RS ETHICSAlter studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1 Define ethies. 2. Explain the role of values in ethical decision making. 3. Understand opposing ethical theories and their limitations. 4. Discuss ethical relativism. 5 Explain an ethical dilemma and apply a process to resolve it, PMTs FRONTLINE FOCUS Doing the Right Thing gan is arental agent for the Oxtord Lake apartment Conran oe ets soso ako se “prt ae Mehl Tova can Atom cle og 0 Nr Ma trl ens dregs an ho os sgn a San prvi ey sore a “oa at nen an "thnk thay bo a prtest ation tour community” “Don't rash ther application trough oo quickly tenis Kate, “We have tre tod my pe more aplcats, arn anc, tose peace usualy ae up breaking thi ase or siping town with unpaid ot ‘Questions: 1, Whatwauldbe “the rent hing” there? Hee woul ne "Gon Rub” on page relat to Wagan’ decision? 2. Howwoulyouroxahe hs oc dilenma? eviow he thoe-sap proses on page 8 or mot dtl 2. What shuld Mego dono Ethics is about how we meet the challenge of doing the right thing when that will cost more than we want to pay. The Josephson Institute of Ethies Chapter 1/ Understanding Ethics + 3>> What Is Ethics? ‘The field of ethies is the study of how we try to live our lives according to a standard of “right” or “wrong’ behavior—in both how we think and behave toward others and how we would like them to think and behave toward us, For some, it is a con- scious choice to follow a set of moral standards or ethical principles that pro- vide guidance on how they should conduct themselves in their daily lives. For oth- ers, where the choice is not so clear, they look to the behavior of others to determine what is an ac- ceptable standard of right and wrong or good and bad behavior. How they arrive at the definition of what's right or wrong is a result of many factors, including how they were raised, their religion, and the traditions and beliefs of their society. Ethies The manner by which we try to lve our lives ‘ccording to 9 standard of “right” or “wrong” behavior think and behave toward ‘others and how we would lke them to think and behave toward us, Society A structured community of people bound together by similar traditions and customs, culture A ps of attitudes, practices that characterize a ‘group of ingividuals. Value System A set of personal principles formalized into a code of behavior Intrinsic Value The quality by which a value is a good thing in itseif and is pursued forits own eake, whether anything comes from that pursuit or not. >> Understanding Right and Wrong Moral standards are principles based on religious, cultural, or philosophical beliefs by which judgments are made about good ‘or bad behavior. These beliefs can ‘come from many different sources: Friends Family Ethnic background Religion School ‘The media—television, radio, magazines, the newspapers, Internet + Personal role mentors models and Your personal set of morals— your morality—represents a 4 + Business Ethies Now collection of all these influences as they are built up over your lifetime. A strict family upbringing or reli gious education would obviously have a direct impact fon your personal moral standards. ‘These standards would then provide a moral compass (a sense of per: sonal direction) to guide you in the choices you make in your life. HOW SHOULD I LIVE? You do not acquire your personal moral standards in the same way that you learn the alphabet. Standards of ethical behavior are absorbed by osmosis as you observe the examples (both positive and negative) set by everyone around you—parents, family members, friends, peers, and neighbors. Your adoption of those standards is ultimately unique to you as an individual, For example, you may be influenced by the teachings of your family’s religious beliefs and grow to believe that behaving ethically toward others represents 2 demonstration of religious devotion. However, that devotion may just as easily be motivated by either fear of a divine punishment in the afterlife or anticipation, of a reward for living a virtuous life. Alternatively, you may choose to reject religious morality and instead base your ethical behavior on your experience of human existence rather than any abstract concepts of right and wrong as determined bya religious doctrine. When individuals share similar standards in a community, we can use the terms values and value system. The terms morals and values are often used to mean the same thing—a set of personal principles by which you aim to live your life. When you try to formalize those principles into a code of behavior, then you are seen to be adopting a 4 value system. THE VALUE OF A VALUE Just as the word value is used to denote the worth of an item, a per- son's values can be said to have a specific “worth” for them, That worth can be expressed in two ways: 1. An intrinsic value—by which a value is a good thing in itself and is pursued for its own sake, whether anything good comes from that pursuit or not. For example, happiness, health,and self-respect can all be said to have intrinsic value. 2, An instrumental value—by which the pursuit of one value is a good way to reach another value For example, money is valued for what it can buy rather than for itself. VALUE CONFLICTS ‘The impact of a person's or a group's value system can be seen in the extent to which their daily lives are influenced by those values. However, the greatest test of any personal value system comes when you are presented with a situation that places those values in Girect conflict with an action, For example: 1. Lying is wrong—but what if you were lying to pro: tect the life ofa loved one? 2, Stealing is wrong—but what if you were stealing food for a starving child? 3. Killing is wrong—but what if you had to kill some one in self-defense to protect your own life? How do you resolve such con- flicts? Are there exceptions to these rules? Can you justify those actions based on special cir cumstances? Should you then start clari- fying the exceptions to your value system? If so, can you really plan for every possible exception? It is this gray area that makes the study of ethics so complex. We would like to believe that there are clearly defined rules of right and wrong and that you can live your life in direct observance of those rules, However, it is more likely that situations will arise that will require exceptions to those rules. It is how you choose to respond to those situations and the specific choices you make that really define your personal value system. DOING THE RIGHT THING If you asked your friends and family what ethics means to them, you would probably arrive ata list of four basic categories: 1. Simple truth—right and wrong or good and bad. 2. A question of someone's personal character—his or her integrity. 3. Rules of appropriate individual behavior. cf invidual with personal ‘egy your fed instrumental Value The ‘quality by which the pursuit of one value is @ good way toreach another value, For example, money is valued for what it ean buy rather than for itselt 4. Rules of appropriate behavior for a commu- nity or society. The first category—a sim- ple truth—also may be expressed as simply doing the right thing. itis something that most people can understand and support. Itis this basic simplicity that can lead you to take ethical behavior for granted— you assume that everyone is committed to doing the right thing, and it’s not until you are exposed to un- ethical behavior that you are reminded that, unfor- tunately, not all people share your interpretation of what “the right thing’ is, and even if they did, they ‘may not share your commitment to doing it The second category—personal integrity, demon- strated by someone's behavior—looks at ethics from an external rather than an internal viewpoint. All our classic comic-book heroes—Superman, Spider-Man, Batman, and Wonder Woman, to name just a few— represent the ideal of personal integrity where a per- son lives a life that is true to his or her moral standards, often at the cost of considerable personal sacrifice Rules of appropriate individual be- havior represent the idea that the moral standards we develop for ‘ourselves impact our lives on a daily basis in our behavior and the other types of decisions we make Rules of appropriate behavior for a community or society remind us that we must eventually bring our personal value system into a world that is shared with people who will probably have both simi lar and very different value sys- tems, Establishing an ethical ideal for a community or society allows that group of people to live with the confidence that comes from knowing they share a common standard. Each category represents a different feature of eth- ics. On one level, the study of ethics seeks to under- stand how people make the choices they make—how they develop their own set of moral standards, how they live their lives on the basis of those standards, and how they judge the behavior of others in relation to those standards. On a second level, we then try to uuse that understanding to develop a set of ideals or principles by which a group of ethical individuals can combine as a community with a common under- standing of how they “ought” to behave. Superman hes Become 5 fetonal represenaton of persona ner, on you fi exarpes Chapter 1/ Understanding Ethics + §PROGRESS »/ QUESTIONS 11. What is the definition of ethies? 2. What is a moral compass, and how would you apply it? 2. Exolain the difference between intrinsic and instrumental values. 4. List e four basic categories of ethics. THE GOLDEN RULE For some, the goal of living an ethical life is expressed by the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you, or treat others as you would like to be treated. This simple and very clear rule is shared by many different religions in the world: + Buddhism: “Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.”"—Udana-Varga 5:18 + Christianity: “therefore all things whatsoever ye ‘would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them.”—Matthew 7:12 + Hinduism: “This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you.”—Mahabharata 5:1517 Of course, the danger with the Golden Rule is that not everyone thinks like you, acts like you, or believes in the same prin- ciples that you do, so to live ‘your life on the assumption that your pursuit of an eth- ical ideal will match others’ ethical ideals could get you into trouble. For example, if you were the type of per son who values honesty in your personal value system, and you found a wallet on the sidewalk, you would try to return it to its right- fal owner, However, if you lost your wallet, could you automatically expect that the person who found it ‘would make the same effort to return it to you? The Golden Rule Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Virte Ethies A coneopt of living your life according toa commitment tothe ‘achievement ofa clear idesl— What sort of person would Ike to become, and how do! go about becoming that person? Utilitarianism Ethical choices that offer the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Universal Ethies Actions that are taken out of duty and obligation @ purely moral ideal rather than based on the needs of the situation, since the universal principles are seen to apply to everyone, ‘everywhere, al the time, >> Ethical Theories ‘The subject of ethics has been a matter of philosophical debate for over 2,500 years—as far back as the Greek philosopher Socrates, Overtime and with considerable debate, different schools of thought have de- veloped as to how we should go about living an ethical life. Ethical theories can be divided into three categories: virtue eth- ics, ethics for the great ex good, and universal ethics VIRTUE ETHICS “The Greek philosopher Aristotle’ belief in individual character and integrity established a concept of living your life according to a commitment to the achievement of a clear ideal— what sort of person would Tike to become, and how do Igo about becoming that person? ‘The problem with virtue ethics is that societies can place different emphasis on different virtues. For ‘example, Greek society at the time of Aristotle valued wisdom, courage, and justice. By contrast, Christian societies value faith, hope, and charity. So if the vir tues you hope to achieve aren't a direct reflection of the values of the society in which you live, there is a real danger of value conflict. ETHICS FOR THE GREATER GOOD As the name implies, ethics for the greater good is more focused on the outcome of your actions rather than the apparent virtue of the actions themselves— that is, a focus on the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Originally proposed by a Scottish philosopher named David Hume, this approach to ethics is also referred to as utilitarianism. "The problem with this approach to ethics is the idea that the ends justify the means. If all you focus on is doing the greatest good for the greatest number of peo ple, no one is accountable for the actions that are taken to achieve that outcome, The 20th century witnessed ‘one of the most extreme examples of this when Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party launched a national genocide against Jews and “defective” people on the utilitarian grounds of restoring the Aryan race. UNIVERSAL ETHICS Originally attributed to a German philosopher named Immanuel Kant, universal ethics argues that there are certain and universal principles that should apply to all ethical judgments, Actions are taken out>> What do you stand for, or what will you stand against? Your personal value system will guide you throughout your if, both in personal and professional matters. How often you will decide to stand by those values o deviate from them will be a matter of personal choice, but each one of those choices will contribute to the ongoing development of your values. As the work of Lawrence Kohlberg (page 11) points out, your understanding of moral complexities and ethical dilemmas grows as your life experience and education grow. For that reason, you will measure every choice you make against the value system you developed as a child from your parents, friends, society, and often your religious upbringing. The cumulative effect of all those choices is @ value system that is unique to you, Of course, you will share many of the same vvalues as your family and friends, but some of your choices will differ from theirs because your values diff ‘The great benefit of having such a guide to turn to when faced with a difficult decision is that you can both step away from the emotion and pressure of a situation and, at the same time, turn to a system that, truly represents who you are as a person—someone with integrity who can be counted on to make a reasoned and thoughtful choice. of duty and obligation to a purely moral ideal rather justifiable? If not, how do [Ethical Relativism Concept than based on the needs of the situation, since the youexplain that to the fam- | {hai he waalons ef your ‘universal principles are seen to apply to everyone, ev- ilies who lose loved ones | opinions, andthe exywhere, all the time waiting unsuccessfully for | circumstances of the present ‘The problem with this approach is the reverse of organ transplants? roman efine your nical the weakness in ethics for the greater good. If all rou focus on is abiding by a universal principle, no . a One is accountable forthe consequence: of the ac. >> Ethical Relativism tions taken to abide by those principles, Consider, When the limitations of each of these theories are re- for example, the current debate over the use of stem viewed, it becomes clear that there is no truly com. cells in researching a cure for Parkinsons disease. prehensive theory of ethics, only a choice that is made If you recognize the value of human life above all_ based on your personal value system. In this context, else as a universal ethical principle, how do you jus- itis easier to understand why, when faced with the re- tify the use of a human embryo in the harvesting of quirement to select a model, stem cells? Does the potential for curing many ma- of how we ought to live our jor illnesses—Parkinson’s, cancer, heart disease, and lives, many people choose STS kidney disease—make stem cell research ethically the idea of ethical relativ- at sccountab ey ism, whereby the traditions of their society, their per- relevant in considering Tee eS a cumstances of the present theories? eI 5. What isthe Golden Rule? moment define their ethical 6. List the thvee basi ethical theories. principles E 7. Identty the limitations of e2ch theory. The idea of relativisn Stud: implies some degree of flex- ibility as opposed to strict 8. Provide an example of each theory in pract Chapter 1/ Understanding Ethics + 7pl how thi in which there is no obvious Fight rather a right or right answer, PEER PRESSURE black-and-white rules. It also offers the comfort of being a part of the ethical majority in your commu- nity or society instead of standing by your individual beliefs as an outsider from the group. In our current society, when we talk about peer pressure among groups, we are acknowledging that the expectations of this majority can sometimes have negative consequences. led Ethies The study of ethical theories are put practice. lemma A situation ‘or wrong decision, out >> Ethical Dilemmas Up to now we have been concerned with the notion of ethical theory—how we conduct ourselves as indi- viduals and as a community in order to live a good In the days before the dominance of technology in the lives of teenagers and young adults, concerns over peer pressure (stress exerted by friends and classmates} focused on bullying, criminal benavicr, drug use, and sexual activity. The arvval of "smart phones” and the ability to send text messages to {2 wide audience and post short videos on the In= temet have brought @ new element to concerns lover peer pressure at school. A 2008 survey by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy found that 20 percent of teens ages 12 to 19 said they have electronically sent or posted conline nude or seminude pictures or video of them- selves. Nearly 60 percent of the toon girls surveyed seid “pressure from guys” was the reason they shared sexually explicit photos or messages, and boys cited "pressure from friends.” Incidents of "sexting” have increased so quickly that local communities and law enforcement agen- cies have bean caught unprepared. While many consider the incidents to be examples of negligent Behavior on the part of the teens involved, the viewing {and distribution of such materials could result in charges cf felony child pornography and a listing on a sex offend- fer registry for decades to come, In one case, 18-year-old Philip Alpert was convicted of child pornography after distributing a revealing photo of his 16-yoar-ol gitliiond thoy got into an argument. Ho willbe labeled a "sox cffender” untilhe is 43 years old Unfortunately, the dramatic increase in the numbar of incidents of soxting has brought about tragic conse- {quonces. Cincinnati ton Jossio Logan killed herself aftor nud piatufos she had sent to her boyfriand were sent to and moral life, However, this ethical theory repre sents only half of the school of philosophy we recog- nize as ethics. At some point, these theories have to be put into practice, and we then move into the area of applied ethics. “The basic assumption of ethical theory is that you as an individual or community are in control of all the factors that influence the choices that you make. In reality, your ethical principles are most likely to be tested when you face a situation in which there is no obvious right or wrong decision but rather a right or right answer. Such situations are referred to as ethical dilemmas. ‘As we saw earlier in our review of value systems and value conflicts, any idealized set of principles or standards inevitably faces some form of challenge. For ethical theories, that challenge takes the form of hundreds of students, Even though only five teens were involved in sending the pictures, their unlimi 285 to technology allowed them to reach several hundred students in four school cistriets before the incident was slopped. At the time of writing this case, 15 states are ow considering laws t fut charging them as adult sex offer lor teens from sexting with QUESTIONS 1. Inwhat ways does giving in to veer pressure co tute ethical relatvism? 2. How could you use your personal value system fight back against peer pressure?3. How would you communicate the risks of sexting to students who are struggling to deal with peer pres- sure? 44, Is @ change in the law the best option for addressing this problem? Why or why not? a dilemma in which the decision you must make re- quires you to make a right choice knowing full well that you are: + Leaving an equally right choice undone. + Likely to suffer something bad as a result of that choice. + Contradicting a personal ethical principle in mak- ing that choice. + Abandoning an ethical value of your community or society in making that choice. RESOLVING ETHICAL DILEMMAS By its very definition, an ethical dilemma cannot really be resolved in the sense that a resolution of the problem implies a satisfactory answer to the problem. Since, in reality, the “answer” to an ethical dilemma is often the lesser of two evils, itis questionable to as- sume that there will always be an acceptable answer— it’s more a question of whether or not you can arrive at an outcome you can live with. Joseph L. Badaracco Jr's book Defining Moments captures this notion of living with an outcome in a discussion of “sleep-test ethics"! “Ihe sleep test... is supposed to tell people wheth- eror not they have made a morally sound decision. In its literal version, a person who has made the right choice can sleep soundly afterward; someone ‘who has made the wrong choice cannot. .. . De- fined less literally and more broadly, sleep-test ethics rests on a single, fundamental belief: that wwe should rely on our personal insights, feelings, and instincts when we face a difficult problem. Defined this way, sleep-test ethics is the ethics of intuition. I advises us o follow our hearts, partic- ularly when our minds are confused. It says that, if something continues to gnaw at us, it probably should. Snacre sata aemah, Sean’ on th ise among Tons. fom ay, 240 Seana yt, 200:and"Sou ane Teh Rese om Suny ot Teens nd Y0ng Ded srr tbenationaleanpagnarginsteen/OFSexeeh. Summary oat cpatye ch ‘When we review the ethical theories covered in this chapter, we can identify two distinct approaches to handling ethical dilemmas. One is to focus on the practical consequences of what we choose to do, and. the other focuses on the actions themselves and the degree to which they were the right actions to take. ‘The frst school of thought argues that the ends justify ‘the means and that if there is no harm, there is no foul. The second claims that some actions are simaply wrong in and of themselves. So what should you do? Consider this three-step process for solving an ethical problem:! Step 1. Analyze the consequences. Who will be helped bby what you do? Who will be harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are we talking about? (Some are more valuable or more harmful than others: good health, someone's trust, and a clean environ- ‘ment are very valuable benefits, more so than a faster remote control device) How does all ofthis look over the long run as well as the short run? Step 2. Analyze the actions. Consider all the options from a different perspective, without think- ing about the consequences. How do the actions ‘measure up against moral principles like honesty, Chapter 1/ Understanding Ethics + 9fairness, equality, respecting the dignity of oth- ers, and people's rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of the actions at odds with those standards? If there's a conflict between principles or between the rights of different people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more impor- tant than the others? Which option offers actions that are least problematic? Step 3. Make a decision. Take both parts of your analy: sis into account, and make a decision. This strategy atleast gives you some basic steps you can follow. PROGRESS - QUESTIONS 8. Define ethical relativism. 10. Define applied ethics. 111, Whats an ethical dlemma? 12, Explain the three-step process for resolving an ethical ilemma, Ethical Reasoning Looking ‘at the information available t0.us in resolving an ethical dilemma, and drawing conclusions based on that information in relation to our ‘own ethical standards, If a three-step model seems too simple, Arthur Dobrin identified eight questions you should con- sider when resolving an ethical dilemma:’ 1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you're liable to make a bad choice. 2, What can you guess about the facts you dant know? Since it is impossible to know all the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information. 3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have xno meaning, You need to interpret the information in light of the values that are important to you. 4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability to walk in an other's shoes is essen- tial. Understanding the problem through a va riety of perspectives increases the _possibil- ity that you will choose wisely. 5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather Apply Dobrin’s eight ‘questions to an ethical dilemma you have {faced in the past Would applying this ean than another? All actions vyourdecislon? Whyor 3.0 consequences, Make why no? a reasonable guess as to 10 + Business Ethics Now what will happen if you follow a particular course of action. Decide whether you think more good or ‘harm will come of your action. 6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts ‘00. Your feelings about ethical issues may give ‘you a clue as to parts of your decision that your rational mind may overlook. What will you think of yourself if you decide one thing or another? Some call this your conscience It is a form of self-appraisal. It helps you decide whether you are the kind of person you would like to be. It helps you live with yourself Can you explain and justify your decision to others? ‘Your behavior shouldn't be based on a whim. Nei- ther should it be self-centered. Ethics involves you in the life of the world around you, For this reason you must be able to justify your moral decisions in ways that seem reasonable to reasonable people. Ethical reasons can't be private reasons. ‘The application of these steps is based on some key assumptions: first, that there is sufficient time for the degree of contemplation that such questions re- ‘quire; second, that there is enough information avail- able for you to answer the questions; and third, that the dilemma presents alternative resolutions for you to select from, Without alternatives, your analysis becomes a question of finding a palatable resolution that you can live with—much like Badaracco's sleep test—rather than the most appropriate solution. ETHICAL REASONING When we are attempting (o resolve an ethical di- Jemma, we follow a process of ethical reasoning. We ook at the information available to us and draw con: clusions based on that information in relation to our own ethical standards, Lawrence Kohlberg developed 1 framework (see Figure 1.1) that presents the argu- eo coo Eten 2 Indlvidallsm, Instrumentals, and exchange Law er order Prnepled conslor Figure 1.1 © Lawrence Kohiberg’s Stages of Ethical ReasoningEi e A 3| = 5 5 = In 1842, a ship struck an iceberg, and more than 30 sur vivors were crowded into a lifeboat intended to nold 7. As 8 storm threatened, it became obvious that the lifeboat would have to be lightened if anyone were to survive ‘The captain reasoned that the right thing to do in this situation was to force some individuals to go over the Side and drown. han action, he reasoned, was not Unjust to those thrown overboard, for they would have drowned anyway. I he did nothing, nowever, he woul be responsible for the deaths of those whom he coula have saved. Some people oppased the captain's decision. Thay claimed that if nothing were done and everyone died as a result, no one would be responsible for these deaths, On the ether hand, if the captain attempted to uld do so only by kiling others and their deaths would be his responsibilty, this would be worse than doing nothing and loting al dio. The captain rejected this reasoning. Since the only possibilty for rescue re- quited great efforts of rowing, the captain decided tha the waakest would have to be sacrificed. In this situation it would be absurd, he thought, 1o decide by drawing lots whe should be thrown overboard. As it turnad out, aftor days of hard rowing, the survivors were rescued and the captain was tried for his action, QUESTIONS 1. Did the captain make the right decision? Why or why rot? 2, What other choices could the captain have made? 3. If you had been on the jury, how would you have decides? Why? ment that we develop a reasoning process over time, moving through six distinct stages (classified into three levels of moral development) as we are exposed to major influences in our lives.* Level 1: Preconventional. At this lowest level of moral development, a person’s response to a percep- tion of right and wrong is initially directly linked to the expectation of punishment or reward. © Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation. ‘A person is focused on avoidance of punishment and deference to power and authority—that is, something is right or wrong because a recognized authority figure says it is. © Stage 2: Individualism, instrumentalism, and exchange, As a more organized and advanced form of stage 1, a person is focused on satisfying his or her own needs—that is, something is right or wrong because it helps the person get what he or she wants or needs, 4, Which ethical theory or theories could bo appled Level 2: Conventional. At this level, a person con- tinues to become aware of broader influences outside of the family. + Stage 3: “Good boy/nice girl” orientation. At this stage, a person is focused on meeting the expec- tations of family members—that is, something is right or wrong because it pleases those family members. Stereotypical behavior is recognized, and conformity to that behavior develops Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation. At this stage, a person is increasingly aware of his or her membershi ina society and the existence of codes of behavior— that is, something is right or wrong because codes of legal, religious, or social behavior dictate it Level 3: Posteonventional. At this highest level of ethical reasoning, a person makes a clear effort to define principles and moral values that reflect an individual value system rather than simply reflecting the group position, Chapter / Understanding Ethics * 14F i a re a x 6 A Fe 2 B x E 3 A z 5 * Stage 5: Social contract legalistic orientation. At this stage, a person is focused on individual rights and the development of standards based on criti- cal examination—that is, something is right or Real World = Applications ‘Michelle Lepore takes her managerial role very ser usly Sometimes managers are called on ta.make tough decsions—firng nonperfarmers ond letting people go when cost cuts have to be made. She has always found a way to come to lerms with the tough decisions-"As long. 2s | can sleep at night, then | know I have made the best decison {can under the circumstances.” Lotely, however, the materia! in her business ethics class has made her reconsider some of her previous decisions. “Am | really making with?” How de you think mest managers would answer est decision or ust the decision I con lve that question? = 12 © Business Ethics Now wrong because it has withstood scrutiny by the society in which the principle is accepted © Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation. At this stage, a person is focused on self-chosen ethi- cal principles that are found to be comprehensive and consistent—that is, something is right or wrong because it reflects that person's individual value system and the conscious choices he or she makes in life. While Kohlberg always believed in the existence of stage 6, he was never able to find enough research subjects to prove the long-term stability of this stage Kohlberg’s framework offers us a clearer view into the process of ethical reasoning—that is, that some- one can arrive at a decision, in this case the resolu. tion of an ethical dilemma—on the basis of a moral rationale that is built on the cumulative experience of his or her life Kohlberg also believed that a person could not move or jump beyond the next stage of his or her six stages, It would be impossible, he argued, for a per- son to comprehend the moral issues and dilemmas ata level so far beyond his or her life experience and education. PROGRESS - QUES’ Lt 13, What are the eight questions you should con- sider in resolving an ethical dilemma? 14, What assumptions are we making in the resol tion of a dilemma? What should you de if you ccan‘t answer these eight aus llama you ate looking to resolve? 18. What are Kohlberg's three levels of moral development? 16, Wha ‘those three levels? ns for the re the 8x stages of development in>> Conclusion Now that we have reviewed the processes by which we arrive at our personal ethical principles, let’s consider what happens when we take the study of ethics into the business world. What happens when the decision that is expected of you by your supervisor or manager goes against your personal value system? Consider these situations: + Asa salesperson, you work on a monthly quota Your sales training outlines several techniques to “up sell” each customer—that is, to add additional features, benefits, or warranties to your product ‘that the average customer doesnt really need. Your sales manager draws a very clear picture for you: If you don't make your quota, you don't have a job. So if your personal value system requires that you sell ‘customers only what they really need, are you will- ing to make more smaller sales to hit your quota, or do you do what the top performers do and “up sell like crazy” and make every sale count? + You are a tech-support specialist for a small com- puter software manufacturer, Your supervisor informs you that a bug has been found in the software that will take several weeks to fix. You are instructed to handle all calls without admit ting the existence of the bug. Specific examples are provided to divert customers’ concerns with suggestions of user error, hardware issues, and conflicts with other software packages. The bug, you ate told, will be fixed in a scheduled version upgrade without any admission of its existence. Could you do that? How organizations reach a point in their growth where such behavior can become the norm, and how employees of those organizations find a way to work in such environments, is what the field of business ethics is all about, FRONTLINE FOCUS D tein Soe ont se ast pete ee ime nese” eo th ge wh aon The Wo wr He vm iso oe a eon no co sta ho te ca row boss. The mare Megan hough cbou the statin, he ng she became. Not giving the apartment tothe Wilsons was discriminatory ard would ij the Right Thing—Megan Makes a Decision expose allot ther tolegal action the Wilsons eer found out—pus twas jus plain wrong, Tere was rttng their application that suagested tha thoy would be anything otor than model torarts, ar jut cexpeenced bad tenants Ike "those poopk nthe past, tere was noreason to group the Wions with hat group. Mogan pickad upto hone and started lng, “Ms, kon i hie Megan wth Oxon Lake Apartments have sore wonderful news” use Katonad ‘Questions 1. idMegan mae height hove hee? 2, What you tink Kat's racton willbe? 1 What woul have been the ris for Oxford Lake f Megan had ocidod ot toronto apartmont othe Wilsons? Chapter 1/ Understanding Ethies + 13For Review| 1. Define ethies. Ethies isthe study of how we try olive our lives accord ing to a standard af “ight” or “wrong” behavior —in both how wo think and behave toward others and how we would like tham to think and bahave toward us. For some, itis a conscious choice to follow a sat of moral standards or ethical principles that provide guidanco ‘an how they should conduct themsolvas in their daily lives. For others, whora the choice is not so clear, they look to tho behavior of athars to determine whats an acceptable standard of right and wrong or good and bad bahavior 2. Expl in the role of values ft Values represent a set of personal principles by which you aim to fve your life. Those principles are most often based on religious, cultural, or philosophical beliefs ‘hat you have developed overtime as a collection of influences trom family, trends, school, religion, ethnic. background, the media, and your personal mentors and role medels. When you try to formalize these principles into a code of behavior, then you are seen to be adopting 2 value system which becomes your benchmark in de > ALL THE NEWS THAT'S FIT TO PRINT In May 2003 an investigation by journalist from The New York Times found that one of ite staff reporters, Jayson Blair, had committed several scis of journalistic fraud in reporting on key events for the newspaper over period of four years ‘with the company. The investigation revealed that at least 36 of the last 73 articles he wrote contained significant errors. Of the around 600 articles he wrote during hie four years of service with the company, many contained fabricated quotes ‘rom key individuals connected with the event being report- fed, invented scenes that ware created to build emotional intensity for the article, and material copied directly from other newspapers oF news services. In addition, Blair used photographie evidence of events to write articles as if he had been zhere in person or interviewed people at the scene, ‘when he had actually remained at his desk in New York When the extent of his unprofessional behavior was un- covered, Blair elected to resign from his position. The Now York Times published a four-page apology to its readers, n- cluding a public commitment to better journalistic integrity, and asked those readers for help in identifying any other Incorrect material yet co be identified in Blair's extensive body of work. As a direct result of this fraudulent behavior, the executive editor ofthe paper, Howell Raines, and the managing editor, Gerald Boyd, resigned, Jayson Blair went on te publish a memoir of his four years at The Times, called Burning Down My Master's House. In her 2008 book This Land ls Their Land, author and columnist Barbara Ehrenreich comments that technology and the constant push for cost conte in regional newspapers and news sites has prompted editors to apparently view the Jayson Blair case from a slightly different angle. Referencing the news Web site www.pasadenanow.com, Ehrenraich comments: ‘The Web site's editor poinss out that he can get two Indian reporters for a mere $20,800 a year—and, no they ‘won't be commuting from New Delhi, Since Pasadens’s city couneil meotings can be observed on the Web, the Ingian reporters willbe able to cover local politics from half the planet away. And ifthey ever feel a need to see the potholes of Pasadena, thore's always Google Earth So it would seem that fthereis money to be saved, editors can be flexible about the location oftheir reporters after all. No word from Ehrenreich on whether the location of the reporters will be disclosed in the stories featured on the Web site 1. What do Blair's actions suggest saout his personal and professional ethics? 2, Blair's issues with accuracy and corrections were well known to his supervisors, prompting one of his editors to send out an e-mail reminding all the journalists that “accuracy is all we have ... t's what we are and what we sell What steps should trey have taken to address Blair's behavior? 3, Should we expect journalists to uphold a higher level of professional ethics than businesspeople? Why or why 4. Since the editors of pasadenanow.com are choosing to hire reporters they know for certain willbe at 2 considerable distance from the stories they will be cavering, does that change the ethics of the situation in comparison tothe Blair story? 5, Should pasadenanow.com disclos © overseas location ofits reporters? Why or why not? 6. Blair has since joined the “speaker circuit” lecturing on ethics under the tile “Lessons Learned." Is it ethical to ‘make money from lecturing on your own unethical behavior? Why or why not? Chapter 1 / Understanding Ethics = 17inking Criticall >> THE MAN WHO SHOCKED THE WORLD In July 1981, 8 psychologist atYale University, Dr. Stanley Milgram, @ 28-yearold Harvard graduate with @ PhD in social psychology, began a series of experiments disturbing insights into the capacity of the human race to inflict harm on one another, Paticipanis in the experiments wore destined to shock the psychological community and reveal some ‘were members of the general public who had responded to a newspaper advertisement for volunteers in an experiment on punishment and learning, “The “teacher” in the experiment (one of Milgram’s team of researchers} Instructed the partcipants to inflict increasingly power‘ test “learner” every time the learner gave an incorrect answer to & word- ‘matching task The shocks stared, in theory, atthe low level of 15 volts and Increased in 15-olt increments up toa potentially fatal shock of 450 volts. In reality, the voltage machine was an elaborate stage prop, and the learner was fan actor screaming and imitating physical suffering as the voltage level of cach shock appeared to increase. The participants were told about the decep- ‘ion at the end of the experience, but during the experiment they were led tic shocks on to belie atthe voltage and the pain being inflicted wore real. The teachor Used no foreeor intimidation in the experiment other then maintaining an ait of academic seriousness. ‘The experiment was repeated more than 20 times using hundreds of research subjects. In every case the majority ofthe subjects failed to stop shocking the learners, even when they believed they were inflicting a po- tontially fatal voltage and the learner had apparently stopped screaming with pain. Some did plead to stop the test, and others argued with the teacher that the experiment was going wrong, but inthe end, the majority of them obeyed the instructions ofthe teacher tothe later t's important to remind ourselves that these research participants were not criminals ar psychopaths with @ dacu- mented history of sadistic behavior. They were average Americans who responded to an ad and came in off the street to take part, What Milgram’s research appears to tell us 's that people are capable of suspending thelr own individual morality to someone in authority—even killing Someone just because they were instructed to do it Milgrar's research shocked the academic world and generated heated debate about the ethical conduct of the study “and the value ofthe results in comparison to the harm inflicted on the research participants who were led to believe that itwas all really happening. That debate continues to this day, even though subsequent repetitions ofthe study in various formats have validated Milgram’s original findings. Almost 80 years later, we are faced with research data that suggest ‘ordinary human beings are capable of performing destructive and inhumane acts without any physical threat of harm to themselves, As Thomas Bass commented, “While we would like to Beliove that when confronted with a moral dilemma ‘we will act as our conscience dictates, Milgram’s obedience experiments teach us that in a concrete situation with power- {ul social constraints, our moral senses can easily be trampled. 1. Cities of Milgram’ research have argued that the physical separation between the participant and the teacher in one room and the learner in the other made it easier forthe participant to in‘lct the shocks. Do you thing that made a difference? Why or why not? 2. The treatment of the participants in the study raised as much criticism as the results the study generated. Was it ethical to mislesd them into believing thet they were realy inflicting pain on the learners? Why? 3. The participants were introduced to the learners as equal participants in the study—thatis, volunteers just lke ‘them. Do you think thet made difference in the decision to keep ineressing the votage? Why? 4. What do you think Milgram’s research tells us about our individual ethical standards? ‘Would you have soreed to particiaste in this study? Why or why nat? Pes 6. Do you think if the study wore repeated today we would get the same kind of results? Why? Sourcas:hCanen, “out Decades ster gras Were tl Wing tft Pat,” The Mew Yak Times, December 24,200; and Ana, “Why Were ‘OK win tng Seager wnt com, December, 208 18 © Business Ethics NowPES >> LIFE AND DEATH » Elder Suicide or Dignified Exit? A Letter from Ohio Vm 80. Ive had @ good lfe—mostly pretty happy, though certainly with its ups and downs. My wife died seven years 290. My children are healthy and happy, busy with their kids, careers, friends. But know they worry about me; they feel Jncreasingly burdened with thoughts about how to care for ‘me when I can no longer care for myself, which—Iet's not kid ourgeives—is coming al too soon. live four states away {rom them s0 either they will have to uproot me and move ‘me close to them or Ill have to go live in 2 nursing home. | don’t relish either option. This town has been my home for nearly my whole adult life, and I don't fancy leaving. On the other hand, | do not want to live among strangers and be cared for by those who are paid minimum wage to wash Uurine-2oaked sheets and force-feed pudding to old people. Vm in decent heslth—for the moment. But things are slipping. have prostrate cancer, lke just about every other man my age. It probably won't kill me... but having o get Lup and pee four r five times a night, standing over the bow! for long minutes just hoping something will come out, this ‘might do me in. My joints are stiff, so it doesn't realy feel 00d to walk. I've got bits and pieces of skin cancer here and there that need to be removed. These things are all treatable, or so they say (there are pills to take and procedures to have done). But it seems to me 2 waste of money. Why not pass my small savings on to my grandkids, to give them _ jump on college tuition? What don't understand is why people think that tis wrong for someone like me to just cll it day, throw in the towel How can it be possible that | don't have @ right to end my own lite, when I'm ready? (But apparently I don't) {'m tied and I'm ready to be done with lif. I'd so much rather just quietly die in my garage withthe car running than ‘eke out these Inst few compromised years, (Even better would be a quick shot or # small dose of powerful pills—but, ales, these are not at my disposal, But if do myst in, | wil be called 2 suicide. My death will be added to the statistics: another “older suicide.” How ‘sad! (Doesn't the fact that s0 many elderly people commit suicide-and with much greater rates of success, I must say, than any other demographic group—tell you something?) Why can't this society ust come up with 2 humane, acceptable plan for hose of us ready to be fished? Why cant we old folks go city hall and pick up our End-of-Life Packet, withthe Financial and legal forms to bring things into order for our children, with assistance on how to recycle all our unneeded furniture and clothes, and with a neat litle pack of white pis: When ready, take all 10 pls at once, with plonty of water Lie down quietly in a comfortable place, close your eyes, and wal How can choosing my own end at my own time be considered anything other than 2 mast dignified final exit? — Anonymous. June, 2003 ‘Should people have the moral right to end ther lives if they so please? Does being near the ond of one’s life make the decision to end itjustified? What might the phrase “right to die" mean? De people have the right to seek assistance in dying? Do people have the right to give assistance in dying? What kind of restrictions, f any, should there be on assisted suicide? Chapter 1/ Understanding Ethics * ”