Material Science and Metallurgy

Phases in Solids

CHAPTER-3
Phases in solids: Phases-Single phase and multiphase, Gibb’s phase rule,
solid solutions and types, intermediate phases, equilibrium diagrams(only
binary) –construction and explanation of isomorphous and eutectic systems,
equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling, invariant reactions (euctectic,
peritectic and eutectoid), lever rule and its application on isomorphous and
eutectic systems, equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling of an alloy and
congruent melting alloy phase. [10]

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 1

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Phases in Solids
Introduction:
While studying the engineering materials, it is required to know the characteristics
and properties of the materials under various environments. It may come across certain
questions such as:
What condition is the material in?
Is the composition uniform throughout?
If not, how much of each component is present?
Is something present which gives undesired properties?
What will happen if temperature is increased or decreased, pressure is changed or
chemistry varied?
Answers to such questions can be obtained only by the equilibrium / phase / constitutional
diagrams.

Phases:
A phase of a material can be defined as a form of material possessing a single
characteristic structure and associated characteristic properties. Uniformity of chemistry,
structure and properties can be identified throughout the phase.

A phase can be continuous like the air in a room or discontinuous like grains of salt. A
phase can be solid, liquid or gas. A phase can be a pure substance or a solution, provided
that the structure and composition are uniform throughout. Alcohol and water mix in all
proportions and will therefore form a single phase when placed in a beaker. Oil and water
when mixed, tend to form isolated regions with distinct boundaries and must be considered
as two different phases.

Gibb’s Phase Rule or Phase Rule:

This rule establishes a definite relationship in an alloy between
 The number of components in the alloy system, C
 The number of degrees of freedom, F
 The number of phases that co-exist in the alloy system, P &
 The number of external factors used for the study, n
This rule enables to compute the number of phases that can co-exist in equilibrium in a
chosen system.
The components, C are the elements or compounds that constitute the alloy system.
e.g., Fe-Ni alloy system is a two component (binary) system
Cu-Ni-Zn in German Silver is a three component (tertiary) system
Al-Cu-Mn-Mg in Duralumin is a four component (ternary) system.
The degrees of freedom, F is the number of independent variables like temperature,
pressure and composition that may be changed independently without causing the

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 2

 Material Science and Metallurgy

disappearance of a phase. Temperature and pressure are external variables whereas

composition is an internal variable.

The number of external factors, n is simply an integral number which represents the
number of external factors like temperature and pressure used during construction (study)
of phase diagrams. Generally n = 2.

The Gibb’s Phase Rule is given as:

P+F=C+n OR P+F=C+2

If the Gibb’s phase rule is to be applied to a system at constant atmospheric pressure, only
temperature (which is varied at constant atmospheric pressure) is used as an external
factor. Therefore, n = 1. The phase rule expression now takes the form:
P+F=C+1

It is known as the “Modified Gibb’s Phase Rule”

Application of Gibb’s phase rule for a one-component system:

The Gibb’s phase rule can be used to find the B
number of degrees of freedom. For one-
component system, C = 1, n = 2 (pressure & Liquid phase
temperature). Hence, the Gibb’s phase rule Solid phase
Pressure

becomes:
P+F=C+n C
O
P+F=1+2
F=3–P Pp p
q Gaseous phase
Consider a one-component system for pure PpI pI
I
metal Cu (Copper) as shown in Fig. 3.1. In a one- q
A
component system, temperature and pressure
Tp TpI
are the variable parameters. i.e., degrees of
Temperature
freedom may be temperature and/or pressure.
Fig. 3.1 One-component system (Cu)
Fig. 3.1 shows the plot of pressure versus
temperature for Cu. O is the triple point where the three phases (solid, liquid & gas) co-exit.
On line OA, the solid and gaseous phases of Cu co-exit, on line OB, the solid and liquid
phases of Cu co-exist and on line OC, the gaseous and liquid phases of Cu co-exit.

Gibb’s phase rule applied to single-phase region (P = 1):

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 3

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Let a point ‘p’ be marked in the single phase region (gaseous region). The temperature and
pressure at ‘p’ are ‘Tp’ & ‘Pp’ respectively. Now by changing the temperature and pressure
respectively to TpI’ & ‘PpI’, the system is brought to the point ‘pI’ which falls in the same
single phase region (gaseous region). As long as the point is within the boundaries of the
single phase region, it is evident that temperature or pressure may be individually varied so
that there is no change in the system. i.e., degrees of freedom, F = 2. This can be verified
from Eq.
F=3–P=3–1=2
Hence for single phase region, degrees of freedom, F = 2.

Gibb’s phase rule applied to two-phase region (P = 2):

Two-phase state of the system can occur only along one of the three lines OA, OB and OC.
Consider a point ‘q’ on the line OA (solid-gaseous co-existence) at temperature Tq and
pressure Pq. Now, if the temperature is changed to Tq1, the pressure also must be changed
exactly to Pq1 for the two-phase state of the system to remain unchanged. In other words,
we can vary the temperature and pressure relative to each other (only one of them can be
changed) such that the state of the system falls on the line OA. i.e., degrees of freedom, F =
1. This can be verified from Eq. (4.3).
F=3–P=3–2=1
Hence for single phase region, degrees of freedom, F = 1.

Gibb’s phase rule applied to three-phase region (P = 3):

Three-phase state of the system can occur only at the triple point O where all the three
phases (solid, liquid & gas) co-exist. There is only one temperature TO and its corresponding
pressure PO at which the three phases can co-exist. Any change in either temperature or
pressure would change the three-phase state of the system. Hence, degrees of freedom, F =
0. This can be verified from Eq. (4.3).
F=3–P=3–3=0
Hence for single phase region, degrees of freedom, F = 0.

Solid Solutions:
When two metals are mixed in their liquid states, they form a homogeneous solution. When
this mixture is solidified, if the solid state retains the homogeneity that was present in the
liquid state, then such a solid is called as a solid solution. A solid solution is simply a solution
in the solid state and consists of two kinds of atoms in one kind of space lattice. In a solid
solution, the metal in the major portion is called the solvent and the metal in the minor
portion is called the solute.
Solid solutions are phases in which one component (solvent) of the alloy retains its crystal
lattice and the atoms of the other component/components (solute) are present in the
lattice of the first component, changing its size (lattice constant). Thus, a solid solution,

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 4

 Material Science and Metallurgy

consisting of two or more components has a single type of crystal lattice and constitutes a
single phase.
Types of solid solutions: Two types of solid solutions can be identified.
(1) Interstitial Solid Solutions
(2) Substitutional Solid Solutions

(1) Interstitial Solid Solution (ISS):

These are formed when atoms of small atomic radii fit into Solvent Solute
the interstitial spaces of larger solvent atoms. Atoms of atoms atoms
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, boron, hydrogen, etc.
which have radii less than 1 Ao are likely to form interstitial
solute atoms and may dissolve more readily in transition
metals such as Fe, Ni, Mn, Cr, etc. than in other metals.
For example, carbon forms an interstitial solid solution
with FCC iron and is called Austenite or -Iron.
Interstitial solid solutions normally have limited solid Interstitial solid solution

solubility and generally are of less importance than Fig. 4.2 interstitial solid solution
substitutional solid solutions with Austenite being an exception. The lattice structure of this
type of solvent metal generally shows an expansion at the location of the presence of the
interstitial atom.

(2) Substitutional Solid Solution (SSS):

In this type of solid solution, the solute atoms substitute the atoms of the solvent in the
crystal structure of the solvent. For example, the Au-Ag solid solution, the Ag (silver) atoms
substitute for the Au (gold) atoms in the FCC structure of gold.
Here, the solvent and solute atoms have almost the same size with a slight difference. This
results in only a slight distortion of the solvent crystal lattice structure.
The crystal structure of the solute and the solvent are the same. The solubility of the
solution in solvent is usually much higher when compared to that of interstitial solid
solution.
There are 2 types of substitutional solid solutions:
(a) Ordered Substitutional Solid Solutions
(b) Disordered Substitutional Solid Solutions
Subtitutional
atom

Parent
atom
Disordered Substitutional Solid Solution Ordered Substitutional Solid Solution
Fig. 4.3 Ordered & Dis-ordered substitutional solid solution

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 5

 Material Science and Metallurgy

(a) Ordered Substitutional Solid Solution: In this type, the solute atoms substitute the
solvent atoms in an orderly manner, taking up fixed positions of symmetry in the lattice.
Therefore this type of solid solution has a uniform distribution of solute and solvent atoms.
(b) Disordered Substitutional Solid Solution: In this case the solute atoms do not occupy
any fixed positions but are distributed at random in the lattice structure of the solvent. In
this type of solid solution, the concentration of solute atoms may vary considerably
throughout the lattice structure.
An important fact to be noted is that substitutional solid solutions are generally ordered at
lower temperatures and disordered at higher temperatures, thus temperatures being the
deciding factor.

Hume - Rothary Rules:

These rules govern the formation of substitutional solid solutions. In other words, only when
these rules are satisfied, a substitutional solid solution is formed.
(1) Crystal structure factor: For complete solid solubility of two elements, they should
have the same type of crystal lattice structure. For example, in Au – Ag, Al – Ni, etc.
solid solutions, both components forming the solid solutions have FCC structure.
(2) Relative Size Factor: The atoms of solute and solvent should have approximately the
same atomic size. This factor is satisfied if the difference in the atomic radii of the
two elements is less than 15%.
(3) Chemical Affinity Factor: For a substitutional solid solution to form, the two metals
should have very less chemical affinity. Greater the chemical affinity between the
two metals, lesser is the chances of forming a solid solution. Generally, the father
apart the elements are in the periodic table, the greater is their chemical affinity.
(4) Relative Valence Factor: Among two metals, which have satisfied all the above rules,
the metal with lower valency tends to dissolve more of a metal of higher valency and
vice-versa.
For example, in the Al-Ni alloy system, both metals are FCC and their relative size
difference is less than 15%. They do not have chemical affinity to each other.
However, Nickel which has a valency of 2 dissolves 5% of Aluminium, while on the
other hand, Aluminium has a valency of 3 and dissolves only 0.04% Nickle.

Note: Chemical affinity can also be explained by electro negativity (tendency to acquire
electrons). Higher electro negativity of two elements, greater is the chance of forming a
compound rather than a solid solution.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 6

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Conditions to be satisfied for the formation of Interstitial Solid Solutions:

Interstitial Solid Solutions will form when the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) ISS will be formed only between atoms of Transition Metals like Fe, W, Cr, V, Ti, etc.
and atoms of non metals like O, H, N, C, etc. Generally the transition metals form the
solvent and the non-metals form the solute.
(b) The difference in radii between the atoms forming the ISS is greater than 15%. The
solute atoms are generally much smaller in size.
(c) The smaller solute atoms occupy the interstitial sites of the solvent atoms, producing
a bulging (expansion) effect in the crystal structure of the solvent atoms.
(d) The solubility of the solute atoms is very less in ISS.
E.g. -Fe (pronounced as alpha ferrite) is an ISS of Fe (solvent) atoms and C (solute atoms). C
atoms having smaller size (C atoms radius being 70 pm or 0.7 Ao) occupy the interstitial sites
of Fe atoms (Fe atoms radius being 140 pm or 1.4 Ao). The solubility of C atoms is very low in
-Fe, as low as 0.02% (weight percentage) at 724oC and as low as 0.005% at 0oC.

Intermediate Phases:
Intermediate phases are those phases whose chemical compositions are intermediate
between the two pure metals and generally have crystal structure different from those of
the base (parent) metals. An alloy can be made up of a solid solution phase entirely or can
exist along with an intermediate phase.
Example: Steel can be entirely made up of the solid solution phase -ferrite, or co-exist
along with an intermediate phase called Iron Carbide (Fe3C).
An intermediate phase here is nothing but a compound and is made up of two or more
elements of which atleast one of them is a metal. A compound is a chemical combination of
positive and negative valence elements. i.e., atoms of different elements are combined in
different proportions and are expressed by chemical formulae like H2O, NaCl, etc. The atoms
combine to form molecules which are smallest units of a compound. The atoms are held
together by covalent or ionic bonds which are quite strong. The same explanation holds
good for an intermediate phase except that one element is a metal.
When a compound or intermediate phase is formed, the elements lose their individual
identity and properties to a good extent and the compound will have its own characteristic
physical, mechanical and chemical properties.
Example: NaCl – Table Salt; Na (Sodium) individually is a very active metal that oxidizes
rapidly and is stored in kerosene. Cl (Chlorine) is a poisonous gas. However, one atom of Na
and one atom of Cl combine to produce harmless chemical compound – table salt.
Another example is water (H2O) which is composed of gaseous elements but is a liquid at
room temperature.
Most of the intermediate phases are crystalline in nature, exhibit definite melting points and
have the same cooling curves as pure metals.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 7

 Material Science and Metallurgy

With reference to phase diagrams, intermediate phases are phases whose chemical
compositions are intermediate between two pure metals and have a crystal structure
different from those of pure metals.
Common types of intermediate alloy phases are:
(1) Intermetallic or Valence Compounds
(2) Interstitial Compounds
(3) Electron Compounds
(1) Intermetallic or Valence Compounds: When alloy phase are exclusively metal-metal
systems, they are called intermetallic compounds. These are formed between
chemically dissimilar metals and are combined by following the rules of chemical
valence. The combination is usually non-metallic and show poor ductility and poor
electrical conductivity and have complex crystal structure.
Examples for intermetallic compounds: Mg2Pb, Mg2Sn, CaSe, Cu2Se
(2) Interstitial Compounds: These are similar to interstitial solid solutions except that they
have more or less a fixed composition.
Example: Fe3C. The interstitial compounds are metallic in nature, have high melting
points and are extremely hard.
(3) Electron Compounds: These are of variable compositions and do not obey the valence
law, but have a definite electron to atom ratio.
Example: Cu9Al4
Each Cu atom has 1 valence electron and each Al atom has 3 valence electrons.
So 13 atoms which make up the compound have 21 valence electrons with electron to
atom ratio being 21:13
Electron compounds have properties same as those of solid solutions – wide range of
compositions, high ductility and low hardness

Phase Diagrams/Equilibrium Diagrams/Constitutional Diagrams

The phase/equilibrium/constitutional diagrams give the best method of recording data

about phase changes in many alloying systems. Phase diagrams are graphical
representations of what phases are present in a material system at various temperatures,
pressures and compositions. These diagrams are constructed by taking temperature on the
ordinate (Y – axis) and percentage composition on the abscissa (X – axis). These diagrams
are drawn at equilibrium conditions (ideal case) and hence are called equilibrium diagrams.
The equilibrium condition is a state where there will be no change in the system with
passage of time. Since this is not practically feasible, conditions close to equilibrium can be
attained upon extremely slow cooling or extremely slow heating so that sufficient time is
allowed for the change to take place.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 8

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Phase diagrams are constructed to provide the following information:

(1) Different phases existing in the alloy for any combination of temperature and
composition (pressure is assumed constant at atmospheric value)
(2) Temperatures at which different compositions begin and end solidification.
(3) To study and control processes such as solidification and heat treatment of metals
and alloys.
(4) It helps us to know the amounts of different phases of the system present at room
temperature by which approximate properties of the alloy can be estimated.

Classification of phase diagrams:

Based on number of components in the system:
(a) Unary phase diagram (one component – pure metal system)
(b) Binary phase diagram (two components system)
(c) Ternary phase diagram (three components system)
(d) Quarternary phase diagram (four components system)

Based on the relationship between components in the liquid and solid states.
All phase diagrams can be classified according to the appearance of the following
reactions or transformations in them:
(a) Solid solution (Isomorphous system)
(b) Eutectic System
(c) Pertectic System
(d) Monotectic System
(e) Eutectoid transformation
(f) Peritectoid transformation

To understand the concept of constructing and study of phase diagrams, we may

first make a study of the binary phase diagrams where temperature is plotted along Y axis
and percentage composition by weight on the X axis.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 9

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Construction of a Phase Diagram:

Phase diagrams for a binary alloy system can be obtained from the cooling curves of
the system at various compositions of the two components.

TA L
L1
L2

L3
S1
Temperature

L+
L4
S2

S3
S4 TB

1 2 3 4 5 6
Time A 20%B 40%B 60%B 80%B B
Composition by weight, %
Fig 4.4 Construction of phase diagram
Alloy 1 = 100% A & 0 % B (Pure Metal A)
Consider two pure metals A & B in their Alloy 2 = 80 % A & 20 % B
Alloy 3 = 60 %A & 40 % B
liquid states. Let they have identical crystal Alloy 4 = 40 % A & 60 % B
structure, close size of atoms and no chemical Alloy 5 = 20 % A & 40 % B
Alloy 6 = 0 % A & 100 % B (Pure Metal B)
affinity to each other. Let them be
mixed in different weight proportions, in the liquid state, to obtain alloys 1 to 6 as shown.
Each of these alloys is taken separately in their liquid state and allowed to slow cool.
For each alloy, the temperatures at start of solidification and end of solidification are noted
and the cooling curves are plotted. Cooling curve is a plot of temperature of the alloy versus
time. It may be noted that the cooling curves for the pure metal A (Alloy 1) and pure metal B
(Alloy 6) have “isotherms” (horizontal portions) on them which indicate that the
solidification of pure metals takes place at constant temperature. On the other hand, for
alloys 2 to 5, the cooling curves do not have a horizontal portion, but they have an inclined
portion, which indicates that the solidification of alloys takes place over a range of
temperatures, i.e., temperature at start of solidification is greater than the temperature at
end of solidification.
These temperature points are re-plotted (projected from the cooling curves) on a
temperature versus composition diagram by taking temperature on the Y axis and
composition of the alloys on X axis. In the figure above, L1, L2, L3 & L4 are the temperature of
start of solidification of alloys 2, 3, 4 & 5 respectively; S1, S2, S3 & S4 are the temperatures at
end of solidification of the alloys 2, 3, 4 & 5 respectively. Alloys 1 & 6 are not actually alloys
but pure metals with melting points temperatures TA & TB respectively.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 10

 Material Science and Metallurgy

A smooth curve passing through TA-L1-L2-L3-L4-TB represents the temperature at start of

solidification of any alloy of A & B. It is called the “Liquidus”.
A smooth curve passing through TA-S1-S2-S3-S4-TB represents the temperature at end
of solidification of any alloy of A & B. It is called the “Solidus”.
The diagram so obtained is called the “Phase diagram for a binary solid solution system” or
“Phase diagram for an Isomorphous system”.
It may be noted that the phase diagram is divided into 3 regions. The uppermost
region above the liquidus is the single phase liquid region. The region between the liquidus
and the solidus is the two phase region and known as the liquid +  region. The lowermost
region below the solidus is the single phase solid region - the  region.
This is a reversible process and can be represented by the reaction:

Cooling
L 
Heating
where,  is a solid solution of metals A and B.

Interpretation of Phase Diagram:

For a given alloy, at a given temperature, we can interpret the following:
(1) The number and types
phases that are present
TA L
(2) The chemical composition P
T1
of each phase
(3) The amount of each phase C Q
T2 D
(Lever rule)
L+
(1) To interpret the phases those
are present: R
T3
The phase of an alloy can TB
be determined only at a specified 
composition and temperature. For
example, from the figure, at 60%A-
40%B at various temperatures, the A 20%B 40%B 60%B 80%B B
various phases of the A-B alloy Composition by weight, %
system can be determined. Fig. Interpretation of phase diagram
An ordinate is erected at 60%A-
40%B on the abscissa. On this ordinate at temperatures T1, T2 & T3 i.e., at points P, Q & R
respectively, various phases of the alloy system can be identified.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 11

 Material Science and Metallurgy

The point ‘P’ is in the single phase liquid region. So, at P we have only one phase – liquid
phase.
The point ‘Q’ is in the two phase region. So, at ‘Q’ we have two phases – liquid and solid
phases.
The point ‘R’ is in the single phase solid region. So, at ‘R’ we have only one phase – solid
phase .
Similar phase identification can be made at various compositions and temperatures.

(2) To interpret the Phase Compositions (Rule 1):

The phase composition (concentration) of an alloy can be determined only at a
specified temperature. At the specified temperature a horizontal line (isotherm) is drawn. In
the figure, let us find the phase composition at point ‘Q’. Through temperature T 2 an
isotherm is drawn. It intersects the liquidus at ‘D’ and the solidus at ‘C’. The perpendicular
through ‘C’ on the abscissa gives the composition of the solid phase   78%A-22%B and
the perpendicular through ‘D’ on the abscissa gives the composition of the liquid phase 
45%A-55%B.
 At temperature T2,
Composition (concentration) of the liquid phase = 45%A-55%B
Composition (concentration) of the solid phase = 78%A-22%B

(3) To interpret the relative amounts of the phases (Rule 2 – Lever Rule):
The relative amounts of phases of an alloy can be determined at a specified
temperature by applying the “Lever Rule”. Relative amounts (weight percentage) of phases
between liquidus & solidus means the weight percentage amount of solid that has already
been solidified and the weight percentage amount of liquid that is still remaining.
In the above diagram, let us find the relative amounts of phases at point ‘Q’ i.e., for
60%A-40%B alloy at temperature T2. Through point ‘Q’ an isotherm is drawn. It meets
solidus and liquidus at ‘C’ & ‘D’ respectively. The line CD is called the ‘Tie Line’. Lines CQ &
QD are known as ‘Lever Arms’. ‘Q’ is known as the ‘Pivot point’ or ‘Fulcrum point’.
Lever Rule: It states that the relative amounts of phases are directly proportional to the
opposite lever arms.
Applying Lever Rule to the tie line CD, with pivot at Q
QD
Relative amount of solid phase   100% (QD is the lever arm touching liquidus)
CD
55  40
 100  45.45%
55  22
CQ
Relative amount of liquid phase =  100% (CQ is the lever arm touching solidus)
CD
40  22
 100  54.55%
55  22

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 12

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Invariant Points on the phase diagrams:

These are points on the phase diagram where the number of degrees of freedom (F)
is ZERO. On this phase diagram TA & TB are invariant points. By applying the Gibb’s Phase
Rule we can note that F = 0 at these points.
At TA solidification of the pure metal ‘A’ is in progress. No. of components C = 1 (pure
metal), No. of phases P = 2 (liquid & solid are simultaneously present).
P+F=C+1F=C+1–P=1+1–2=0
Similarly, at TB also F = 0.

Problem on Lever rule:

Question: Two pure metals A & B with melting points 900oC and 400oC respectively are
completely soluble in their molten state. Upon solidification the binary system gives rise to a
single homogeneous solid. Details of start and end of solidification of various alloys in the
series are as follows:
Temperature (oC)
Alloy of
composition at start of at end of
solidification solidification
90%A-10%B 890 790
80%A-20%B 870 700
70%A-30%B 840 630
60%A-40%B 810 570
50%A-50%B 770 525
40%A-60%B 715 485
30%A-70%B 650 450
20%A-80%B 580 425
10%A-90%B 500 405

1. Assuming that there are no solid-state reactions taking place, draw the phase
diagram of the series and label all the regions.
2. Find out the number, type, composition and relative amounts of the phases present
in an alloy of 60%A-40%B at 700oC.
Solution:
(1) Plot the phase diagram by taking temperature on Y axis and composition (% weight) of A
or B on X axis. Draw the Liquidus as a smooth curve through the temperatures of start
of solidification. Draw the Solidus as a smooth curve through the temperatures of end
of solidification. Region above Liquidus is labeled as ‘L’ denoting liquid region. Region
below the Solidus is labeled as  denoting solid region. Region between the Liquidus &

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 13

 Material Science and Metallurgy

Solidus is labeled as ‘L + ’ denoting the region of two phase (solid and liquid) co-
existance.
(2) Firstly, the alloy of 60%A-40%B under consideration is represented by drawing an
ordinate at 40%B. Secondly, an isotherm (horizontal line) at 700oC is drawn to intersect
the ordinate at Q. Point Q represents the status of the alloy under consideration. The
portion PR of the isotherm intersecting the solidus and liquidus and passing through Q
forms the tie line, as required by the lever rule. Q is the pivot point with PQ & QR being
the lever arms.

P Q R Liquidus
L+

 Solidus

A B

(a) No. of phases at Q: Two

Fig. 4.6 Numerical on Lever rule

(b) Types of phases at Q: Liquid phase ‘L’ and solid phase ‘’.
(c) Composition of phases at Q: Composition of liquid phase is obtained by dropping an
ordinate through point R (point where tie line touches the liquidus) on the X axis to give
38%A-62%B. Therefore, composition of liquid phase at Q is 38%A-62%B.
Composition of solid phase is obtained by dropping an ordinate through point P (point
where tie line touches the solidus) on the X axis to give 80%A-20%B. Therefore,
composition of solid phase at Q is 80%A-20%B.
(d) Relative amounts of phases at Q: Relative amounts of phases are nothing but the weight
percentage of phases at point Q.
Applying Lever Rule to the tie line PR,

Relative amount of solid phase  = QR  100%

PR
(QR is the lever arm touching liquidus)

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 14

 Material Science and Metallurgy

62  40
100  52.38%
62  20
PQ
Relative amount of liquid phase = 100% (PQ is the lever arm touching solidus)
PR
40  20
 100  47.62%
62  20

Solid Solution (Isomorphous System) Phase Diagram:

A solid solution is a combination of two metals which are completely soluble in the liquid
state as well as in the solid state. In other words, the homogeneity of the combination of
two metals in liquid state is also seen in their combined solid state. Hence, it is also called as
“Isomorphous System”. On such systems only one type of crystal structure exists for all
compositions of the components.
Examples: Ni-Cu, Au-Ag, Cr-Mo, W-Mo, Al2O3-Cr2O3 systems

Liquid metal
x
TA x L L
x1 P
T1 
x2 L+
T2
L+
T3 x3 Q


TB

Cooling curve of alloy x

A 20%B 40%B 60%B 80%B B

Composition by weight, %
Fig. 4.7 Phase diagram for Isomorphous system

An Isomorphous System is represented by the reversible reaction:

Cooling
Liquid Solid
Heating
The above isomorphous system shown in fig. 4.7 can be expressed by the reversible
equation
Cooling
L  where,  is a solid solution of pure metals A & B.
Heating

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal 15