swollen sinuses, eye infections, pneumonia,
„„Remove and replace litter more often in winter months. and airsaculitis. Mortality rates may be low, but growth rates
„„Seek veterinary advice if symptoms are severe; antibiotics may are reduced.
help reduce symptoms if the cause is a bacterial infection.

54 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 55

 Rickets
Rickets
LAYERS
Bones, Joint, Muscles

What will I see? How can I prevent it?

„„Birds are lame but alert and will still eat „„Feed your birds a diet with correct calcium/
BROILERS
if they can get to feed phosphorous balance and adequate Vitamin D.
„„Reluctant to walk and spend time squatting „„Provide Vitamin D3 supplement that is water soluble.
„„Swollen leg joints „„Access to sunlight can support natural Vitamin D
„„Stunted birds—they stop growing production. TURKEYS
at two weeks of age
„„Soft bones and beak

Commonly affected ages?

„„Young birds from two weeks of age
What else should I know about it?
Rickets occurs when the diet is not balanced for calcium
What should I do if I suspect it? and phosphorus or is deficient in Vitamin D.

„„Add Vitamin D3 in drinking water. The sooner this Take care not to over supplement with calcium or
is started, the better the chance of recovery. phosphorus since excess amounts can also produce
bone weakness.
„„Test the complete ration to determine how
to supplement. The correct ratio of calcium to phosphorus is 2:1.
„„Provide a complete prepared ration until birds show signs “Kinky Back” is a disorder seen in fast-growing broiler
of recovery. chickens that may be confused with rickets, but may
„„Provide a free choice balanced source of calcium/ have a genetic cause. Birds with kinky back sit on their
phosphorous. hocks with their legs forward and use their wings
to move.

56 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 57

 Salmonellosis
Salmonellosis (disease caused by infection
with salmonella bacteria) „„If laying flocks are treated and recover from illness,
they may still be shedding the bacteria in their
feces and in eggs.

How can I prevent it?

LAYERS
What will I see? Diarrhoea and Intestines
„„Off feed „„Salmonella can be spread to poultry from wild birds
and rodents.
„„Depressed with ruffled feathers, closed eyes,
isolated, huddled „„Store poultry feed and bedding where it cannot be BROILERS
contaminated by wild bird and rodent feces.
„„White diarrhoea, pasted vent Dead
„„Exclude wild birds and rodents from poultry houses.
„„Loud chirping, gasping or difficulty breathing
„„Take steps to control litter beetles if they are present
„„Found dead—entire flock may die
in high numbers. TURKEYS
„„Adult birds may show no signs of illness
„„Wash and disinfect feeders and waterers regularly
Commonly affected ages? and especially between flocks.
„„Purchase poultry from salmonella-free flocks if possible.
„„Any age may be affected.
„„In flocks under four weeks of age, many chicks may die (septicemia).
„„Older chicks may recover but will never thrive and will
still shed bacteria. What else should I know about it?
„„Adult birds may show no signs of illness but carry
There are many different types (species) of salmonella
the bacteria in their body.
and they vary in how they affect poultry—some cause
What should I do if I suspect it? minimal or no illness.
The most important impact of salmonella is the potential
„„Consult a veterinarian for advice on testing to confirm
to cause illness in people.
the cause of illness and on possible treatments.
Some salmonella can be transmitted from infected
„„You are encouraged to contact the Animal Health Unit any time
hens to the egg yolk.
there is an unexpected change in the health of your flock.
Infected eggs are contaminated when they are laid
„„Other bacterial infections can look similar to salmonellosis
and bacteria are inside the egg, so washing these eggs
but may not be as severe.
will not remove the bacteria. When washing eggs,
„„Antibiotics given in water may help to stop death loss in it is critical that it be done properly to prevent further
broilers or turkeys. However sick birds are often not drinking, contamination of the eggs.
so treatment is difficult.
Infected eggs can cause severe illness in people and some
„„Recovered birds may still have the salmonella bacteria in the gut.
types of salmonella will infect chicks if they are incubated.
„„Recovered birds will need special precautions when they are
slaughtered to ensure the meat is not contaminated.

58 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 59

 Septicemia (whole body bacterial infection)
Septicemia
(whole body bacterial infection) How can I prevent it?
„„Septicemia in young poults and chicks often comes LAYERS

from contaminated bedding so ensure bedding is

free of rodent and wild bird droppings.
What will I see? Respiratory
„„Start poults and chicks in confined areas with
„„Off feed very clean surfaces and use very clean bedding. BROILERS

„„Depressed with ruffled feathers, (Clean shavings or shredded newspaper are

closed eyes, isolated, huddled Dead often less contaminated than straw).
„„Diarrhoea, wet litter „„Wash and disinfect feed and water containers,
especially before using for new chicks and poults. TURKEYS
„„Older birds may have a swollen,
purple comb and wattles
„„Difficulty breathing
„„Swollen joints and lameness
What else should I know about it?
„„Found dead—death losses may be very high in young birds
Septicemia is a whole body (blood) infection that can
„„Green belly occurs rapidly after death
be caused by a variety of different bacteria. In most cases,
Commonly affected ages? it will be due to an underlying problem including other
bacterial or viral conditions or environmental stressors,
„„Chicks and poults under two weeks of age show sudden with the invading bacteria taking advantage of the
death or depression. compromised birds.
„„Older birds may be any age, often occurs after a period
In younger chicks and poults, it is most often due to
of stress such as hens beginning to lay eggs.
bacteria from the environment like E. coli.
What should I do if I suspect it? Chicks and poults develop resistance to these bacteria
as they mature. They are most vulnerable when they
„„Consult a veterinarian for advice on testing to confirm
the cause of illness. are first placed in the poultry house.

„„You are encouraged to contact the Animal Health Unit any time Septicemia may be an extension of infection of the
there is an unexpected change in the health of your flock. navel, so it is important that newly arrived chicks have
a clean environment until the navel is fully healed.
„„Antibiotics given in water may help to stop death loss,
but sick birds may not be drinking. In older birds, bacteria often affect the lungs most
„„Recovered birds may never thrive. severely, and are passed from other infected birds.
„„When joints are involved, birds often don’t recover fully.

60 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 61

 Skin parasites
Skin parasites
How can I prevent it? LAYERS
Skin, Feathers, Beak, Legs
„„Thoroughly clean the barn before bringing
What will I see? in new birds.
„„Scabby, crusty wounds on skin, „„Remove and dispose of all bedding and litter
BROILERS
often the legs between flocks.
„„Thickened, misshapen comb and wattles „„Chemical pesticides can be sprayed on all surfaces
„„Black, dirty-appearing vent area (Northern Fowl Mite); of the barn before bringing in a new flock.
mites may be visible on close inspection „„Always read label instructions before applying
„„Mites or lice on skin or feathers, sometimes on roosts chemicals in the barn or on the birds.

„„Poor growth and egg production in severely

affected birds
„„Birds are restless, fidgety, scratching and dust
bathing more often What else should I know about it?
Commonly affected ages? Some parasites feed on blood but many species feed
on skin, dander, feathers and scales.
„„All ages of bird may be affected.
Lice are small and pale tan, and are specific to poultry.
Many spend their whole life on a single bird. They do
What should I do if I suspect it? not bite people or transfer to other animals
„„Pesticide dusts, sprays and impregnated bars will kill Mites are tiny and dark (or red) and many species will bite
mites and lice, however, these may not be consistent people (very itchy bite) and other animals as well as birds.
with organic production practices. They may originate from wild birds and may spend time
„„Wood ash provides a good dust bath that will help hidden in cracks in the poultry house/barn.
control external parasites.
„„Thorough cleaning and then bleaching the poultry
house/barn combined with annual whitewashing
all inner house/barn surfaces will help break
the cycle of external parasites.

62 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 63

 Starve Out
Starve Out How can I prevent it?
„„Ensure the chicks or poults are confined no more than one meter
from feeders and waterers during first 10 days after placement.
„„Ensure the brooder is warm enough where food is so chicks
Dead
What will I see? don’t have to leave warmth to find food or water. If chicks
or poults are huddling, then they are too cold and the
„„Chicks huddle under heat, may eat litter, temperature should be elevated.
scratch floor but not feed
„„Ensure bedding is not slippery and is not packed down
„„Small, weak, runty chicks with empty crops—very light weight so much that birds cannot reach food in feeders. Bedding
BROILERS
„„Dehydration—chicks look shrunken and skin is tight, body is dark will often compress as it settles and birds may not be
„„Death loss over two percent in first seven days of life able to reach food.
„„Add food and water frequently and visibly—drizzle it into
Commonly affected ages? the dishes to attract chicks to the location.
TURKEYS
„„Chicks or poults that don’t start on feed will die within „„Ensure the water source is pure and that any disinfectant
three to five days of placement. in the waterers has been thoroughly rinsed off. Birds will
refuse to drink water that tastes bad.
„„There may be a second peak in death loss at seven to 10 days of age.
„„Poults are harder to get started than chicks and death losses
from starveout may be higher than two percent if they don’t have
an ideal environment. What else should I know about it?
The yolk sac has enough nutrients to sustain the life of a chick
What should I do if I suspect it? for three to four days after hatch, but they must learn to eat
„„Identify weak chicks when the group arrives and ensure they and drink within four days in order to thrive. Chicks and poults
have ideal conditions for the first week of life. Separate them must also be eating to ensure the gut is moving, in order
from vigorous chicks and provide heat, food, and water to benefit from the nutrients in the yolk.
that is easily accessible.
Stress from shipping and placement in new environments may
„„Poults tend to be attracted to movement of other poults. prevent chicks from finding the feeders and drinkers right away.
Feeder arrangements that result in the poults ‘tripping over
feeders’ as they move about can encourage them to feed. Chilling (even mild and temporary) can stop birds from starting
on feed and water. Avoid drafts and ensure a temperature
„„Shiny objects can attract chicks or poults to investigate gradient in the brood area—with the hot spot at 35°C (95°F)
food or water dishes. in the first week. It should drop by about 1–2°C (5°F) per week
„„Ensure that lighting is bright enough at the bird level to stimulate and there should always be a gradient from the cooler area
activity, investigation and feeding. to allow chicks to choose the right temperature.

„„If beaks were trimmed too severely (laying hens or some turkeys are With turkeys, you may have to dip their beaks into the water
done at hatchery), chicks may have more difficulty feeding— to show them where it is located.
so check the beaks and contact the hatchery if this is a problem.

64 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 65

 Vitamin A Deficiency
Vitamin A Deficiency
LAYERS
Nervous System

What will I see? What else should I know about it?

„„Incoordination, twisted head, staggering Birds get their Vitamin A from eating green feed BROILERS
Respiratory
„„Poor growth and poor feathering during the summers.

„„Difficulty breathing, snicking If they do not get enough green feed or if they have
„„Cheesy material in the nostrils and eyes no access to it during the winter, they can become
TURKEYS
Vitamin A deficient unless they are fed a complete
„„Pale comb and wattles
diet that is properly formulated.
„„Eyelids stuck shut with cheesy material
Vitamin A is required for normal cell growth and
replacement in all body tissues, so deficiency causes
Commonly affected ages? widespread organ damage, especially to the lining
„„All ages of bird may be affected. of airways and the gut.
„„Chicks are not affected unless the parent flock was deficient. Vitamin A deficiency can predispose birds to infections
„„Adult birds have reserves of Vitamin A in the liver and show that can result in neurological and respiratory disease,
signs of deficiency after several months of a deficient diet. poor growth, and poor performance.

What should I do if I suspect it?

„„Add Vitamin A to the water.

How can I prevent it?

„„Access to plenty of green forage/feed will prevent
Vitamin A deficiency. Feed a properly formulated diet.

66 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 67

 Vitamin E Deficiency
Vitamin E Deficiency
LAYERS

Nervous System
What will I see? How can I prevent it?
„„Feed good-quality feeds and store feed so
„„Imbalance, falling backward
that it is not overheated. BROILERS
„„Staggering, progressing to paralysis
Bones, Joint, Muscles „„Overheating feed will result in production
„„Uncontrolled movements, spasms of rancid fats which will destroy the Vitamin E
„„Waterbelly that is present in the feed.
„„Green wings (from muscle damage) „„Fortify or supplement with Vitamin E, selenium, TURKEYS
and antioxidants.
Commonly affected ages?
„„Typically chicks between two to four weeks of age,
occasionally up to four months of age
„„Reduced hatchability of eggs from deficient What else should I know about it?
parent flocks.
Sometimes called “Crazy Chick Disease” because of
the damage to the nervous system.
What should I do if I suspect it?
Vitamin E requirements are related to selenium and
„„Add Vitamin E and/or selenium to the diet.
deficiency of these two nutrients often occurs together.
„„Obtain veterinary advice about use of antibiotics
if there are extensive skin lesions.
„„Cull severely affected birds because they will not recover.
They are usually affected before normal slaughter age,
but even if older, the carcass would often not be
suitable for consumption.

68 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 69

 Yolk Sac Infection
Yolk Sac Infection
How can I prevent it? LAYERS
Diarrhoea and Intestines
„„Buy chicks and poults from a reputable hatchery.
What will I see? Good hygiene and sanitation during hatching
„„Depressed with ruffled feathers, are essential to prevent this because the infection
closed eyes, isolated, huddled happens at the hatchery. BROILERS

Dead „„If you are producing hatching eggs, regularly clean

„„Not eating but swollen abdomen
nest boxes and replace nest liners or bedding and
„„Crusty navel
remove soiled litter. Collect hatching eggs regularly
„„Diarrhoea and pasted vent and do not set heavily soiled or floor eggs. TURKEYS

Commonly affected ages?

„„Very young birds (three to five day old chicks)
„„Most affected birds die by 10 days of age
What else should I know about it?
What should I do if I suspect it? Bacterial infection occurs during incubation/hatching
„„There are no available treatments, and antibiotics of the eggs—before the navel is healed.
do not usually work. In some cases, chicks or poults are hatched with
„„Cull affected birds and dispose of carcasses rapidly the infection.
to prevent contamination of barn.
Excess humidity in the incubator or hatcher and poor
„„Contact the hatchery that was the source of the birds barn conditions including high humidity, high levels
to advise them of the problem. of ammonia, and wet spots that favor dirty eggs
„„Use photographs to document some of the dead birds, can all contribute to development of this condition.
including pictures of the open body cavity.
„„Send some birds to a veterinarian for confirmatory testing.
„„The hatchery will typically replace affected chicks
if the diagnosis is confirmed.

70 Poultry Health Handbook for Yukon Farmers 71

 Disease Index My Important Contact Information

Aspergillosis..................................................................................... 18
Veterinarian:
Arthritis........................................................................................... 20
________________________________________________________
Avian Tuberculosis........................................................................... 22
________________________________________________________
Blackhead/Histomoniasis.................................................................. 24
________________________________________________________
Breast Blisters................................................................................... 26
Cage Layer Fatigue/Osteoporosis..................................................... 28 Feed supplier:
Cannibalism..................................................................................... 30 ________________________________________________________
Coccidiosis....................................................................................... 32 ________________________________________________________
Flip-Over/Sudden Death Syndrome................................................. 34 ________________________________________________________
Fowlpox.......................................................................................... 36
Other contacts:
Gangrenous Dermatitis/Cellulitis...................................................... 38
________________________________________________________
Inclusion Body Hepatitis.................................................................. 40
________________________________________________________
Infectious Laryngotracheitis............................................................. 42
________________________________________________________
Influenza......................................................................................... 44
________________________________________________________
Internal Layer/Egg Yolk Peritonitis.................................................... 46
________________________________________________________
Leg Deformities............................................................................... 48
________________________________________________________
Marek’s Disease............................................................................... 50
________________________________________________________
Necrotic Enteritis............................................................................. 52
________________________________________________________
Respiratory Tract Infections/Airsaculitis/Pneumonia......................... 54
________________________________________________________
Rickets............................................................................................. 56
________________________________________________________
Salmonellosis................................................................................... 58
________________________________________________________
Septicemia (whole body bacterial infection)..................................... 60
________________________________________________________
Skin Parasites................................................................................... 62
________________________________________________________
Starve out........................................................................................ 64
________________________________________________________
Vitamin A Deficiency....................................................................... 66
________________________________________________________
Vitamin E Deficiency........................................................................ 68
________________________________________________________
Yolk Sac Infection............................................................................. 70

72 Poultry Health Handbook