Short Introduction to

(Classical) Electromagnetic Theory

( .. and applications to accelerators)

Werner Herr, CERN

(http://cern.ch/Werner.Herr/CAS/CAS2013 Chavannes/lectures/em.pdf )
 Why electrodynamics ?

Accelerator physics relies on electromagnetic concepts:

Beam dynamics
Magnets, cavities
Beam instrumentation
Powering
...
 Contents
Some mathematics (intuitive, mostly illustrations)

Review of basics and Maxwell’s equations

Lorentz force

Motion of particles in electromagnetic fields

Electromagnetic waves in vacuum

Electromagnetic waves in conducting media

Waves in RF cavities
Waves in wave guides
 Small history

1785 (Coulomb): Electrostatic field

1820 (Biot-Savart): Field from line current
1826 (Ampere): Field from line current
1831 (Faraday): Law of induction
1835 (Gauss): Flux theorem
1863 (Maxwell): Electromagnetic theory, light are
waves moving through static ether
1865 (Maxwell, Lorentz, Heaviside): Lorentz force
1905 (Einstein): Special relativity
 Reading Material

• J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics (Wiley, 1998 ..)

• L. Landau, E. Lifschitz, KlassischeF eldtheorie, Vol2.
(Harri Deutsch, 1997)
• W. Greiner, Classical Electrodynamics, (Springer,
February, 22nd, 2009)
• J. Slater, N. Frank, Electromagnetism, (McGraw-Hill,
1947, and Dover Books, 1970)
• R.P. Feynman, F eynman lectures on P hysics, Vol2.

First some mathematics (vectors, potential, calculus ....)

 Don’t worry ...

Not strictly required for understanding

For those interested or a reminder !
I shall cover:
Potentials and fields
Calculation on fields (vector calculus)
Illustrations and examples ...

(Apologies to mathematicians ...)

 A bit on (scalar) fields (potentials)

2-D potential
0.1*x*y - 0.2*y

10

-5

10
5
-10 0
-5 Y
0 -5
X 5
10-10

At each point in space (or plane): a quantity with a value

Described by a scalar φ(x, y, z) (here in 2-D: φ(x, y))

Example: φ(x, y) = 0.1x · y − 0.2y

We get (for x = − 4, y = 2): φ(−4, 2) = − 1.2

 A bit on (vector-) fields ...

At each point in space (or plane): a quantity with a length

and direction
~ (x, y, z) (here in 2-D: F
Described by a vector F ~ (x, y))

~ (x, y) = (0.1y, 0.1x − 0.2)

Example: F
~ (−4, 2) = (0.2, −0.6)
We get: F
 Examples:
Scalar fields:
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Temperature in a room
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Atmospheric pressure
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Density of molecules in a gas

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Elevation of earth’s surface (2D)

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Vector fields:
Speed and direction of wind ..
Velocity and direction of moving molecules in a gas
Slope of earth’s surface (2D)
Example: scalar field/potential ...

Example for a scalar field ..

Example: vector field ...

Example for an extreme vector field ..

 Vector calculus ...
Scalar fields and vector fields can be related:

To a scalar function φ(x, y, z) we can apply the gradient

which then becomes a vector field F (x, y, z):
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = ( , , ) = F~ = (F1 , F2 , F3 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
and get a vector. It is a kind of ”slope” ! (example:
distance between isobars)

Example (2-D):

φ(x, y) = 0.1x · y − 0.2y ∇φ = F~ (x, y) = (0.1y, 0.1x − 0.2)

 Operations on (vector-) fields ...

We can define operations on vectors fields:

Divergence (scalar product of gradient with a vector):

~) ~ = ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3

div(F = ∇F + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Physical significance: ”amount of density”, (see later)

Curl (vector product of gradient with a vector):

 
~) ~ = ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1 ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1
curl(F = ∇×F − , − , −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

Physical significance: ”amount of rotation”, (see later)

 Divergence of fields ...

∇F~ < 0 ∇F~ > 0 ∇F~ = 0

(sink) (source) (fluid)
 Integration of (vector-) fields ...

Surface integrals: integrate field vectors passing (perpendicular)

through a surface S:
Z Z
~ · dS
F ~
S

”count” number of field lines through the surface ...

 Curl of fields ...

Here we have a field:

F~ = (−y, x, 0)

∇ × F~ = curlF~ = (0, 0, 2)
This is a vector in z-direction, perpendicular to plane ...
 Integration of (vector-) fields ...

Line integrals: integrate field vectors along a line C:

I
~ · d~r
F
C

”sum up” vectors (length) in direction of line C

 Integration of (vector-) fields ...

For computations we have important relations:

For any vector F~ :

Stokes’ Theorem (relates line integral to surface integral):

I Z Z
~ · d~r =
F ~ · dS
∇×F ~
C S

Gauss’ Theorem (relates surface integral to volume

integral): Z Z Z Z Z
~ · dS
F ~= ~ · dV
∇·F
S V
 Integrating Curl ...

~ =0 ~ >0
RR RR
curl W curl W

... amount of rotation

 What we shall talk about

Maxwell’s equations relate Electric and Magnetic fields from

charge and current distributions (SI units).
~
E = electric field [V/m]
~
H = magnetic field [A/m]
~
D = electric displacement [C/m2 ]
~
B = magnetic flux density [T]
ρ = electric charge density [C/m3 ]
~j = current density [A/m2 ]
µ0 = permeability of vacuum, 4 π · 10−7 [H/m or N/A2 ]
ǫ0 = permittivity of vacuum, 8.854 ·10−12 [F/m]
c = speed of light, 2.99792458 ·108 [m/s]
 Divergence and charges ..

∇F~ <0 ∇F~ >0

(negative charges) (positive charges)

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Large charge large number (or longer) field lines

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Small charge small number (or shorter) field lines

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Formal ”counting” =⇒
 Divergence and charges ..

Put ANY closed surface around charges (sphere, box, ...)

Add field lines coming out (as positive) and going in (as
negative)

If positive: total net charge enclosed positive

If negative: total net charge enclosed negative

 Gauss’s Theorem
(Maxwell’s first equation ...)

~ · dS
~= ~ · dV = Q
1
RR 1
RRR
ǫ0 S
E ǫ0 V
∇E ǫ0
~ =
∇E ρ
ǫ0

~ through a closed region proportional to

Flux of electric field E
net electric charge Q enclosed in the region (Gauss’s Theorem).
Written with charge density ρ we get Maxwell’s first equation:
~ =
∇·E ρ
ǫ0
 Gauss’s Theorem
(Maxwell’s first equation ...)

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Exercise: what are the values of the ”integrals” over the

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surfaces S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 ? (here in 2D)

 Definitions

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Magnetic field lines from North to South

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Q: which is the direction of the earth magnetic field

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lines ?
 Maxwell’s second equation ...
~=
~ dS ~ dV = 0
RR RRR
S
B V
∇B
~ =0
∇B

~ What goes out

Closed field lines of magnetic flux density (B):
ANY closed surface also goes in, Maxwell’s second equation:

~ = µ0 ∇ H
∇B ~ =0

Physical significance: no Magnetic Monopoles

 Maxwell’s third equation ...

Faradays law:

Changing magnetic field introduces electric current in a coil

Can move magnet towards/away from coil

Can move coil towards/away from magnet

 Maxwell’s third equation ...

R ~ ~
∂B ~ dS
R
~=
H
~ · d~r
− = S∇×E
S ∂t
dS C
E
~ ·S
~ magnetic flux
RR
Φ = S
B

Changing magnetic field through an area induces electric field in

coil in the area (Faraday)
~ = − ∂ B~ = - µ0 ∂ H
∇×E
~
∂t ∂t

bicycle dynamo, generators, inductors, transformers .....

 Maxwell’s fourth equation ...

From Ampere’s law, for example current density ~j:

Static electric current induces magnetic field

~ = µ0~j
∇×B

or if you prefer:

~ d~r = ~ dS
~ = µ0 ~ = µ0 I~
~j dS
H RR RR
C
B S
∇×B S
 Maxwell’s fourth equation ...

From displacement current, for example charging capacitor ~jd :

Changing electric field induce magnetic field

~ = µ0 j~d = ǫ0 µ0 ∂ E~
∇×B ∂t
 Maxwell’s fourth equation ...

From Ampere’s law and displacement current, complete fourth

Maxwell equation:

~ = µ0~j
∇×B

~ = µ0 j~d = ǫ0 µ0 ∂ E~
∇×B ∂t

or:

~ = µ0 (~j + j~d ) = µ0~j + ǫ0 µ0 ∂ E~

∇×B ∂t
 Example: transformer

Transforms A.C. electric energy from one circuit into

another, using magnetic induction
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Changing primary current induces changing magnetic

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flux in core
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Changing of flux induce secondary alternating Voltage

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Voltage ratio determined by number of windings

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 Maxwell’s fourth equation - application

~ = µ0~j we get
Without changing electric field, i.e. ∇ × B
Biot-Savart law. For a straight line current (uniform and
constant) we have then (that’s why curl is interesting):

~ =
B µ0 H ~
r·d~
3
r
4π r
~ =
B µ0 I
2π r

For magnetic field calculations in electromagnets

 Maxwell’s Equations in material

In vacuum:
~ = ǫ0 · E,
D ~ ~ = µ0 · H
B ~

In a material:

D ~
~ = ǫr · ǫ0 · E, ~ = µr · µ0 · H
B ~

ǫr is relative permittivity ≈ [1 − 105 ]

µr is relative permeability ≈ [0(!) − 106 ]
 Summary: Maxwell’s Equations

R
~ · dS
D ~=Q
S
R
~ · dS
B ~ =0
S
H
~ d R ~ ~
r = − dt S B · dS
C E · d~
H
~ r=j+~ d R ~ ~
C H · d~ dt S D · dS

Written in Integral form

 Summary: Maxwell’s Equations

~ =
∇D ρ
~ =
∇B 0
~ = − ∂ B~
∇×E ∂t
~ = ~j + ~
∂D
∇×H ∂t

Written in Differential form

 Some popular confusion ..

~ D,
V.F.A.Q: why this strange mixture of E, ~ B,
~ H~ ??

Materials respond to an applied electric E field and an applied

magnetic B field by producing their own internal charge and
current distributions, contributing to E and B. Therefore H and
D fields are used to re-factor Maxwell’s equations in terms of
the free current density ~j and free charge density ρ:

~ = B~ − M
H ~
µ0
~ = ǫ0 E
D ~ + P~

~ and P
M ~ are M agnetization and P olarisation in material
Applications of Maxwell’s Equations

Lorentz force, motion in EM fields

- Motion in electric fields
- Motion in magnetic fields
EM waves (in vacuum and in material)
Boundary conditions
EM waves in cavities and wave guides
 Lorentz force on charged particles

~ and
Moving (~v ) charged (q) particles in electric (E)
magnetic (B)~ fields experience a force f~ like (Lorentz force):

f~ = ~ + ~v × B)
q · (E ~

for the equation of motion we get (using Newton’s law and

relativistic γ);
d
(m0 γ~v ) = f~ = ~ + ~v × B)
q · (E ~
dt

(More complicated for quantum objects, but not relevant here)

 Motion in electric fields

.q
E F .q E

~
~v ⊥ E ~
~v k E

Assume no magnetic field:

d
(m0 γ~v ) = f~ = ~
q·E
dt

~ also for particles at rest.

Force always in direction of field E,
 Motion in electric fields

E F .q

d
(m0 γ~v ) = f~ = ~
q·E
dt
The solution is:
q·E~ q·E~
~v = · t ~x = · t2 (parabola)
γ · m0 γ · m0

Constant E-field deflects beams: TV, electrostatic separators (SPS,LEP)

 Motion in electric fields

.q
E

d
(m0 γ~v ) = f~ = ~
q·E
dt
~ = (E, 0, 0) in x-direction the energy gain is:
For constant field E

m0 c2 (γ − 1) = qEL

Constant E-field gives uniform acceleration over length L

 Motion in magnetic fields

Assume first no electric field:

d
(m0 γ~v ) = f~ = ~
q · ~v × B
dt
~
Force is perpendicular to both, ~v and B
No forces on particles at rest !
Particles will spiral around the magnetic field lines ...
 Motion in magnetic fields

We get a circular motion with radius ρ:

m0 γv⊥
ρ =
q·B
m0 γv p
defines the Magnetic Rigidity: B · ρ = q
= q

Magnetic fields deflect particles, but no acceleration (synchrotron, ..)

 Motion in magnetic fields

Practical units:
p[ev]
B[T ] · ρ[m] = c[m/s]

Example LHC:
B = 8.33 T, p = 7000 GeV/c ρ = 2804 m
Use of static fields (some examples, incomplete)

Magnetic fields
Bending magnets
Focusing magnets (quadrupoles)
Correction magnets (sextupoles, octupoles, orbit
correctors, ..)
Electric fields
Electrostatic separators (beam separation in
particle-antiparticle colliders)
Very low energy machines
 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
Vacuum: only fields, no charges (ρ = 0), no current (j = 0) ...
~ ~
∇×E = − ∂∂tB
~ ~
∇ × (∇ × E) = −∇ × ( ∂∂tB )
~
−(∇2 E) = − ∂ (∇ × B)~
∂t
2 ~
~
−(∇2 E) = −µǫ ∂∂tE
2

2~ = ~
1 ∂2E ~
∂2E
∇ E c2 ∂t2
=µ·ǫ· ∂t2

Similar expression for the magnetic field:

2~ = ~
1 ∂2B ∂2B~
∇ B 2
c ∂t 2 =µ·ǫ· ∂t2

Equation for a plane wave with velocity in vacuum: c = √ 1

µ0 ·ǫ0
 Electromagnetic waves

E~ = E~0 ei(ωt−~k·~x)
B~ = B~0 ei(ωt−~k·~x)
|~k| = 2π
λ
= ω
c
(propagation vector)
λ = (wave length, 1 cycle)
ω = (frequency · 2π)

Magnetic and electric fields are transverse to direction of

~ ⊥ B
propagation: E ~ ⊥ ~k
 Spectrum of Electromagnetic waves

Example: yellow light ≈ 5 · 1014 Hz (i.e. ≈ 2 eV !)

gamma rays ≤ 3 · 1021 Hz (i.e. ≤ 12 MeV !)
LEP (SR) ≤ 2 · 1020 Hz (i.e. ≈ 0.8 MeV !)
 Boundary conditions for fields

Need to look at the behaviour of electromagnetic fields at

boundaries between different materials (air-glass, air-water,
vacuum-metal, ...).

Important for highly conductive materials, e.g.:

RF systems

Wave guides

Impedance calculations

Can be derived from Maxwell’s equations, here only the results !

 Application and Observation

Some of the light is reflected

Some of the light is transmitted and refracted

 Boundary conditions for fields
Material 1 Material 2
ε1 µ 1 ε2 µ 2
kr
kt

ki

What happens when an incident wave (K ~ i ) encounters a

boundary between two different media ?
~r ), part is transmitted
Part of the wave will be reflected (K
~t)
(K

What happens to the electric and magnetic fields ?

 Boundary conditions for fields

Material 1 Material 2 Material 1 Material 2

ε1 µ 1 ε2 µ 2 ε1 µ 1 ε2 µ 2

Et Dt

En Dn

Assuming no surface charges:

~
tangential E-field constant across boundary (E1t = E2t )
~
normal D-field constant across boundary (D1n = D2n )
 Boundary conditions for fields

Material 1 Material 2 Material 1 Material 2

ε1 µ 1 ε2 µ 2 ε1 µ 1 ε2 µ 2

Ht Bt

Hn Bn

Assuming no surface currents:

~
tangential H-field constant across boundary (H1t = H2t )
~
normal B-field constant across boundary (B1n = B2n )
 Extreme case: ideal conductor
For an ideal conductor (i.e. no resistance) the tangential electric
field must vanish, otherwise a surface current becomes infinite.
Similar conditions for magnetic fields. We must have:
~t = 0,
E B~n = 0

This implies:

All energy of an electromagnetic wave is reflected from the

surface.

Fields at any point in the conductor are zero.

Constraints on possible mode patterns in waveguides and

RF cavities
 Examples: coaxial cables

GHz range, have a cutoff frequency

 Examples: coaxial cables

Mostly TEM modes: electric and magnetic field transverse

to direction
 Examples: cavities and wave guides

Rectangular cavity and wave guide (schematic) with dimensions

a × b × c and a × b:
x x

a a

z z
b b

c
y y

RF cavity, fields can persist and be stored (reflection !)

Plane waves can propagate along wave guides, here in

z-direction
Examples: wave guides
 Consequences for RF cavities

Assume a rectangular RF cavity (a, b, c), ideal conductor.

Boundary conditions cannot be fulfilled by wave in free space.
Without derivations, the components of the fields are:

Ex = Ex0 · cos(kx x) · sin(ky y) · sin(kz z) · e−iωt

Ey = Ey0 · sin(kx x) · cos(ky y) · sin(kz z) · e−iωt
Ez = Ez0 · sin(kx x) · sin(ky y) · cos(kz z) · e−iωt

i
Bx = (Ey0 kz − Ez0 ky ) · sin(kx x) · cos(ky y) · cos(kz z) · e−iωt
ω
i
By = (Ez0 kx − Ex0 kz ) · cos(kx x) · sin(ky y) · cos(kz z) · e−iωt
ω
i
Bz = (Ex0 ky − Ey0 kx ) · cos(kx x) · cos(ky y) · sin(kz z) · e−iωt
ω
 Consequences for RF cavities

This requires the condition:

ω2
kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = 2
c
and with all boundary conditions:
mx π my π mz π
kx = , ky = , kz = ,
a b c
The numbers mx , my , mz are called mode numbers, important for
shape of cavity !
 Consequences for wave guides

Similar considerations lead to (propagating) solutions in

(rectangular) wave guides:

Ex = Ex0 · cos(kx x) · sin(ky y) · e−i(kz z−ωt)

Ey = Ey0 · sin(kx x) · cos(ky y) · e−i(kz z−ωt)
Ez = i · Ez0 · sin(kx x) · sin(ky y) · e−i(kz z−ωt)

1
Bx = (Ey0 kz − Ez0 ky ) · sin(kx x) · cos(ky y) · e−i(kz z−ωt)
ω
1
By = (Ez0 kx − Ex0 kz ) · cos(kx x) · sin(ky y) · e−i(kz z−ωt)
ω
1
Bz = (Ex0 ky − Ey0 kx ) · cos(kx x) · cos(ky y) · e−i(kz z−ωt)
i·ω
 The fields in wave guides

Electric and magnetic fields through a wave guide

Shapes are consequences of boundary conditions !

Can be Transverse Electric (TE, no E-field in z-direction) or

Transverse Magnetic (TM, no B-field in z-direction)
 Modes in wave guides

Modes in wave guides

Field lines, high where density of lines is high

 Consequences for wave guides

We must satisfy again the the condition:

ω2
kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = 2
c
This leads to modes like:
mx π my π
kx = , ky = ,
a b
The numbers mx , my are called mode numbers for planar waves
in wave guides !
 Consequences for wave guides

Re-writing the condition as:

ω2
kz2 = 2 − kx2 − ky2
c
Propagation without losses requires kz to be real, i.e.:
ω2 2 2 mx π 2 my π 2
> k x + k y = ( ) + ( )
c2 a b
which defines a cut-off frequency ωc .

Above cut-off frequency: propagation without loss

Below cut-off frequency: attenuated wave

 Cut off frequency (1D)

Modes in wave guide

2
TE40 m = 4
TE20 m = 2
TE10 m = 1
1.5 m < 1

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
a

Boundary condition E = 0 at: x = 0 and x = a

2a
Requirement for wavelength λx = mx
, mx integer

mx = 1 defines cut off wavelength/frequency

 Done ...
Review of basics and Maxwell’s equations

Lorentz force

Motion of particles in electromagnetic fields

Electromagnetic waves in vacuum

Electromagnetic waves in conducting media

Waves in RF cavities
Waves in wave guides
- BACKUP SLIDES -
 Maxwell’s first equation - example

~ according to:
A charge q generates a field E

~ = q ~r
E
4πǫ0 r3
Surface integral through sphere S is just the charge inside the
sphere: Z Z Z Z
~ · dS
~ = q dS q
E =
sphere
4πǫ0 sphere
r2 ǫ0
 Is that the full truth ?

If we have a circulating E-field along the circle of radius R ?

should get acceleration !
Remember Maxwell’s third equation:
I Z
~ · d~r d ~ · dS
~
E = − B
C
dt S

dΦ
2πREθ = −
dt
 Motion in magnetic fields
This is the principle of a Betatron
Time varying magnetic field creates circular electric field !
Time varying magnetic field deflects the charge !

For a constant radius we need:

m · v2 p
− = e·v·B B=−
R e·R
∂ 1 dp
B(r, t) = −
∂t e · R dt
Z Z
1 1
B(r, t) = BdS
2 πR2
B-field on orbit must be half the average over the circle
Betatron condition
 Other case: finite conductivity

Assume conductor with finite conductivity (σc = ρ−1

c ) , waves
will penetrate into surface. Order of the skin depth is:
r
2ρc
δs =
µω
i.e. depend on resistivity, permeability and frequency of the
waves (ω).
We can get the surface impedance as:
µ µω
q
Z = =
ǫ k
the latter follows from our definition of k and speed of light.
Since the wave vector k is complex, the impedance is also
complex. We get a phase shift between electric and magnetic
field.