Angkor Wat

Angkor (Khmer: អងង្គរ) is a region of Cambodia that served as the seat of the Khmer Empire, which flourished from
approximately the 9th to 13th centuries. The word Angkor is derived from the Sanskrit nagara (नगर), meaning "city".
[1]
The Angkorian period began in AD 802, when the Khmer Hindu monarch Jayavarman II declared himself a
"universal monarch" and "god-king", until 1431, when Ayutthayan invaders sacked the Khmer capital, causing its
population to migrate south to the area of Phnom Penh.
The ruins of Angkor are located amid forests and farmland to the north of the Great Lake (Tonle Sap) and south of the
Kulen Hills, near modern-day Siem Reap (13°24′N, 103°51′E), and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temples
of the Angkor area number over one thousand, ranging in scale from nondescript piles of brick rubble scattered through
rice fields to the magnificent Angkor Wat, said to be the world's largest single religious monument. Many of the
temples at Angkor have been restored, and together, they comprise the most significant site of Khmer architecture.
Visitor numbers approach two million annually.
In 2007, an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques concluded that
Angkor had been the largest preindustrial city in the world, with an elaborate system of infrastructure connecting an
urban sprawl of at least 1000 square kilometres to the well-known temples at its core. [2] The closest rival to Angkor, the
Mayan city of Tikal in Guatemala, was between 100 and 150 square kilometres in total size. [3] Although its population
remains a topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systems in the Angkor area may have supported
up to one million people
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Angkor Wat is a temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as
his state temple and capital city. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a
significant religious centre since its foundation — first Hindu, dedicated to the god Vishnu, then Buddhist. It is the
world's largest religious building.[1] The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has
become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors.
Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple mountain and the later galleried
temple, based on early South Indian Hindu architecture, with key features such as the Jagati. It is designed to represent
Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are
three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike
most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The
temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs and for the numerous
devatas (guardian spirits) adorning its walls.
The modern name, Angkor Wat, means "City Temple"; Angkor is a vernacular form of the word នគរ nokor which comes
from the Sanskrit word नगर nagara meaning capital or city. Wat is the Khmer word for temple. Prior to this time the
temple was known as Preah Pisnulok, after the posthumous title of its founder, Suryavarman II.[2]
History
Angkor Wat is the southernmost temple of Angkor's main group of sites.

An 1866 photograph of Angkor Wat by Emile Gsell

Angkor Wat lies 5.5 km north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the
previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. It is in an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of
ancient structures. It is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.
The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of
Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150). Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As
neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original
name is unknown, but it may have been known as Vrah Vishnulok after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended
shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished.[3] In 1177, approximately 27 years
after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter
the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom
and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometres to the north.
In the late 13th century, Angkor Wat gradually moved from Hindu to Theravada Buddhist use, which continues to the
present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the
16th century it was never completely abandoned, its preservation being due in part to the fact that its moat also
provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle. [4]
One of the first Western visitors to the temple was Antonio da Magdalena, a Portuguese monk who visited in 1586 and
said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is
like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can
conceive of".[5] However, the temple was popularised in the West only in the mid-19th century on the publication of
Henri Mouhot's travel notes. The French explorer wrote of it:
"One of these temples—a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo—might take an
honourable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and
presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged." [6]
Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple, and
mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from
stylistic and epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across
the whole Angkor site.
There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement including cooking utensils, weapons, or items
of clothing usually found at ancient sites. Instead there is the evidence of the monuments themselves. [7]
Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century, mainly the removal of accumulated earth and
vegetation.[8] Work was interrupted by the civil war and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and
1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period other than the theft and destruction of mostly post-
Angkorian statues.[9]
The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia's
diplomatic relations with its neighbour Thailand, France and the United States. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a
part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863. [10]
The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France
adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on August 11, 1863. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the
northwestern corner of the country that had been under Thai control since the Thai invasion of 1431 AD. [11] Cambodia
gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time.
During the midst of the Vietnam War, Chief of State Norodom Sihanouk hosted Jacqueline Kennedy in Cambodia to
fulfill her "lifelong dream of seeing Angkor Wat."[12]
In January 2003 riots erupted in Phnom Penh when a false rumour circulated that a Thai soap opera actress had
claimed that Angkor Wat belonged to Thailand.
Architecture
Site and plan

Upper gallery at Angkor Wat Detailed plan of the the central structure
General plan of Angkor Wat with central structure in the middle
Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E13.4125°N 103.866667°E, is a unique combination of the temple
mountain, the standard design for the empire's state temples, the later plan of concentric galleries, and influences from
Orissa and the Chola of Tamil Nadu, India. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the
central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding
mountain ranges and ocean.[14] Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity
being admitted only to the lowest level.[15]
Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including
Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple. [16] Further
evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in
Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic
funeral services.[8] The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar
which was recovered from the central tower. [17] It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on
the disposal of a corpse.[18] Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the
typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was
associated with the west.[14]
 A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment
and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that the structure represents a
claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built
into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors
meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." [19][20]
Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. [17] She
distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation
of the constellation Draco.[21]
Style
Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has
given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather
than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was
used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified,
although natural resins or slaked lime have been suggested.[22]
Angkor Wat has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design, which has been compared to the architecture of
ancient Greece and Rome. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains
a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its
proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style."[23]
Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds;
half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear
along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments
extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and
less graceful than earlier work.[24] Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time,
including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.
[25]

The Angkor Wat style was followed by that of the Bayon period, in which quality was often sacrificed to quantity. [26] Other
temples in the style are Banteay Samré, Thommanon, Chao Say Tevoda and the early temples of Preah Pithu at Angkor;
outside Angkor, Beng Mealea and parts of Phanom Rung and Phimai.
Features

The outer wall, 1024 by 802 m and 4.5 m high, is surrounded by a 30 m apron of open ground and a moat 190 m wide.
Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance,
is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. [27] There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western
is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the
temple proper.[28] Under the southern tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which may originally have
occupied the temple's central shrine.[27] Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either
side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries
have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is
decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with
balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only
one in the temple to be showing her teeth.
The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally
occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were
built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets.
[29]
Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper,
with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with
entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and
the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the
causeway to the central structure.[29]
Central structure
Miniature model of the central structure of Angkor Wat. In the foreground the cruciform terrace which lies in front of
the central structure.
The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central
tower, each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the
moon, and Vishnu.[3] Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at
their corners, forming a quincunx with the central tower. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back
towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the
west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.
The outer gallery measures 187 by 215 m, with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the
outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer
gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (the "Hall of a Thousand
Buddhas"). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been
removed. This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in
Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with
water.[30] North and south of the cloister are libraries.
Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform
terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to
four. The second-level enclosure is 100 by 115 m, and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around
Mount Meru.[31] Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very
steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. [32] This inner gallery, called the Bakan,
is a 60 m square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines located
below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the
heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The
tower above the central shrine rises 43 m to a height of 65 m above the ground; unlike those of previous temple
mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. [33] The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of
Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls
featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled
with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf
two metres above ground level.[34]
Angkor Wat today
The Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple between 1986 and 1992. [43] Since the
1990s, Angkor Wat has seen continued conservation efforts and a massive increase in tourism. The temple is part of the
Angkor World Heritage Site, established in 1992, which has provided some funding and has encouraged the
Cambodian government to protect the site.[44] The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect
the devatas and other bas-reliefs which decorate the temple from damage. The organisation's survey found that around
20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in
part also due to earlier restoration efforts. [45] Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and
prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since
2002,[46] while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005. [47] World
Monuments Fund began work on the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008.
Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 2004 and 2005, government figures suggest that, respectively,
561,000 and 677,000 foreign visitors arrived in Siem Reap province, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in
Cambodia for both years.[48] The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti;
ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also
provided some additional funds for maintenance—as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the whole
Angkor site was spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by foreign government-sponsored teams
rather than by the Cambodian authorities.

Africa Spread of islam

]North Africa

In Egypt, the victorious Muslims granted religious freedom to the Christian community in Alexandria, for example,
and the Alexandrians quickly recalled their exiled Monophysite patriarch to rule over them, subject only to the
ultimate political authority of the conquerors. In such a fashion the city persisted as a religious community under an
Arab Muslim domination more welcome and more tolerant than that of Byzantium . [38]
Byzantine rule was ended by the Arabs, who invaded Tunisia from 647-648[39] andMorocco in 682 in the course of
their drive to expand the power of Islam. In 670, the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi established the city
of Kairouan (in Tunisia) and its Great Mosque also known as the Mosque of Uqba;[40] the Great Mosque of
Kairouan is the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. [37] Berber troops were used extensively by
the Arabs in their conquest of Spain, which began in 711.
No previous conqueror had tried to assimilate the Berbers, but the Arabs quickly converted them and enlisted their
aid in further conquests. Without their help, for example, Andalusia could never have been incorporated into the
Islamicate state. At first only Berbers nearer the coast were involved, but by the 11th century Muslim affiliation had
begun to spread far into the Sahara.[41]
The conventional historical view is that the conquest of North Africa by the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate between
AD 647–709 effectively ended Catholicism in Africa for several centuries. [42] However, new scholarship has appeared
that provides more nuance and details of the conversion of the Christian inhabitants to Islam. A Christian community is
recorded in 1114 in Qal'a in central Algeria. There is also evidence of religious pilgrimages after 850 AD to tombs of
Catholic saints outside of the city of Carthage, and evidence of religious contacts with Christians of Arab Spain. In
addition, calendar reforms adopted in Europe at this time were disseminated amongst the indigenous Christians of
Tunis, which would have not been possible had there been an absence of contact with Rome. During the reign
of Umar II, the then governor of Africa, Ismail ibn Abdullah, was said to have won the Berbers to Islam by his just
administration, and other early notable missionaries include Abdallah ibn Yasin who started a movement which
caused thousands of Berbers to accept Islam.[16]
[edit]Horn of Africa
The history of commercial and intellectual contact between the inhabitants of the Somali coast and the Arabian
Peninsula may help explain the Somali people's connection with the Prophet Muhammad. Early on, a band of
persecuted Muslims had, at the Prophet's urging, fled across the Red Sea into the Horn of Africa. There, the
Muslims were granted protection by the Ethiopian negus (king). Islam may thus have been introduced into the Horn
of Africa well before the faith even took root in its place of origin. [43]
[edit]East Africa
On the east coast of Africa, where Arab mariners had for many years journeyed to trade, mainly in slaves, Arabs
founded permanent colonies on the offshore islands, especially on Zanzibar, in the 9th and 10th century. From there
Arab trade routes into the interior of Africa helped the slow acceptance of Islam.
In the 20th century, Islam grew in Africa both by birth and by conversion. The number of Muslims in Africa grew from
34.5 million in 1900 to 315 million in 2000, going from roughly 20% to 40% of the total population of Africa. [44] However,
in the same time period, the number of Christians also grew in Africa, from 8.7 million in 1900 to 346 million in 2000,
surpassing both the total population as well as the growth rate of Islam on the continent. [45][44]
[edit]Western Africa
The spread of Islam in Africa began in the 7th to 9th century, brought to North Africa initially under the Umayyad
Dynasty. Extensive trade networks throughout North and West Africa created a medium through which Islam spread
peacefully, initially through the merchant class. By sharing a common religion and a common transliteralization
(Arabic), traders showed greater willingness to trust, and therefore invest, in one another. [46] Moreover, toward the
18th century, the Nigeria based Sokoto Caliphate led by Usman dan Fodio exerted considerable effort in
spreading Islam.[16]
When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and made the long journey from there
to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established as
the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and
intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local rulers.
Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting
much of North Africa and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once again by local
dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim power continued to
wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 thus bringing nearly eight hundred years of
Muslim rule in Spain to an end.

Nara period
The Nara period of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794.[1]Empress Gemmei established
the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for 5 years (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again,
it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in
784 before moving to Heian-kyō, or Kyoto, a decade later in 794.
Most of Japanese society during this period was agricultural in nature and centered around villages. Most of the
villagers followed a religion based on the worship of natural and ancestral spirits called kami.
The capital at Nara was modeled after Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the capital city of Tang China. In many other
ways, the Japanese upper classes patterned themselves after the Chinese, including adopting Chinese written
characters (Japanese: kanji), fashion, and the religion of Buddhism.
According to the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan Nihon Shoki the name "Nara" derived from
the Japanese verb narasu "to flatten".[2]
Economic, social, and administrative developments
Before the Taihō Code was established, the capital was customarily moved after the death of an emperor because of
the ancient belief that a place of death was polluted. Reforms and bureaucratization of government led to the
establishment of a permanent imperial capital at Heijō-kyō, or Nara, in AD 710. It is to be noted that the capital was
moved shortly (for reasons described later in this section) to Kuni-kyō (present-day Kizugawa) in 740–744,
toNaniwa-kyō (present-day Osaka) in 744–745, to Shigarakinomiya present-dayShigaraki) in 745, and moved
back to Nara in 745. Nara was Japan's first truly urban center. It soon had a population of 200,000 (representing nearly
4% of the country's population) and some 10,000 people worked in government jobs.
Economic and administrative activity increased during the Nara period. Roads linked Nara to provincial capitals, and
taxes were collected more efficiently and routinely. Coins were minted, if not widely used. Outside the Nara area,
however, there was little commercial activity, and in the provinces the old Shōtoku land reform systems declined. By
the mid-eighth century, shōen (landed estates), one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan,
began to rise as a result of the search for a more manageable form of landholding. Local administration gradually
became more self-sufficient, while the breakdown of the old land distribution system and the rise of taxes led to the
loss or abandonment of land by many people who became the "wave people" ( furōsha). Some of these formerly
"public people" were privately employed by large landholders, and "public lands" increasingly reverted to the shōen.
Factional fighting at the imperial court continued throughout the Nara period. Imperial family members, leading court
families, such as theFujiwara, and Buddhist priests all contended for influence. Earlier this period, Prince
Nagaya seized power at the court after the death ofFujiwara no Fuhito. Fuhito was succeeded by four
sons, Muchimaro, Umakai, Fusasaki, and Maro. They put Emperor Shōmu, the prince by Fuhito's daughter, on
the throne. In 729, they arrested Nagaya and regained control. However, as the first outbreak of smallpox spread
from Kyūshū in 735, all four brothers were killed two years later, resulting in temporary shrinking of Fujiwara's
dominance. It is without doubt that the Emperor was heavily shocked about this disaster, and he moved the palace
three times in only five years since 740, until he eventually returned to Nara. In the late Nara period, financial burdens
on the state increased, and the court began dismissing nonessential officials. In 792 universal conscription was
abandoned, and district heads were allowed to establish private militia forces for local police work. Decentralization of
authority became the rule despite the reforms of the Nara period. Eventually, to return control to imperial hands, the
capital was moved in 784 to Nagaoka-kyō and in 794 to Heian-kyō (literally Capital of Peace and Tranquility), about
twenty-six kilometers north of Nara. By the late eleventh century, the city was popularly called Kyoto (capital city), the
name it has had ever since.

Cultural developments and the establishment of Buddhism

Some of Japan's literary monuments were written during the Nara period, including the Kojiki andNihon Shoki, the
first national histories, compiled in 712 and 720 respectively; the Man'yōshū, an anthology of poems; and
the Kaifūsō, an anthology written in Chinese by Japanese emperors and princes.
Another major cultural development of the era was the permanent establishment of Buddhism. Buddhism was
introduced by Baekje in the sixth century, but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily
embraced by Emperor Shōmu. Shōmu and his Fujiwara consort were fervent Buddhists and actively promoted the
spread of Buddhism, making it the "guardian of the state" and a way of strengthening Japanese institutions.
During Shōmu's reign, the Tōdai-ji (literally Eastern Great Temple) was built, and within it was placed the Great
Buddha Daibutsu; a sixteen-metre-high, gilt-bronze statue. This Buddha was identified with the Sun Goddess, and a
gradual syncretism of Buddhism and Shinto ensued. Shōmu declared himself the "Servant of the Three Treasures"
of Buddhism: the Buddha, the law or teachings of Buddhism, and the Buddhist community.
The central government also established temples called kokubunji in the provinces. The Tōdai-ji was the kokubunji
of Yamato Province (present-day Nara Prefecture).
Although these efforts stopped short of making Buddhism the state religion, Nara Buddhism heightened the status of
the imperial family. Buddhist influence at court increased under the two reigns of Shōmu's daughter. As Empress
Kōken (r. 749–758) she brought many Buddhist priests into court. Kōken abdicated in 758 on the advice of her
cousin, Fujiwara no Nakamaro. When the retired empress came to favor a Buddhist faith healer named Dōkyō,
Nakamaro rose up in arms in 764 but was quickly crushed. Kōken charged the ruling emperor with colluding with
Nakamaro and had him deposed. Kōken reascended the throne as Empress Shōtoku (r. 764–770). The empress
commissioned the printing of 1 million prayer charms—theHyakumantō dharani —many examples of which
survive. The small scrolls, dating from 770, are among the earliest printed works in the world. Shōtoku had the charms
printed to placate the Buddhist clergy. She may even have wanted to make Dōkyō emperor, but she died before she
could act. Her actions shocked Nara society and led to the exclusion of women from imperial succession and the
removal of Buddhist priests from positions of political authority.
Many of the Japanese artworks and imported treasures from other countries during the era of Emperors Shōmu and
Shōtoku are archived inShōsō-in of Tōdai-ji temple. They are called Shōsōin treasures, and illustrate the
cosmopolitan culture also known as Tempyō culture. Imported treasures show various influences of Silk
Road areas, including China, Korea, India, and Islamic Empire. Also, Shosoin stores more than 10,000 paper
documents so-called Shōsōin documents . These are records written in the reverse side of the sutra or in the wrapping
of imported items, and survived as a result of reusing wasted official documents. Shōsōin documents contribute greatly
to the research of Japanese political and social systems of the Nara period, while they even indicate the development
of Japanese writing systems(such as katakana).
Nara period literature
Concentrated efforts by the imperial court to record and document its history produced the first works ofJapanese
literature during the Nara period. Works such as the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki were political in nature, used to record
and therefore justify and establish the supremacy of the rule of the emperors within Japan.
With the spread of written language, the writing of Japanese poetry, known in Japanese as waka, began. Over time,
personal collections were referenced to establish the first large collection of Japanese poetry known
as Man'yōshū sometime after 759. Chinese characters were used to express sounds of Japaneseuntil kana were
invented. The Chinese characters used to express the sounds of Japanese are known as man'yōgana.

NAGAR TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

India's temple architecture developed from the sthapathis' and shilpis' creativity. In general these are from the
Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, in which
the image is housed, often circumambulation, a congregation hall, and possibly an antechamber and porch. The
sanctum is crowned by a tower-like shikara. At the turn of the first millennium Common Era|CE two major types of
temples existed, the northern or Nagara style and the southern or Dravida type of temple. They are distinguishable by
the shape and decoration of their shikharas (Dehejia 1997).

Nagara style: The tower/shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped.

Dravida style: The tower/shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions. [5]
The earliest Nagar temples are in Karnataka (e.g. Galaganath at Pattadakal) and some very early Dravida-style
temples (e.g. Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior) are actually in North India. A complex style termed Vesara was once common
in Karnataka which combined the two styles.
This may be seen in the classic Hindu temples of India and Southeast Asia, such as Angkor Wat, Brihadisvara Temple,
Khajuraho, Mukteshvara, and Prambanan.

Design and history

Main|Vastu Shastra Image:Dodda Basappa Temple.JPG|right|thumb|x216px| text|Dodda Basappa
Temple at Dambal, Karnataka is a unique 24-pointed, uninterrupted stellate (star-shaped), 7-
tiered dravida plan, 12th century CE

History
The temple is a representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the Macrocosm and
microcosm|microcosm (the inner space).
The Magadha empire rose with the Shishunaga dynasty in around 650 BC. The Ashtadhyayi of Panini
(scholar)|Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BC speaks of images that were used in Hindu
temple worship. The ordinary images were called pratikriti and the images for worship were called
archa (see As. 5.3.96–100). Patanjali, the 2nd century BC author of the Mahabhashya commentary on
the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the images. Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but
an archa of Shiva was just called Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities. There is also
mention of the worship of Vasudeva (Krishna). We are also told that some images could be moved and
some were immoveable. Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were people
(priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it.
Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas. The earlier Shatapatha Brahmana of
the period of the Vedas, informs us of an image in the shape of Purusha which was placed within the
altar.
The Vedas|Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is divided into 64 or 81
smaller square, where each of these represent a specific divinity.

Design/Plan
In design/plan of a temple, several parts of Temple architecture are considered, most common amongst
these are:
Jagati
[6]
Jagati is a term used refer to a raised surface, platform or terrace upon which the temple is placed.

Antarala
Antarala is a small antichamber or foyer between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more
[7]
typical of north Indian temples.

Mandapa
Mandapa (ममंडप in Hindi/Sanskrit, also spelled mantapa or mandapam) is a term to refer to Column|
[8]
pillared outdoor hall or Pavilion (structure)|pavilion for public rituals.

Sreekovil or Garbhagriha
Sreekovil or Garbhagriha the part in which the murti|idol of the devata|deity in a Hindu temple is
installed i.e.Sanctum sanctorum. The area around is referred as to the Chuttapalam, which generally
includes other deities and the main boundary wall of the temple. Typically there is also a Pradakshina|
Pradikshna area in the Sreekovil and one outside, where devotees can take Pradakshinas.
Śikhara or Vimanam
Sikhara|Śikhara or Vimanam literally means "mountain peak", refer to the rising tower over the
sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a
Hindu temples.
Gopuram
Gopurams are the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, not to be confused with
Shikharas.

Nagara architecture
Image:Khajuraho.KandariyaMahadeva.jpg|thumb|right|x216px| text|Kandariya Mahadeva Temple|
Kandariya Mahadeva temple, part of the UNESCO World Heritage site at Khajuraho Group of
Monuments|Khajuraho Nagara temples have two distinct features - in the planning and in the elevation.
In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side giving
a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. In elevation, a Sikhara i.e. tower
gradually incline inwards in a convex curve. The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the
top of the Sikhara, and thus there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation, called Rekha
Sikhara.
The Nagara style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct verities and
ramifications in different lines of evolution and elaboration according to each locality. An example of
Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple|Kandariya Mahadeva temple, the largest and
loftiest temple of Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho, with its mature planning, designing and
dimensions. It has superb sculptural embellishment and architectural elaboration and is amongst the
most evolved and finished.
Indus-Sarasvati Civilization and the Vedic Village

The earliest production in the Indus Valley Civilization was characterised by well planned cities and
houses where religion did not seem to play an active role. The presence of drainage systems and public
baths showed advanced standards of hygiene and sanitation and ingenious planning. The Vedic village
had certain distinct characteristics that influenced subsequent architectural production. The Vedic
grama could have a pur, or a fort-like structure within it. The Vedic hymns speak of "purs" made of
stone and metal.

The Vedas have many words for houses. It appears that the main distinction was between chhardis
( house with a thatched roof), harmyam (a house of brick and stone that had a courtyard in the
middle), and gotra (a multi-dwelling complex with sheds for animals). The Rig-Veda speaks once of a
palace with 1000 doors, and twice of a palace with 1000 columns.

The nomads that streamed in from the Northwest towards the middle of the second millennium B.C.
overwhelmed the indigenous people of the subcontinent with their superior military technology. The
Indus Valley Civilization, weakened from generations of fighting the river floods, constantly rebuilding
their cities, lacked the moral will to put up much resistance. In short order the magnificent cities were
emptied of all population, and the Dasyus, as the Aryan invaders contemptuously called them, either
were co-opted into the lowest rung of the new society, or migrated further south into peninsular India.

Curiously, the Aryans did not settle into the well-planned cities of the Harappan culture, and instead
preferred to clear forests around the riverbanks of the Gangetic plain and settle in small villages. This
could be due to the inherent dislike of a pastoral people to settle in one place for very long, and thus
their innate suspicion of any hint of permanence. Or of course, it could be the sheer alien value of the
architecture that they found, and they preferred to stick with the tried and tested.
Blueprint for the Future
No architectural examples of this period are surviving. The Aryans built no colossal monuments. So
what is the importance of this period? It was early Aryan architectural forms that were translated into
the architecture of India for thousands of years. The caves of Ajanta and Ellora, much of Buddhist
architecture, were directly influenced by the simple village structures of the Aryan villages.

But if there are no remaining specimens, what are the sources through which we glean knowledge
about the architecture? Considerable information is given in the Vedas. These ancient texts were
composed by the Aryan seers and handed down through generations orally. The great epics, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana, vividly picture village and town life during Aryavrata, or the Aryan
age. In addition, carvings on the Stupas at Barhut and Sanchi, which depict Aryan village life vividly.
Upon coming to India, the settlers gave up their totally nomadic existence and became part-
agriculturalists. This provided the impetus to build villages, the basic unit of which was the hut. For
building material, the abundant forest provided ample raw stock. The Aryan hut, in its most basic
shape, was circular in plan, with a thatched roof over a bamboo network of ribs. This was later
elongated to become rectangular in plan, with roofing of bamboo as well, only this time curved in the
shape of a barrel. Clusters of these huts formed a courtyard, much like huts in Indian villages even
today. The better-off citizens roofed them with planks of wood or tiles, and used unbaked bricks for the
walls. To maintain the barrel shape of the roof, a thong or string, perhaps of animal hide, was stretched
across the end of the bamboo.

The Three Stages of Vedic Houses

For protection against wild animals, a palisade fence of wood and bamboo surrounded the whole
settlement. This fence was made of upright posts of bamboo with horizontal members threaded into
holes in posts. At one point, the fence was extended forward to form a sort of gate. These forms - the
barrel vaulted roof, the tie-cord, and the palisade fence and railing, formed important motifs for future
Indian Architecture. In fact, huts in modern Orissa, one of the poorest Indian states, are still carrying
traces of this influence, with symbolism dating back to Vedic times.

City-states and Timber Construction

With the conversion of the early Vedic people into agriculturalists, a growing rivalry for precious fertile
land was inevitable. Groups of small villages banded together, and small 'cities' began to take shape. A
palisade wall inevitably protected these and the buildings within were also made almost entirely of
wood. The Vedic carpenters developed skill in timber construction of a very high standard. It is not
surprising, therefore, that in later ages timber construction techniques were employed even though the
material of construction was radically different - i.e. stone.

In general, the cities of the Vedic period were rectangular in plan and divided into four quarters by two
main thoroughfares intersecting at right angles, each leading to a city gate. One of these quarters
contained the citadel and another housed the residential area. A third quarter was reserved for the
merchants, and the last for tradesmen who could display their wares.

From these modest beginnings, early Hindu architecture gradually metamorphosed into the magnificent
Buddhist stupas and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta.

ROCOCCO ARCHITECTURE

Rococo , also referred to as "Late Baroque", is an 18th-century style which developed

as Baroque artists gave up their symmetry and became increasingly ornate, florid, and playful. Rococo
rooms were designed as total works of art with elegant and ornate furniture, small sculptures,
ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings.

Architecture
Rococo architecture, as mentioned above, was a lighter, more graceful, yet also more elaborate version
of Baroque architecture, which was ornate and austere. Whilst the styles were similar, there are some
notable differences between both Rococo and Baroque architecture, one of them being symmetry,
[8]
since Rococo emphasised the asymmetry of forms,[8] whilst Baroque was the opposite.[9] The styles,
despite both being richly decorated, also had different themes; the Baroque, for instance, was more
serious, placing an emphasis on religion, and was often characterized by Christian themes[10] (as a
matter of fact, the Baroque began in Rome as a response to the Protestant Reformation);[11] Rococo
architecture was an 18th-century, more secular, adaptation of the Baroque which was characterized by
more light-hearted and jocular themes.[10] Other elements belonging to the architectural style of Rococo
include numerous curves and decorations, as well as the usage of pale colours.[12]

There are numerous examples of Rococo buildings as well as architects. Amongst the most famous
include the Catherine Palace, in Russia, the Queluz National Palace in Portugal, theAugustusburg and
Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl, the Chinese House (Potsdam) the Charlottenburg Palace in Germany, as well
as elements of the Château de Versailles in France. Architects who were renowned for their
constructions using the style include Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, an Italian architect who worked in
Russia[13]and who was noted for his lavish and opulent works, Philip de Lange, who worked in both
Danish and Dutch Rococo architecture, or Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, who worked in the late
Baroque style and who contributed to the reconstruction of the city of Dresden, in Germany.

Rococo architecture also brought significant changes to the building of edifices, placing an emphasis on
privacy rather than the grand public majesty of Baroque architecture, as well as improving the
structure of buildings in order to create a more healthy environment.[12]

Rococo in different artistic modes

Furniture and decorative objects
Garden design
Interior design
Painting