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SOLUTIONS

Solutions Manual for A First Course in Differential Equations

with Modeling Applications 11th Edition by Zill

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Chapter 2

First-Order Differential Equations

2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution

2. x 10
y
1. x 3
y

2 5

1
0 x
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–5
–1

–2
–10 –5 0 5 10
–3

3. x 4
y
4. x y
4
2
2

0 x 0 x

–2
–2

–4

–4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4

5. x 4
y
6. x 4
y

2 2

0 x 0 x

–2 –2

–4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4

36
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2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution 37

y y
7. x 4 8. x 4

2 2

0 x 0 x

–2 –2

–4
–4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4

y y
9. x 4 10. x 4

2 2

0 x 0 x

–2 –2

–4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4

y y
11. x 4 12. x 4

2 2

0 x 0 x

–2 –2

–4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4

y y
13. x 3
14. x
4
2
2
1
0 x 0 x
–1
–2
–2
–4
–3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –4 –2 0 2 4

y
15. (a) The isoclines have the form y = −x + c, which are straight 3
lines with slope −1. 2

x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1

–2

–3
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38 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

y
(b) The isoclines have the form x2 + y 2 = c, which are circles
2
centered at the origin.
1

x
–2 –1 1 2

–1

–2

16. (a) When x = 0 or y = 4, dy/dx = −2 so the lineal elements have slope −2. When y = 3 or
y = 5, dy/dx = x − 2, so the lineal elements at (x, 3) and (x, 5) have slopes x − 2.

(b) At (0, y0 ) the solution curve is headed down. If y → ∞ as x increases, the graph must
eventually turn around and head up, but while heading up it can never cross y = 4
where a tangent line to a solution curve must have slope −2. Thus, y cannot approach
∞ as x approaches ∞.

y
17. When y < 21 x2 , y ′ = x2 − 2y is positive and the portions of 3

solution curves “outside” the nullcline parabola are increasing. 2

When y > 21 x2 , y ′ = x2 − 2y is negative and the portions of the 1

solution curves “inside” the nullcline parabola are decreasing. 0 x

–1

–2

–3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

18. (a) Any horizontal lineal element should be at a point on a nullcline. In Problem 1 the
nullclines are x2 − y 2 = 0 or y = ±x. In Problem 3 the nullclines are 1 − xy = 0 or
y = 1/x. In Problem 4 the nullclines are (sin x) cos y = 0 or x = nπ and y = π/2 + nπ,
where n is an integer. The graphs on the next page show the nullclines for the equations
in Problems 1, 3, and 4 superimposed on the corresponding direction field.
y y y
3 4
4
2
2
2
1

0 x 0 x 0 x

–1 –2
–2
–2
–4
–3 –4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4
Problem 1 Problem 3 Problem 4
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2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution 39

(b) An autonomous first-order differential equation has the form y ′ = f (y). Nullclines have
the form y = c where f (c) = 0. These are the graphs of the equilibrium solutions of the
differential equation.

19. Writing the differential equation in the form dy/dx = y(1 − y)(1 + y) we see that
critical points are y = −1, y = 0, and y = 1. The phase portrait is shown at the
right.
1
(a) x y (b) x y
5 0
1
4
3
–1
2
1 x
–2 –1 1 2
x
1 2

(c) x y (d) x y
x
–2 –1 1 2 1 2
x –1
–2
–3
–1 –4
–5

20. Writing the differential equation in the form dy/dx = y 2 (1 − y)(1 + y) we see that
critical points are y = −1, y = 0, and y = 1. The phase portrait is shown at the
right.
1
(a) x y (b) x y
5 0
4 1

3
1
2
1 x
–2 –1 1 2
x
1 2

(c) x y (d) x y
x
–2 –1
x –1
–2 –1 1 2
–2
–3
–1 –4
–5
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40 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

21. Solving y 2 − 3y = y(y − 3) = 0 we obtain the critical points 0 and 3. From the
phase portrait we see that 0 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and 3 is unstable
(repeller). 3

22. Solving y 2 − y 3 = y 2 (1− y) = 0 we obtain the critical points 0 and 1. From the phase
portrait we see that 1 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and 0 is semi-stable.
1

23. Solving (y − 2)4 = 0 we obtain the critical point 2. From the phase portrait we see
that 2 is semi-stable.

2
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2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution 41

24. Solving 10 + 3y − y 2 = (5 − y)(2 + y) = 0 we obtain the critical points −2 and 5.

From the phase portrait we see that 5 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and −2 is
unstable (repeller). 5

–2

25. Solving y 2 (4 − y 2 ) = y 2 (2 − y)(2 + y) = 0 we obtain the critical points −2, 0, and

2. From the phase portrait we see that 2 is asymptotically stable (attractor), 0 is 2
semi-stable, and −2 is unstable (repeller).
0

–2

26. Solving y(2 − y)(4 − y) = 0 we obtain the critical points 0, 2, and 4. From the phase
portrait we see that 2 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and 0 and 4 are unstable
4
(repellers).
2

0
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42 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

27. Solving y ln(y+2) = 0 we obtain the critical points −1 and 0. From the phase portrait
we see that −1 is asymptotically stable (attractor) and 0 is unstable (repeller).
0

–1

–2

28. Solving yey − 9y = y(ey − 9) = 0 (since ey is always positive) we obtain the

critical points 0 and ln 9. From the phase portrait we see that 0 is asymptotically 1n 9
stable (attractor) and ln 9 is unstable (repeller).

29. The critical points are 0 and c because the graph of f (y) is 0 at these points. Since f (y) > 0
for y < 0 and y > c, the graph of the solution is increasing on the y-intervals (−∞, 0) and
(c, ∞). Since f (y) < 0 for 0 < y < c, the graph of the solution is decreasing on the y-interval
(0, c).

c c

0 x
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2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution 43

30. The critical points are approximately at −2, 2, 0.5, and 1.7. Since f (y) > 0 for y < −2.2
and 0.5 < y < 1.7, the graph of the solution is increasing on the y-intervals (−∞, −2.2) and
(0.5, 1.7). Since f (y) < 0 for −2.2 < y < 0.5 and y > 1.7, the graph is decreasing on the
y-interval (−2.2, 0.5) and (1.7, ∞).

1.7 2

1
0.5
x
–2 –1 1 2
–1

–2.2 –2

31. From the graphs of z = π/2 and z = sin y we see that 1

(2/π)y − sin y = 0 has only three solutions. By inspection

y
–π π π π
we see that the critical points are −π/2, 0, and π/2. –
2 2
–1

From the graph at the right we see that

(
2 <0 for y < −π/2 π
y − sin y
π >0 for y > π/2 2

0
(
2 >0 for − π/2 < y < 0
y − sin y π
π <0 for 0 < y < π/2 –
2

This enables us to construct the phase portrait shown at the right. From this portrait we see
that π/2 and −π/2 are unstable (repellers), and 0 is asymptotically stable (attractor).

32. For dy/dx = 0 every real number is a critical point, and hence all critical points are noniso-
lated.

33. Recall that for dy/dx = f (y) we are assuming that f and f ′ are continuous functions of y
on some interval I. Now suppose that the graph of a nonconstant solution of the differential
equation crosses the line y = c. If the point of intersection is taken as an initial condition
we have two distinct solutions of the initial-value problem. This violates uniqueness, so the
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44 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

graph of any nonconstant solution must lie entirely on one side of any equilibrium solution.
Since f is continuous it can only change signs at a point where it is 0. But this is a critical
point. Thus, f (y) is completely positive or completely negative in each region Ri . If y(x) is
oscillatory or has a relative extremum, then it must have a horizontal tangent line at some
point (x0 , y0 ). In this case y0 would be a critical point of the differential equation, but we saw
above that the graph of a nonconstant solution cannot intersect the graph of the equilibrium
solution y = y0 .

34. By Problem 33, a solution y(x) of dy/dx = f (y) cannot have relative extrema and hence must
be monotone. Since y ′ (x) = f (y) > 0, y(x) is monotone increasing, and since y(x) is bounded
above by c2 , limx→∞ y(x) = L, where L ≤ c2 . We want to show that L = c2 . Since L is a
horizontal asymptote of y(x), limx→∞ y ′ (x) = 0. Using the fact that f (y) is continuous we
have

 
f (L) = f lim y(x) = lim f (y(x)) = lim y ′ (x) = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞

But then L is a critical point of f . Since c1 < L ≤ c2 , and f has no critical points between
c1 and c2 , L = c2 .

35. Assuming the existence of the second derivative, points of inflection of y(x) occur where
y ′′ (x) = 0. From dy/dx = f (y) we have d2 y/dx2 = f ′ (y) dy/dx. Thus, the y-coordinate of a
point of inflection can be located by solving f ′ (y) = 0. (Points where dy/dx = 0 correspond
to constant solutions of the differential equation.)

36. Solving y 2 − y − 6 = (y − 3)(y + 2) = 0 we see that 3 and −2

y
are critical points. Now d2 y/dx2 = (2y − 1) dy/dx = (2y − 1)(y − 5
3)(y + 2), so the only possible point of inflection is at y = 21 ,
although the concavity of solutions can be different on either side
of y = −2 and y = 3. Since y ′′ (x) < 0 for y < −2 and 21 < y < 3,
x
and y ′′ (x) > 0 for −2 < y < 21 and y > 3, we see that solution –5 5

curves are concave down for y < −2 and 12 < y < 3 and concave
up for −2 < y < 21 and y > 3. Points of inflection of solutions of
–5
autonomous differential equations will have the same y-coordinates
because between critical points they are horizontal translations of
each other.

37. If (1) in the text has no critical points it has no constant solutions. The solutions have
neither an upper nor lower bound. Since solutions are monotonic, every solution assumes all
real values.
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2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution 45

38. The critical points are 0 and b/a. From the phase portrait we see that 0 is an
attractor and b/a is a repeller. Thus, if an initial population satisfies P0 > b/a,
b
the population becomes unbounded as t increases, most probably in finite time,
a
i.e. P (t) → ∞ as t → T . If 0 < P0 < b/a, then the population eventually dies out,
that is, P (t) → 0 as t → ∞. Since population P > 0 we do not consider the case
P0 < 0. 0

39. From the equation dP/dt = k (P − h/k) we see that the only critical point of the autonomous
differential equationis the positive number h/k. A phase portrait shows that this point is
unstable, that is, h/k is a repeller. For any initial condition P (0) = P0 for which 0 < P0 < h/k,
dP/dt < 0 which means P (t) is monotonic decreasing and so the graph of P (t) must cross the
t-axis or the line P − 0 at some time t1 > 0. But P (t1 ) = 0 means the population is extinct
at time t1 .

40. Writing the differential equation in the form

dv k  mg 
= −v
dt m k
mg
k
we see that a critical point is mg/k.
From the phase portrait we see that mg/k is an asymptotically stable critical point.
Thus, lim v = mg/k.
t→∞

41. Writing the differential equation in the form

r  r 
dv k  mg 2
 k mg mg
= −v = −v +v
dt m k m k k mg
p √ k
we see that the only physically meaningful critical point is mg/k.
p
From the phase portraitp we see that mg/k is an asymptotically stable critical
point. Thus, lim v = mg/k.
t→∞

42. (a) From the phase portrait we see that critical points are α and β. Let X(0) = X0 .
If X0 < α, we see that X → α as t → ∞. If α < X0 < β, we see that X → α
as t → ∞. If X0 > β, we see that X(t) increases in an unbounded manner, β
but more specific behavior of X(t) as t → ∞ is not known.

α
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46 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

(b) When α = β the phase portrait is as shown. If X0 < α, then X(t) → α

as t → ∞. If X0 > α, then X(t) increases in an unbounded manner. This
could happen in a finite amount of time. That is, the phase portrait does not
indicate that X becomes unbounded as t → ∞.
α

(c) When k = 1 and α = β the differential equation is dX/dt = (α − X)2 . For

X(t) = α − 1/(t + c) we have dX/dt = 1/(t + c)2 and
  2
2 1 1 dX
(α − X) = α − α − = 2
= .
t+c (t + c) dt

For X(0) = α/2 we obtain

1
X(t) = α − .
t + 2/α

For X(0) = 2α we obtain

1
X(t) = α − .
t − 1/α
x x

2α
α α
α/2
t t
–2 / α 1/α

For X0 > α, X(t) increases without bound up to t = 1/α. For t > 1/α, X(t) increases
but X → α as t → ∞.

2.2 Separable Variables

In many of the following problems we will encounter an expression of the form ln |g(y)| = f (x)+c.
To solve for g(y) we exponentiate both sides of the equation. This yields |g(y)| = ef (x)+c = ec ef (x)
which implies g(y) = ±ec ef (x) . Letting c1 = ±ec we obtain g(y) = c1 ef (x) .

1. From dy = sin 5x dx we obtain y = − 15 cos 5x + c.

2. From dy = (x + 1)2 dx we obtain y = 13 (x + 1)3 + c.

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2.2 Separable Variables 47

3. From dy = −e−3x dx we obtain y = 13 e−3x + c.

1 1 1
4. From 2
dy = dx we obtain − = x + c or y = 1 − .
(y − 1) y−1 x+c
1 4
5. From dy = dx we obtain ln |y| = 4 ln |x| + c or y = c1 x4 .
y x
1 1 1
6. From 2
dy = −2x dx we obtain − = −x2 + c or y = 2 .
y y x + c1

7. From e−2y dy = e3x dx we obtain 3e−2y + 2e3x = c.

1
8. From yey dy = e−x + e−3x dx we obtain yey − ey + e−x + e−3x = c.
3
 
1 y2 x3 1
9. From y + 2 + dy = x2 ln x dx we obtain + 2y + ln |y| = ln |x| − x3 + c.
y 2 3 9

1 1 2 1
10. From dy = dx we obtain = + c.
(2y + 3)2 (4x + 5)2 2y + 3 4x + 5

1 1
11. From dy = − 2 dx or sin y dy = − cos2 x dx = − 12 (1 + cos 2x) dx we obtain
csc y sec x
− cos y = − 12 x − 41 sin 2x + c or 4 cos y = 2x + sin 2x + c1 .

sin 3x
12. From 2y dy = − dx or 2y dy = − tan 3x sec2 3x dx we obtain y 2 = − 16 sec2 3x + c.
cos3 3x
ey −ex
13. From dy = dx we obtain − (ey + 1)−1 = 1
2 (ex + 1)−2 + c.
(ey + 1)2 (ex + 1)3
y x
1/2
1/2
14. From dy = dx we obtain 1 + y 2 = 1 + x2 + c.
(1 + y 2 )1/2 (1 + x2 )1/2
1
15. From dS = k dr we obtain S = cekr .
S
1
16. From dQ = k dt we obtain ln |Q − 70| = kt + c or Q − 70 = c1 ekt .
Q − 70
 
1 1 1
17. From 2
dP = + dP = dt we obtain ln |P | − ln |1 − P | = t + c so that
 P− P P 1−P
 P  t
ln   = t + c or P = c1 et . Solving for P we have P = c1 e .
1−P 1−P 1 + c1 et

1

dN = tet+2 − 1 dt we obtain ln |N | = tet+2 − et+2 − t + c or N = c1 ete −e −t .
t+2 t+2
18. From
N
   
y−2 x−1 5 5
19. From dy = dx or 1 − dy = 1 − dx we obtain
y+3 x+4 y+3 x+4
 
x+4 5
y − 5 ln |y + 3| = x − 5 ln |x + 4| + c or = c1 ex−y .
y+3
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48 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

   
y+1 x+2 2 5
20. From dy = dx or 1+ dy = 1 + dx we obtain
y−1 x−3 y−1 x−3
(y − 1)2
y + 2 ln |y − 1| = x + 5 ln |x − 3| + c or = c1 ex−y .
(x − 3)5
 
1 x2
21. From x dx = p dy we obtain 12 x2 = sin−1 y + c or y = sin + c1 .
1 − y2 2

1 1 ex 1
22. From 2
dy = x −x
dx = x 2
dx we obtain − = tan−1 ex + c or
y e +e (e ) + 1 y
1
y=− .
tan−1 ex + c

1
23. From dx = 4 dt we obtain tan−1 x = 4t + c. Using x(π/4) = 1 we find c = −3π/4. The
x2 + 1  
−1 3π 3π
solution of the initial-value problem is tan x = 4t − or x = tan 4t − .
4 4
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
24. From 2 dy = 2 dx or − dy = − dx we obtain
y −1 x −1 2 y−1 y+1 2 x−1 x+1
y−1 c(x − 1)
ln |y − 1| − ln |y + 1| = ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1| + ln c or = . Using y(2) = 2 we
y+1 x+1
y−1 x−1
find c = 1. A solution of the initial-value problem is = or y = x.
y+1 x+1
 
1 1−x 1 1 1
25. From dy = dx = − dx we obtain ln |y| = − − ln |x| = c or xy = c1 e−1/x .
y x2 x2 x x
Using y(−1) = −1 we find c1 = e−1 . The solution of the initial-value problem is xy = e−1−1/x
or y = e−(1+1/x) /x.

1
26. From dy = dt we obtain − 21 ln |1 − 2y| = t + c or 1 − 2y = c1 e−2t . Using y(0) = 5/2 we
1 − 2y
find c1 = −4. The solution of the initial-value problem is 1 − 2y = −4e−2t or y = 2e−2t + 21 .

27. Separating variables and integrating we obtain

dx dy
√ −p = 0 and sin−1 x − sin−1 y = c.
1−x 2 1 − y2
√
Setting x = 0 and y = 3/2 we obtain c = −π/3. Thus, an implicit solution of the initial-
value problem is sin−1 x − sin−1 y = π/3. Solving for y and using an addition formula from
trigonometry, we get
√ √

−1 π π p π x 3 1 − x2
y = sin sin x+ = x cos + 1 − x2 sin = + .
3 3 3 2 2
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2.2 Separable Variables 49

1 −x
28. From dy = dx we obtain
1 + (2y)2 1 + (x2 )2

1 1
tan−1 2y = − tan−1 x2 + c or tan−1 2y + tan−1 x2 = c1 .
2 2

Using y(1) = 0 we find c1 = π/4. Thus, an implicit solution of the initial-value problem is
tan−1 2y + tan−1 x2 = π/4 . Solving for y and using a trigonometric identity we get

π 
2y = tan − tan−1 x2
4
1 π 
y= tan − tan−1 x2
2 4
1 tan π4 − tan (tan−1 x2 )
=
2 1 + tan π4 tan (tan−1 x2 )

1 1 − x2
= .
2 1 + x2

29. Separating variables and then proceeding as in Example 5 we get

dy 2
= ye−x
dx
1 dy 2
= e−x
y dx
x ˆ x
1 dy
ˆ
2
dt = e−t dt
4 y(t) dt 4
x ˆ x 2
e−t dt

ln y(t) =
4 4
ˆ x
2
ln y(x) − ln y(4) = e−t dt
4
ˆ x
2
ln y(x) = e−t dt
4
´x 2
e−t dt
y(x) = e 4
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50 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

30. Separating variables and then proceeding as in Example 5 we get

dy
= y 2 sin (x2 )
dx
1 dy
= sin (x2 )
y 2 dx
ˆ x ˆ x
1 dy
2
dt = sin (t2 ) dt
−2 y (t) dt −2
ˆ x
−1 x
 = sin (t2 ) dt
y(t) −2 −2
ˆ x
−1 1
+ = sin (t2 ) dt
y(x) y(−2) −2
ˆ x
−1
+3= sin (t2 ) dt
y(x) −2
 ˆ x −1
y(x) = 3 − sin (t2 ) dt
−2

31. Separating variables we get

dy 2x + 1
=
dx 2y
2y dy = (2x + 1) dx
ˆ ˆ
2y dy = (2x + 1) dx

y 2 = x2 + x + c

√
The condition y(−2) = −1 implies c = −1. Thus y 2 = x2 + x − 1 and y = − x2 + x − 1 in
order for y to be negative. Moreover for an interval containing −2 for values of x such that
√ !
1 5
x2 + x − 1 > 0 we get −∞, − − .
2 2
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2.2 Separable Variables 51

32. Separating variables we get

dy
(2y − 2) = 3x2 + 4x + 2
dx


(2y − 2) dy = 3x2 + 4x + 2 dx
ˆ ˆ


(2y − 2) dy = 3x2 + 4x + 2 dx
ˆ ˆ


2 (y − 1) dy = 3x2 + 4x + 2 dx

(y − 1)2 = x3 + 2x2 + 2x + c
√
The condition y(1) = −2 implies c = 4. Thus y = 1 − x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 4 where the minus


sign is indicated by the initial condition. Now x3 + 2x2 + 2x+ 4 = (x + 2) x2 + 1 > 0 implies
x > −2, so the interval of definition is (−2, ∞).
33. Separating variables we get

ey dx − e−x dy = 0

ey dx = e−x dy

ex dx = e−y dy
ˆ ˆ
ex dx = e−y dy

ex = −e−y + c

The condition y(0) = 0 implies c = 2. Thus e−y = 2 − ex . Therefore y = − ln (2 − ex ). Now

we must have 2 − ex > 0 or ex < 2. Since ex is an increasing function this imples x < ln 2
and so the interval of definition is (−∞, ln 2).
34. Separating variables we get

sin x dx + y dy = 0
ˆ ˆ ˆ
sin x dx + y dy = 0 dx

1
− cos x + y 2 = c
2

The condition y(0) = 1 implies c = − 21 . Thus − cos x + 12 y 2 = − 21 or y 2 = 2 cos x − 1.

√
Therefore y = 2 cos x − 1 where the positive root is indicated by the initial condition. Now
we must have 2 cos x − 1 > 0 or cos x > 12 . This means −π/3 < x < π/3, so the the interval
of definition is (−π/3, π/3).

35. (a) The equilibrium solutions y(x) = 2 and y(x) = −2 satisfy the initial conditions y(0) = 2
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52 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

and y(0) = −2, respectively. Setting x = 41 and y = 1 in y = 2(1 + ce4x )/(1 − ce4x ) we
obtain
1 + ce 1
1=2 , 1 − ce = 2 + 2ce, −1 = 3ce, and c = − .
1 − ce 3e
The solution of the corresponding initial-value problem is

1 − 31 e4x−1 3 − e4x−1
y=2 = 2 .
1 + 31 e4x−1 3 + e4x−1

(b) Separating variables and integrating yields

1 1
ln |y − 2| − ln |y + 2| + ln c1 = x
4 4
ln |y − 2| − ln |y + 2| + ln c = 4x
 c(y − 2) 
 
ln   = 4x
y+2
y−2
c = e4x .
y+2

Solving for y we get y = 2(c + e4x )/(c − e4x ). The initial condition y(0) = −2 implies
2(c + 1)/(c − 1) = −2 which yields c = 0 and y(x) = −2. The initial condition y(0) = 2
does not correspond to a value of c, and it must simply be recognized that y(x) = 2 is a
solution of the initial-value problem. Setting x = 14 and y = 1 in y = 2(c + e4x )/(c − e4x )
leads to c = −3e. Thus, a solution of the initial-value problem is

−3e + e4x 3 − e4x−1

y=2 = 2 .
−3e − e4x 3 + e4x−1

36. Separating variables, we have

dy dx dy
ˆ
2
= or = ln |x| + c.
y −y x y(y − 1)

Using partial fractions, we obtain

ˆ  
1 1
− dy = ln |x| + c
y−1 y

ln |y − 1| − ln |y| = ln |x| + c
 
y − 1
ln  =c
xy 
y−1
= ec = c1 .
xy

Solving for y we get y = 1/(1 − c1 x). We note by inspection that y = 0 is a singular solution
of the differential equation.
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2.2 Separable Variables 53

(a) Setting x = 0 and y = 1 we have 1 = 1/(1 − 0), which is true for all values of c1 . Thus,
solutions passing through (0, 1) are y = 1/(1 − c1 x).

(b) Setting x = 0 and y = 0 in y = 1/(1 − c1 x) we get 0 = 1. Thus, the only solution passing
through (0, 0) is y = 0.

1 1 1
(c) Setting x = 2 and y = 2 we have 2 = 1/(1 − 12 c1 ), so c1 = −2 and y = 1/(1 + 2x).

(d) Setting x = 2 and y = 41 we have 1

4 = 1/(1 − 2c1 ), so c1 = − 32 and
y = 1/(1 + 23 x) = 2/(2 + 3x).

p
37. Singular solutions of dy/dx = x 1 − y 2 are y = −1 and y = 1. A singular solution of
(ex + e−x )dy/dx = y 2 is y = 0.

38. Differentiating ln (x2 + 10) + csc y = c we get

2x dy
− csc y cot y = 0,
x2 + 10 dx
2x 1 cos y dy
− · = 0,
x2 + 10 sin y sin y dx

or

2x sin2 y dx − (x2 + 10) cos y dy = 0.

Writing the differential equation in the form

dy 2x sin2 y
= 2
dx (x + 10) cos y

we see that singular solutions occur when sin2 y = 0, or y = kπ, where k is an integer.

y
39. The singular solution y = 1 satisfies the initial-value problem. 1.01

x
–0.004 –0.002 0.002 0.004

0.98

0.97
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54 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

dy y
1.02
40. Separating variables we obtain = dx. Then
(y − 1)2
1 x+c−1 1.01
− = x + c and y= .
y−1 x+c
Setting x = 0 and y = 1.01 we obtain c = −100. The solution –0.004 –0.002 0.002 0.004
x
is
x − 101
y= . 0.99
x − 100

0.98

dy y
41. Separating variables we obtain = dx. Then
(y − 1)2 + 0.01 1.0004

1 x+c
10 tan−1 10(y − 1) = x + c and y = 1 + tan . 1.0002
10 10
Setting x = 0 and y = 1 we obtain c = 0. The solution is x
–0.004 –0.002 0.002 0.004
1 x
y =1+ tan . 0.9998
10 10
0.9996

dy
42. Separating variables we obtain = dx. Then, y
(y − 1)2 − 0.01
1 1.0004
with u = y − 1 and a = 10 , we get
  1.0002
 10y − 11 
5 ln 
  = x + c.
10y − 9  x
–0.004 –0.002 0.002 0.004

Setting x = 0 and y = 1 we obtain c = 5 ln 1 = 0. The 0.9998

solution is  
 10y − 11  0.9996
5 ln 
  = x.
10y − 9 

Solving for y we obtain

11 + 9ex/5
y= .
10 + 10ex/5
Alternatively, we can use the fact that

dy 1 y−1
ˆ
2
=− tanh−1 = −10 tanh−1 10(y − 1).
(y − 1) − 0.01 0.1 0.1

(We use the inverse hyperbolic tangent because |y − 1| < 0.1 or 0.9 < y < 1.1. This
follows from the initial condition y(0) = 1.) Solving the above equation for y we get y =
1 + 0.1 tanh (x/10).
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2.2 Separable Variables 55

43. Separating variables, we have

 
dy dy 1 1/2 1/2
3
= = + − dy = dx.
y−y y(1 − y)(1 + y) y 1−y 1+y

Integrating, we get
1 1
ln |y| − ln |1 − y| − ln |1 + y| = x + c.
2 2
When y > 1, this becomes

1 1 y
ln y − ln (y − 1) − ln (y + 1) = ln p = x + c.
2 2 y2 − 1

√ √
Letting x = 0 and y = 2 we find c = ln (2/ 3 ). Solving for y we get y1 (x) = 2ex / 4e2x − 3 ,
√
where x > ln ( 3/2).
When 0 < y < 1 we have

1 1 y
ln y − ln (1 − y) − ln (1 + y) = ln p = x + c.
2 2 1 − y2

1
√ √
Letting x = 0 and y = 2 we find c = ln (1/ 3 ). Solving for y we get y2 (x) = ex / e2x + 3 ,
where −∞ < x < ∞.
When −1 < y < 0 we have

1 1 −y
ln (−y) − ln (1 − y) − ln (1 + y) = ln p = x + c.
2 2 1 − y2

√ √
Letting x = 0 and y = − 12 we find c = ln (1/ 3 ). Solving for y we get y3 (x) = −ex / e2x + 3 ,
where −∞ < x < ∞.
When y < −1 we have

1 1 −y
ln (−y) − ln (1 − y) − ln (−1 − y) = ln p = x + c.
2 2 y2 − 1

√
Letting x = 0 and y = −2 we find c = ln (2/ 3 ). Solving for y we get
√ √
y4 (x) = −2ex / 4e2x − 3 , where x > ln ( 3/2).

y y y y
4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2
x x x x
1 2 3 4 5 –4 –2 2 4 –4 –2 2 4 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –2 –2 –2
–4 –4 –4 –4
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56 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

y
44. (a) The second derivative of y is 8

d2 y dy/dx 1/(y − 3) 1 6
=− =− =− .
dx2 (y − 1)2 (y − 3)2 (y − 3)3 4
3
The solution curve is concave down when d2 y/dx2 < 0 2

or y > 3, and concave up when d2 y/dx2 > 0 or y < 3. x

–4 –2 2 4
From the phase portrait we see that the solution curve –2
is decreasing when y < 3 and increasing when y > 3.
y
(b) Separating variables and integrating we obtain 8

6
(y − 3) dy = dx
4
1 2
y − 3y = x + c 2
2
y 2 − 6y + 9 = 2x + c1 –1 1 2 3 4 5
x

–2
(y − 3)2 = 2x + c1
√
y = 3 ± 2x + c1 .

The initial condition dictates whether to use the plus or minus sign.
√
When y1 (0) = 4 we have c1 = 1 and y1 (x) = 3 + 2x + 1 where (−1/2, ∞).
√
When y2 (0) = 2 we have c1 = 1 and y2 (x) = 3 − 2x + 1 where (−1/2, ∞).
√
When y3 (1) = 2 we have c1 = −1 and y3 (x) = 3 − 2x − 1 where (1/2, ∞).
√
When y4 (−1) = 4 we have c1 = 3 and y4 (x) = 3 + 2x + 3 where (−3/2, ∞).

45. We separate variables and rationalize the denominator. Then

1 1 − sin x 1 − sin x 1 − sin x
dy = · dx = 2 dx = dx
1 + sin x 1 − sin x 1 − sin x cos2 x


= sec2 x − tan x sec x dx.

Integrating, we have y = tan x − sec x + C.

√ √
46. Separating variables we have y dy = sin x dx. Then
√ √ 2 3/2 √
ˆ ˆ ˆ
y dy = sin x dx and y = sin x dx.
3

√ √ 1 1
To integrate sin x we first make the substitution u = x. Then du = √ dx = 2u du and
2 x
√
ˆ ˆ ˆ
sin x dx = (sin u) (2u) du = 2 u sin u du.
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2.2 Separable Variables 57

Using integration by parts we find

√ √ √
ˆ
u sin u du = −u cos u + sin u = − x cos x + sin x.

Thus
2 √ √ √ √
ˆ
y= sin x dx = −2 x cos x + 2 sin x + C
3

and
√ √ √

y = 32/3 − x cos x + sin x + C .

√ √ √
ˆ



47. Separating variables we have dy/ y + y = dx/ ( x + x). To integrate dx/ x +x
we substitute u2 = x and get

2u 2 √

ˆ ˆ
2
du = du = 2 ln |1 + u| + c = 2 ln 1 + x + c.
u+u 1+u

Integrating the separated differential equation we have

√ √
√ √

2 ln (1 + y) = 2 ln 1 + x + c or ln (1 + y) = ln 1 + x + ln c1 .

√ 2
Solving for y we get y = [c1 (1 + x) − 1] .

48. Separating variables and integrating we have

dy
ˆ ˆ

= dx
y 2/3 1 − y 1/3

y 2/3
ˆ
dy = x + c1
1 − y 1/3
 
−3 ln 1 − y 1/3  = x + c1
 

  x
ln 1 − y 1/3  = − + c2
 
3
 
1 − y 1/3  = c3 e−x/3
 

1 − y 1/3 = c4 e−x/3

y 1/3 = 1 + c5 e−x/3
 3
y = 1 + c5 e−x/3 .
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58 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

√ √
49. ˆ
Separating variables we have y dy = e x dx. If u = x , then u2 = x and 2u du = dx. Thus,
√
ˆ
e x dx = 2ueu du and, using integration by parts, we find

√ 1 2 √ √ √
ˆ ˆ ˆ
x
y dy = e dx so y = 2ueu du = −2eu + C = 2 x e x − 2e x + C,
2

and
q
√ √x √
y=2 xe − e x + C .

To find C we solve y(1) = 4.

q √
√ √ √
y(1) = 2 1e 1 − e 1 + C = 2 C = 4 so C = 4.
q
√ √x √
and the solution of the intial-value problem is y = 2 xe − e x + 4.

50. Seperating variables we have y dy = x tan−1 x dx. Integrating both sides and using integration
by parts with u = tan−1 x and dv = x dx we have
ˆ
y dy = x tan−1 x dx

1 2 1 2 1 1
y = x tan−1 x − x + tan−1 x + C
2 2 2 2

y 2 = x2 tan−1 x − x + tan−1 x + C1
p
y = x2 tan−1 x − x + tan−1 x + C1

To find C1 we solve y(0) = 3.

p p
y(0) = 02 tan−1 0 − 0 + tan−1 0 + C1 = C1 = 3 so C1 = 9,
√
and the solution of the initial-value problem is y = x2 tan−1 x − x + tan−1 x + 9 .
√
51. (a) While y2 (x) = − 25 − x2 is defined at x = −5 and x = 5, y2′ (x) is not defined at these
values, and so the interval of definition is the open interval (−5, 5).

(b) At any point on the x-axis the derivative of y(x) is undefined, so no solution curve can
cross the x-axis. Since −x/y is not defined when y = 0, the initial-value problem has no
solution.

2
 
52. The derivative of y = 41 x2 − 1 is dy/dx = x 14 x2 − 1 . We note that xy 1/2 = x  14 x2 − 1.
We see from the graphs of y (black), dy/dx (red), and xy 1/2 (blue), below that dy/dx = xy 1/2
on (−∞, 2] and [2, ∞).
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2.2 Separable Variables 59

√
Alternatively, because X 2 = |X| we can write


1 2
s 2   x 4 x − 1 ,
 −∞ < x ≤ −2
√ 1 2 1 2  

xy 1/2 = x y = x x − 1 = x  x − 1 = −x 41 x2 − 1 , −2 < x < 2
4 4 


 1 2

x 4x − 1 , 2 ≤ x < ∞.

From this we see that dy/dx = xy 1/2 on (−∞, −2] and on [2, ∞).

p  y
53. Separating variables we have dy/ 1 + y 2 sin2 y = dx 3.5
3
which is not readily integrated (even by a CAS). We 2.5
note that dy/dx ≥ 0 for all values of x and y and that 2
1.5
dy/dx = 0 when y = 0 and y = π, which are equilibrium 1
0.5
solutions.
x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 8

54. (a) The solution of y ′ = y, y(0) = 1, is y = ex . Using separation of variables we find that the
solution of y ′ = y [1 + 1/ (x ln x)], y(e) = 1, is y = ex−e ln x. Solving the two solutions
simultaneously we obtain
e
ex = ex−e ln x, so ee = ln x and x = ee .
e
(b) Since y = e(e ) ≈ 2.33 × 101,656,520 , the y-coordinate of the point of intersection of the
e

two solution curves has over 1.65 million digits.

55. We are looking for a function y(x) such that

 2
2 dy
y + = 1.
dx

Using the positive square root gives

dy p
= 1 − y2
dx
dy
p = dx
1 − y2

sin−1 y = x + c.
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60 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Thus a solution is y = sin (x + c). If we use the negative square root we obtain
y = sin (c − x) = − sin (x − c) = − sin (x + c1 ).

Note that when c = c1 = 0 and when c = c1 = π/2 we obtain the well known particular
solutions y = sin x, y = − sin x, y = cos x, and y = − cos x. Note also that y = 1 and y = −1
are singular solutions.

56. (a) x y
3

–3 3 x

–3

p √
(b) For |x| > 1 and |y| > 1 the differential equation is dy/dx = y 2 − 1 / x2 − 1 . Separat-
ing variables and integrating, we obtain
dy dx
p =√ and cosh−1 y = cosh−1 x + c.
y2 − 1 x2 − 1
Setting x = 2 and y = 2 we find c = cosh−1 2 − cosh−1 2 = 0 and cosh−1 y = cosh−1 x.
An explicit solution is y = x.

57. Since the tension T1 (or magnitude T1 ) acts at the lowest point of the cable, we use symmetry
to solve the problem on the interval [0, L/2]. The assumption that the roadbed is uniform
(that is, weighs a constant ρ pounds per horizontal foot) implies W = ρx, where x is measured
in feet and 0 ≤ x ≤ L/2. Therefore (10) becomes dy/dx = (ρ/T1 )x. This last equation is a
separable equation of the form given in (1) of Section 2.2 in the text. Integrating and using the
initial condition y(0) = a shows that the shape of the cable is a parabola: y(x) = (ρ/2T1 )x2 +a.
In terms of the sag h of the cable and the span L, we see from Figure 2.2.5 in the text that
y(L/2) = h + a. By applying this last condition to y(x) = (ρ/2T1 )x2 + a enables us to express
ρ/2T1 in terms of h and L: y(x) = (4h/L2 )x2 + a. Since y(x) is an even function of x, the
solution is valid on −L/2 ≤ x ≤ L/2.

y
58. (a) Separating variables and integrating, we have
(3y 2 + 1) dy = −(8x + 5) dx and y 3 + y = −4x2 − 5x + c. 4

Using a CAS we show various contours of 2

f (x, y) = y 3 + y + 4x2 + 5x. The plots shown on 0 x
[−5, 5]×[−5, 5] correspond to c-values of 0, ±5, ±20, ±40,
–2
±80, and ±125.
–4

–4 –2 0 2 4
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2.2 Separable Variables 61

y
(b) The value of c corresponding to y(0) = −1 is f (0, −1) = −2;
4
to y(0) = 2 is f (0, 2) = 10; to y(−1) = 4 is f (−1, 4) = 67;
and to y(−1) = −3 is −31. 2

0 x

–2

–4

–4 –2 0 2 4

59. (a) An implicit solution of the differential equation (2y + 2)dy − (4x3 + 6x) dx = 0 is

y 2 + 2y − x4 − 3x2 + c = 0.

The condition y(0) = −3 implies that c = −3. Therefore y 2 + 2y − x4 − 3x2 − 3 = 0.

(b) Using the quadratic formula we can solve for y in terms of x:

p
−2 ± 4 + 4(x4 + 3x2 + 3)
y= .
2

The explicit solution that satisfies the initial condition is then

p
y = −1 − x4 + 3x3 + 4 .

(c) From the graph of the function f (x) = x4 + 3x3 + 4 below we see that f (x) ≤ 0 on the
approximate interval −2.8 ≤ x ≤ −1.3. Thus the approximate domain of the function

p p
y = −1 − x4 + 3x3 + 4 = −1 − f (x)

is x ≤ −2.8 or x ≥ −1.3. The graph of this function is shown below.

–1 – √f(x)
f(x)
x
–4 –2 2
4
–2
2
–4
x
–4 –2 –6
–2
–8
–4
–10
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62 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

–1 – √f(x)
(d) Using the root finding capabilities of a CAS, the zeros of f are found
x
to be −2.82202 and −1.3409. The domain of definition of the solution 2

y(x) is then x > −1.3409. The equality has been removed since the –2

derivative dy/dx does not exist at the points where f (x) = 0. The –4
graph of the solution y = φ(x) is given on the right.
–6

–8

–10

60. (a) Separating variables and integrating, we have

y
2 2
(−2y + y ) dy = (x − x ) dx 4

2
and
1 1 1 0 x
−y 2 + y 3 = x2 − x3 + c
3 2 3 –2
Using a CAS we show some contours of
–4

f (x, y) = 2y 3 − 6y 2 + 2x3 − 3x2 . –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6

The plots shown on [−7, 7] × [−5, 5] correspond to c-values of −450, −300, −200, −120,
−60, −20, −10, −8.1, −5, −0.8, 20, 60, and 120.

y
(b) The value of c corresponding to y(0) = 23 is

4
f 0, 23 = − 27 4 . The portion of the graph be-
tween the dots corresponds to the solution curve 2

satisfying the intial condition. To determine the 0 x

interval of definition we find dy/dx for –2

27 –4
2y 3 − 6y 2 + 2x3 − 3x2 = − .
4 –2 0 2 4 6

Using implicit differentiation we get y ′ = (x − x2 )/(y 2 − 2y), which is infinite when y = 0

and y = 2. Letting y = 0 in 2y 3 − 6y 2 + 2x3 − 3x2 = − 27 4 and using a CAS to solve for x
we get x = −1.13232. Similarly, letting y = 2, we find x = 1.71299. The largest interval
of definition is approximately (−1.13232, 1.71299).
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2.3 Linear Equations 63

y
(c) The value of c corresponding to y(0) = −2 is 4
f (0, −2) = −40. The portion of the graph to the 2
right of the dot corresponds to the solution curve 0 x
–2
satisfying the initial condition. To determine the
–4
interval of definition we find dy/dx for
–6
–8
2y 3 − 6y 2 + 2x3 − 3x2 = −40.
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10

Using implicit differentiation we get y ′ = (x − x2 )/(y 2 − 2y), which is infinite when y = 0

and y = 2. Letting y = 0 in 2y 3 − 6y 2 + 2x3 − 3x2 = −40 and using a CAS to solve for x
we get x = −2.29551. The largest interval of definition is approximately (−2.29551, ∞).

2.3 Linear Equations

´ d  −5x 
1. For y ′ − 5y = 0 an integrating factor is e− 5 dx = e−5x so that e y = 0 and y = ce5x
dx
for −∞ < x < ∞.

´ d  2x 
2. For y ′ + 2y = 0 an integrating factor is e 2 dx = e2x so that e y = 0 and y = ce−2x for
dx
−∞ < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−2x .

´ d x
3. For y ′ + y = e3x an integrating factor is e dx = ex so that [e y] = e4x and y = 41 e3x + ce−x
dx
for −∞ < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−x .

4
´ d  4x  4 4x
4. For y ′ +4y = 3 an integrating factor is e 4 dx = e4x so that e y = 3 e and y = 31 +ce−4x
dx
for −∞ < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−4x .

´
3x2 dx 3 d h x3 i 3
5. For y ′ + 3x2 y = x2 an integrating factor is e = ex so that e y = x2 ex and
dx
1 3 3
y= 3 + ce−x for −∞ < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−x .

´ 2 d h x2 i 2
6. For y ′ + 2xy = x3 an integrating factor is e 2x dx = ex so that e y = x3 ex and
dx
2 2
y = 21 x2 − 1
2 + ce−x for −∞ < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−x .

1 1 ´ d 1 1 c
7. For y ′ + y = 2 an integrating factor is e (1/x) dx = x so that [xy] = and y = ln x+
x x dx x x x
for 0 < x < ∞. The entire solution is transient.
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64 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

´ d  −2x 
8. For y ′ −2y = x2 +5 an integrating factor is e− 2 dx = e−2x so that e y = x2 e−2x +5e−2x
dx
and y = − 21 x2 − 12 x − 11
4 + ce2x for −∞ < x < ∞. There is no transient term.

 
1
′
´
− (1/x) dx 1 d 1
9. For y − y = x sin x an integrating factor is e = so that y = sin x and
x x dx x
y = cx − x cos x for 0 < x < ∞. There is no transient term.

2 3 d  2 
10. For y ′ +
´
y = an integrating factor is e (2/x)dx = x2 so that x y = 3x and y = 23 +cx−2
x x dx
for 0 < x < ∞. The trancient term is cx−2 .

4 d  4 
y = x2 − 1 an integrating factor is e (4/x)dx = x4 so that
´
11. For y ′ + x y = x6 − x4 and
x dx
y = 71 x3 − 51 x + cx−4 for 0 < x < ∞. The transient term is cx−4 .

x ´
12. For y ′ − y = x an integrating factor is e− [x/(1+x)]dx = (x + 1)e−x so that
(1 + x)
d   2x + 3 cex
(x + 1)e−x y = x(x + 1)e−x and y = −x − + for −1 < x < ∞. There
dx x+1 x+1
is no transient term.


′ 2 ex ´ d 2 x
13. For y + 1 + y = 2 an integrating factor is e [1+(2/x)]dx = x2 ex so that [x e y] = e2x
x x dx
1 ex ce−x ce−x
and y = + for 0 < x < ∞. The transient term is .
2 x2 x2 x2
 
′ 1 1
y = e−x sin 2x an integrating factor is e [1+(1/x)]dx = xex so that
´
14. For y + 1 +
x x
d 1 ce−x
[xex y] = sin 2x and y = − e−x cos 2x + for 0 < x < ∞. The entire solution
dx 2x x
is transient.

dx 4 d  −4 
− x = 4y 5 an integrating factor is e− (4/y) dy = eln y = y −4 so that
´ −4
15. For y x = 4y
dy y dy
and x = 2y 6 + cy 4 for 0 < y < ∞. There is no transient term.

dx 2 d  2 
+ x = ey an integrating factor is e (2/y) dy = y 2 so that
´
16. For y x = y 2 ey and
dy y dy
2 2 c c
x = ey − ey + 2 ey + 2 for 0 < y < ∞. The transient term is 2 .
y y y y
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2.3 Linear Equations 65

´ d
17. For y ′ + (tan x)y = sec x an integrating factor is e tan x dx = sec x so that [(sec x)y] = sec2 x
dx
and y = sin x + c cos x for −π/2 < x < π/2. There is no transient term.

´
18. For y ′ + (cot x)y = sec2 x csc x an integrating factor is e cot x dx = eln | sin x| = sin x so that
d
[(sin x) y] = sec2 x and y = sec x + c csc x for 0 < x < π/2. There is no transient term.
dx

x+2 2xe−x ´
19. For y ′ + y = an integrating factor is e [(x+2)/(x+1)]dx = (x + 1)ex , so
x+1 x+1
d x2 −x c
[(x + 1)ex y] = 2x and y = e + e−x for −1 < x < ∞. The entire
dx x+1 x+1
solution is transient.

4 5 ´
20. For y ′ + y = an integrating factor is e [4/(x+2)] dx = (x + 2)4 so that
x+2 (x + 2)2
d   5
(x + 2)4 y = 5(x + 2)2 and y = (x + 2)−1 + c(x + 2)−4 for −2 < x < ∞. The
dx 3
entire solution is transient.

dr ´
21. For + r sec θ = cos θ an integrating factor is e sec θ dθ = eln | sec x+tan x| = sec θ + tan θ so
dθ
d
that [(sec θ + tan θ)r] = 1 + sin θ and (sec θ + tan θ)r = θ − cos θ + c for −π/2 < θ < π/2.
dθ
There is no transient term.

dP ´ 2 d h t2 −t i
22. For + (2t − 1)P = 4t − 2 an integrating factor is e (2t−1) dt = et −t so that e P =
dt dt
2 −t 2 2
(4t − 2)et and P = 2 + cet−t for −∞ < t < ∞. The transient term is cet−t .

 
1 e−3x ´ d  3x 
23. For y′ +
3+ y= an integrating factor is e [3+(1/x)]dx = xe3x so that xe y = 1
x x dx
ce−3x
and y = e−3x + for 0 < x < ∞. The transient term is ce−3x /x.
x

2 x+1 ´
[2/(x2 −1)]dx = x − 1
24. For y ′ +2
y = an integrating factor is e
x − 1 x−1
 x+1
d x−1
so that y = 1 and (x − 1)y = x(x + 1) + c(x + 1) for −1 < x < 1. There is no
dx x + 1
transient term.
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66 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

´
−5 dx d  −5x 
25. For y ′ − 5y = x an integrating factor is e = e−5x so that e y = xe−5x and
dx
 
1 1 −5x 1 1
ˆ
y = e5x xe−5x dx = e5x − xe−5x − e +c = − x− + ce5x .
5 25 5 25

1 1 1 76
If y(0) = 3 then c = and y = − x− + e5x . The solution is defined on I = (−∞, ∞).
25 5 25 25
´
3 dx d  3x 
26. For y ′ + 3y = 2x and integrating factor is e = e3x so that e y = 2xe3x and
dx
 
2 3x 2 3x 2 2
ˆ
−3x 3x −3x
y=e 2xe dx = e xe − e + c = x − + ce−3x .
3 9 3 9

1 5 2 2 5
If y(0) = then c = and y = x − + e−3x . THe solution is defined on I = (−∞, ∞).
3 9 3 9 9
1 1 d 1 c
y = ex an integrating factor is e (1/x)dx = x so that
´
27. For y ′ + [xy] = ex and y = ex +
x x dx x x
1 x 2−e
for 0 < x < ∞. If y(1) = 2 then c = 2 − e and y = e + . The solution is defined on
x x
I = (0, ∞).
 
dx 1 ´ 1 d 1
28. For − x = 2y an integrating factor is e− (1/y)dy = so that x = 2 and
dy y y dy y
49
x = 2y 2 + cy for 0 < y < ∞. If y(1) = 5 then c = −49/5 and x = 2y 2 − y. The solution is
5
defined on I = (0, ∞).

di R E ´ d h Rt/L i E
29. For + i= an integrating factor is e (R/L) dt = eRt/L so that e i = eRt/L
dt L L dt L
E E
and i = + ce−Rt/L for −∞ < t < ∞. If i(0) = i0 then c = i0 − E/R and i = +
 R R
E
i0 − e−Rt/L . The solution is defined on I = (−∞, ∞)
R
dT ´ d −kt
30. For − kT = −Tm k an integrating factor is e (−k) dt = e−kt so that [e T ] = −Tm ke−kt
dt dt
and T = Tm +cekt for −∞ < t < ∞. If T (0) = T0 then c = T0 −Tm and T = Tm +(T0 −Tm )ekt .

The solution is defined on I = (−∞, ∞)

1 1 ´ d
31. For y ′ + y = 4 + an integrating factor is e (1/x) dx = x so that [xy] = 4x + 1 and
x x dx
1 1 c
ˆ


y= (4x + 1) dx = 2x2 + x + c = 2x + 1 + .
x x x
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2.3 Linear Equations 67

5
If y(1) = 8 then c = 5 and y = 2x + 1 + . The solution is defined on I = (0, ∞).
x

2
´ 2 d 2x2 2
32. For y ′ + 4xy = x3 ex an integrating factor is e 4x dx
= e2x so that [e y] = x3 e3x and
dx
 
1 2 3x2 1 3x2 1 1 x2
ˆ
−2x2 3 3x2 −2x2 2 2
y=e x e dx = e x e − e + c = x2 ex − e + ce−2x .
6 18 6 18

17 1 2 1 x2 17 −2x2
If y(0) = −1 then c = − and y = x2 ex − e − e . The solution is defined on
18 6 18 18
I = (−∞, ∞).

1 ln x d
33. For y ′ +
´
y= an integrating factor is e [1/(x+1)] dx = x+1 so that [(x+1)y] = ln x
x+1 x+1 dx
and

x x c
y= ln x − + for 0 < x < ∞.
x+1 x+1 x+1

x x 21
If y(1) = 10 then c = 21 and y = ln x − + . The solution is defined on
x+1 x+1 x+1
I = (0, ∞).

1 1 ´
34. For y ′ + y = an integrating factor is e [1/(x+1)] dx = x + 1 so that
x+1 x (x + 1)
d 1
[(x + 1) y] = and
dx x

1 1 1 ln x c
ˆ
y= dx = (ln x + c) = + .
x+1 x x+1 x+1 x+1

ln x e
If y(e) = 1 then c = e and y = + . The solution is defined on I = (0, ∞).
x+1 x+1
´
(− sin x) dx d cos x
35. For y ′ − (sin x) y = 2 sin x an integrating factor is e = ecos x so that [e y] =
dx
2 (sin x) ecos x and

ˆ
− cos x
y=e 2 (sin x) ecos x dx = e− cos x (−2ecos x + c) = −2 + ce− cos x .

If y(π/2) = 1 then c = 3 and y = −2 + 3e− cos x . The solution is defined on I = (−∞, ∞).
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68 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

´
36. For y ′ + (tan x)y = cos2 x an integrating factor is e tan x dx = eln | sec x| = sec x so that
d
[(sec x) y] = cos x and y = sin x cos x + c cos x for −π/2 < x < π/2. If y(0) = −1
dx
then c = −1 and y = sin x cos x − cos x. The solution is defined on I = (−π/2, π/2).

37. For y ′ + 2y = f (x) an integrating factor is e2x so that

y
 1
1
 e2x + c1 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3

ye2x = 2


c2 , x > 3.
5 x
If y(0) = 0 then c1 = −1/2 and for continuity we must
have c2 = 12 e6 − 21 so that

1 −2x
 2 (1 − e ), 0≤x≤3


y=
 1 (e6 − 1)e−2x , x > 3.


2

38. For y ′ + y = f (x) an integrating factor is ex so that

y
 x 1
e + c1 , 0≤x≤1
yex =
−ex + c , x > 1.
2 5 x

If y(0) = 1 then c1 = 0 and for continuity we must have –1

c2 = 2e so that

1, 0≤x≤1
y=
2e1−x − 1, x > 1.

2
39. For y ′ + 2xy = f (x) an integrating factor is ex so that
y

1 2 2
 ex + c1 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

yex = 2
2



c2 , x > 1.

If y(0) = 2 then c1 = 3/2 and for continuity we must have

x
c2 = 12 e + 23 so that 3


 1 3 −x2
2 + 2e , 0≤x≤1


y=  

 1 3 −x2
 e+
 e , x > 1.
2 2
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2.3 Linear Equations 69

40. For  If
x y

 , 0≤x≤1
2x  1 + x2 1
y′ + y=
1 + x2 
 −x
 , x > 1,
1 + x2 5 x

an integrating factor is 1 + x2
so that –1

1 2


 x + c1 , 0≤x≤1
2

2
1+x y =
− 1 x2 + c2 , x > 1.


2
y(0) = 0 then c1 = 0 and for continuity we must have c2 = 1 so that

1 1

 − , 0≤x≤1
 2 2 (1 + x2 )

y=

 3 1

 − , x > 1.
2 (1 + x2 ) 2

41. We first solve the initial-value problem y ′ + 2y = 4x,

y
y(0) = 3 on the interval [0, 1]. The integrating factor is 20
´
e 2 dx = e2x , so
15
d 2x
[e y] = 4xe2x
dx
ˆ 10

e2x y = 4xe2x dx = 2xe2x − e2x + c1

5

y = 2x − 1 + c1 e−2x .
3 x

Using the initial condition, we find y(0) = −1 + c1 = 3, so c1 = 4 and y = 2x − 1 + 4e−2x ,

0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Now, since y(1) = 2 − 1 + 4e−2 = 1 + 4e−2 , we solve the initial-value problem

y ′ − (2/x)y = 4x, y(1) = 1 + 4e−2 on the interval (1, ∞). The integrating factor is
´
e (−2/x) dx = e−2 ln x = x−2 , so

d −2 4
[x y] = 4xx−2 =
dx x

4
ˆ
x−2 y = dx = 4 ln x + c2
x

y = 4x2 ln x + c2 x2 .

(We use ln x instead of ln |x| because x > 1.) Using the initial condition we find
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70 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

y(1) = c2 = 1 + 4e−2 , so y = 4x2 ln x + (1 + 4e−2 )x2 , x > 1. Thus,

⎧
⎪ 2x − 1 + 4e−2x , 0≤x≤1
⎨
y=
⎪
⎩ % &
4x2 ln x + 1 + 4e−2 x2 , x > 1.

42. We first solve the initial-value problem y ′ + y = 0,

y
y(0) = 4 on the interval [0, 2]. The integrating factor 1
´
is e 1 dx = ex , so
5 x
d x
[e y] = 0 –1
dx
ˆ
x
e y = 0 dx = c1

y = c1 e−x .

Using the initial condition, we find y(0) = c1 = 4, so c1 = 4 and y = 4e−x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2. Now,

since y(2) = 4e−2 , we solve the initial-value problem y ′ + 5y = 0, y(1) = 4e−2 on the interval
´
(2, ∞). The integrating factor is e 5 dx = e5x , so

d ' 5x (
e y =0
dx
ˆ
5x
e y = 0 dx = c2

y = c2 e−5x .

Using the initial condition we find y(2) = c2 e−10 = 4e−2 , so c2 = 4e8 and y = 4e8 e−5x =

4e8−5x , x > 2. Thus, the solution of the original initial-value problem is

⎧ −x
⎪4e , 0≤x≤2
⎨
y=
⎪
⎩ 8−5x
4x , x > 2.
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2.3 Linear Equations 71

2
43. An integrating factor for y ′ − 2xy = 1 is e−x . Thus

d −x2 2
[e y] = e−x
dx
ˆ x √
−x2 −t2 π
e y= e dt = erf(x) + c
0 2
√
π x2 2
y= e erf(x) + cex .
2
√ √
π
From y(1) = ( π/2)e erf(1) + ce = 1 we get c = e−1 − 2 erf(1). The solution of the

initial-value problem is
√  √ 
π x2 −1 π 2
y= e erf(x) + e − erf(1) ex
2 2
√
2 π x2
= ex −1 + e (erf(x) − erf(1)).
2

2
44. An integrating factor for y ′ − 2xy = −1 is e−x . Thus

d −x2 2
[e y] = −e−x
dx
ˆ x √
−x2 −t2 π
e y=− e dt = − erf(x) + c.
0 2
√ √
From y(0) = π/2, and noting that erf(0) = 0, we get c = π/2. Thus
 √ √  √ √
2 π π π x2 π x2
y = ex − erf(x) + = e (1 − erf(x)) = e erfc (x).
2 2 2 2

x
45. For y ′ + ex y = 1 an integrating factor is ee . Thus

x
d  ex 
ˆ
x ex t
e y = ee and e y = ee dt + c.
dx 0

x ´x t x
From y(0) = 1 we get c = e, so y = e−e 0 ee dt + e1−e .

1
46. Dividing by x2 we have y ′ − y = x. An integrating factor is e1/x . Thus
x2
ˆ x
d h 1/x i 1/x 1/x
e y = xe and e y = te1/t dt + c.
dx 1

´x
From y(1) = 0 we get c = 0, so y = e−1/x 1 te1/t dt.
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72 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

47. An integrating factor for

2 10 sin x
y′ + y=
x x3

is x2 . Thus

d  2  sin x
x y = 10
dx x
ˆ x
sin t
x2 y = 10 dt + c
0 t

y = 10x−2 Si (x) + cx−2 .

From y(1) = 0 we get c = −10 Si (1). Thus

y = 10x−2 Si (x) − 10x−2 Si (1) = 10x−2 (Si (x) − Si (1)) .

´x 2
48. The integrating factor for y ′ − sin x2 y = 0 is e− 0 sin t dt . Then

d h − ´ x sin t2 dt i
e 0 y =0
dx
´x
sin t2 dt
e− 0 y = c1

´x
sin t2 dt
y = c1 e 0

p p
Letting t = π/2 u we have dt = π/2 du and

x
r ˆ √2/π x π  r r !
π π 2
ˆ
2 2
sin t dt = sin u du = S x
0 2 0 2 2 π
√ √  √ √ 
π/2 S 2/π x π/2 S 2/π x
so y = c1 e . Using S(0) = 0 and y(0) = c1 = 5 we have y = 5e .

49. We want 4 to be a critical point, so we use y ′ = 4 − y.

50. (a) All solutions of the form y = x5 ex − x4 ex + cx4 satisfy the initial condition. In this case,

since 4/x is discontinuous at x = 0, the hypotheses of Theorem 1.2.1 are not satisfied

and the initial-value problem does not have a unique solution.

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2.3 Linear Equations 73

(b) The differential equation has no solution satisfying y(0) = y0 , y0 > 0.

(c) In this case, since x0 > 0, Theorem 1.2.1 applies and the initial-value problem has a

unique solution given by y = x5 ex − x4 ex + cx4 where c = y0 /x40 − x0 ex0 + ex0 .

51. On the interval (−3, 3) the integrating factor is

1
p
x dx/(x2 −9) x dx/(9−x2 ) 2)
´ ´
e = e− = e 2 ln (9−x = 9 − x2

and so
d hp i c
9 − x2 y = 0 and y=√ .
dx 9 − x2

52. We want the general solution to be y = 3x − 5 + ce−x . (Rather than e−x , any function that

approaches 0 as x → ∞ could be used.) Differentiating we get

y ′ = 3 − ce−x = 3 − (y − 3x + 5) = −y + 3x − 2,

so the differential equation y ′ + y = 3x − 2 has solutions asymptotic to the line y = 3x − 5.

53. The left-hand derivative of the function at x = 1 is 1/e and the right-hand derivative at x = 1

is 1 − 1/e. Thus, y is not differentiable at x = 1.

54. (a) Differentiating yc = c/x3 we get

3c 3 c 3
yc′ = − =− = − yc
x4 x x3 x

so a differential equation with general solution yc = c/x3 is xy ′ + 3y = 0. Now using

y p = x3

xyp′ + 3yp = x(3x2 ) + 3(x3 ) = 6x3

so a differential equation with general solution y = c/x3 + x3 is xy ′ + 3y = 6x3 . This

will be a general solution on (0, ∞).

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74 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

y
(b) Since y(1) = 13 −1/13 = 0, an initial condition is y(1) = 0. 3
Since y(1) = 13 +2/13 = 3, an initial condition is y(1) = 3.
In each case the interval of definition is (0, ∞). The initial-
value problem xy ′ +3y = 6x3 , y(0) = 0 has solution y = x3
for −∞ < x < ∞. In the figure the lower curve is the 5 x
graph of y(x) = x3 − 1/x3 , while the upper curve is the
graph of y = x3 − 2/x3 .
–3

(c) The first two initial-value problems in part (b) are not unique. For example, setting

y(2) = 23 − 1/23 = 63/8, we see that y(2) = 63/8 is also an initial condition leading to

the solution y = x3 − 1/x3 .

´ ´ ´
55. Since e P (x) dx+c = ec e P (x) dx = c1 e P (x) dx , we would have

´ ˆ ´ ´ ˆ ´
P (x) dx P (x) dx P (x) dx P (x) dx
c1 e y = c2 + c1 e f (x) dx and e y = c3 + e f (x) dx,

which is the same as (4) in the text.

56. We see by inspection that y = 0 is a solution.

57. The solution of the first equation is x = c1 e−λ1 t . From x(0) = x0 we obtain c1 = x0 and so

x = x0 e−λ1 t . The second equation then becomes

dy dy
= x0 λ1 e−λ1 t − λ2 y or + λ2 y = x0 λ1 e−λ1 t
dt dt

which is linear. An integrating factor is eλ2 t . Thus

d h λ2 t i
e y = x0 λ1 e−λ1 t eλ2 t = x0 λ1 e(λ2 −λ1 )t
dt

x0 λ1 (λ2 −λ1 )t
eλ2 t y = e + c2
λ2 − λ1

x0 λ1 −λ1 t
y= e + c2 e−λ2 t .
λ2 − λ1
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2.3 Linear Equations 75

From y(0) = y0 we obtain c2 = (y0 λ2 − y0 λ1 − x0 λ1 ) / (λ2 − λ1 ). The solution is

x0 λ1 −λ1 t y0 λ2 − y0 λ1 − x0 λ1 −λ2 t
y= e + e .
λ2 − λ1 λ2 − λ1

dE 1
58. Writing the differential equation as + E = 0 we see that an integrating factor is
dt RC
et/RC . Then

d h t/RC i
e E =0
dt

et/RC E = c

E = ce−t/RC

From E(4) = ce−4/RC = E0 we find c = E0 e4/RC . Thus, the solution of the initial-value

problem is

E = E0 e4/RC e−t/RC = E0 e−(t−4)/RC .

59. (a) x y (b) Using a CAS we find y(2) ≈ 0.226339.

5 x

60. (a) x y
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
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76 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

(b) From the graph in part (b) we see that the absolute maximum occurs around x = 1.7.

Using the root-finding capability of a CAS and solving y ′ (x) = 0 for x we see that the

absolute maximum is (1.688, 1.742).

61. (a) x y

10

–10 –5 5 10 x

(b) From the graph we see that as x → ∞, y(x) oscillates with decreasing amplitudes ap-
1 √
proaching 9.35672. Since lim S(x) = , we have lim y(x) = 5e π/8 ≈ 9.357, and
x→∞ 2 x→∞
1 √
since lim S(x) = − , we have lim y(x) = 5e− π/8 ≈ 2.672.
x→−∞ 2 x→−∞

(c) From the graph in part (b) we see that the absolute maximum occurs around x = 1.7

and the absolute minimum occurs around x = −1.8. Using the root-finding capability of

a CAS and solving y ′ (x) = 0 for x, we see that the absolute maximum is (1.772, 12.235)

and the absolute minimum is (−1.772, 2.044).

2.4 Exact Equations

1. Let M = 2x − 1 and N = 3y + 7 so that My = 0 = Nx . From fx = 2x − 1 we obtain

f = x2 − x + h(y), h′ (y) = 3y + 7, and h(y) = 32 y 2 + 7y. A solution is x2 − x + 23 y 2 + 7y = c.

2. Let M = 2x + y and N = −x − 6y. Then My = 1 and Nx = −1, so the equation is not exact.

3. Let M = 5x + 4y and N = 4x − 8y 3 so that My = 4 = Nx . From fx = 5x + 4y we obtain

f = 25 x2 + 4xy + h(y), h′ (y) = −8y 3 , and h(y) = −2y 4 . A solution is 52 x2 + 4xy − 2y 4 = c.

4. Let M = sin y − y sin x and N = cos x + x cos y − y so that My = cos y − sin x = Nx . From
fx = sin y − y sin x we obtain f = x sin y + y cos x + h(y), h′ (y) = −y, and h(y) = − 12 y 2 . A
solution is x sin y + y cos x − 21 y 2 = c.
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2.4 Exact Equations 77

5. Let M = 2y 2 x − 3 and N = 2yx2 + 4 so that My = 4xy = Nx . From fx = 2y 2 x − 3 we obtain

f = x2 y 2 − 3x + h(y), h′ (y) = 4, and h(y) = 4y. A solution is x2 y 2 − 3x + 4y = c.

6. Let M = 4x3 − 3y sin 3x − y/x2 and N = 2y − 1/x + cos 3x so that My = −3 sin 3x − 1/x2
and Nx = 1/x2 − 3 sin 3x. The equation is not exact.

7. Let M = x2 − y 2 and N = x2 − 2xy so that My = −2y and Nx = 2x − 2y. The equation is

not exact.

8. Let M = 1 + ln x + y/x and N = −1 + ln x so that My = 1/x = Nx . From fy = −1 + ln x we

obtain f = −y + y ln x + h(x), h′ (x) = 1 + ln x, and h(x) = x ln x. A solution is −y + y ln x +
x ln x = c.

9. Let M = y 3 − y 2 sin x − x and N = 3xy 2 + 2y cos x so that My = 3y 2 − 2y sin x = Nx . From

fx = y 3 − y 2 sin x − x we obtain f = xy 3 + y 2 cos x − 12 x2 + h(y), h′ (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A
solution is xy 3 + y 2 cos x − 12 x2 = c.

10. Let M = x3 + y 3 and N = 3xy 2 so that My = 3y 2 = Nx . From fx = x3 + y 3 we obtain

f = 41 x4 + xy 3 + h(y), h′ (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A solution is 41 x4 + xy 3 = c.

11. Let M = y ln y − e−xy and N = 1/y + x ln y so that My = 1 + ln y + xe−xy and Nx = ln y.

The equation is not exact.

12. Let M = 3x2 y + ey and N = x3 + xey − 2y so that My = 3x2 + ey = Nx . From fx = 3x2 y + ey

we obtain f = x3 y +xey +h(y), h′ (y) = −2y, and h(y) = −y 2 . A solution is x3 y +xey −y 2 = c.

13. Let M = y − 6x2 − 2xex and N = x so that My = 1 = Nx . From fx = y − 6x2 − 2xex

we obtain f = xy − 2x3 − 2xex + 2ex + h(y), h′ (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A solution is
xy − 2x3 − 2xex + 2ex = c.

14. Let M = 1 − 3/x + y and N = 1 − 3/y + x so that My = 1 = Nx . From fx = 1 − 3/x + y

3
we obtain f = x − 3 ln |x| + xy + h(y), h′ (y) = 1 − , and h(y) = y − 3 ln |y|. A solution is
y
x + y + xy − 3 ln |xy| = c.


15. Let M = x2 y 3 − 1/ 1 + 9x2 and N = x3 y 2 so that My = 3x2 y 2 = Nx . From


fx = x2 y 3 − 1/ 1 + 9x2 we obtain f = 31 x3 y 3 − 13 arctan (3x) + h(y), h′ (y) = 0, and
h(y) = 0. A solution is x3 y 3 − arctan (3x) = c.

16. Let M = −2y and N = 5y − 2x so that My = −2 = Nx . From fx = −2y we obtain

f = −2xy + h(y), h′ (y) = 5y, and h(y) = 25 y 2 . A solution is −2xy + 52 y 2 = c.

17. Let M = tan x − sin x sin y and N = cos x cos y so that My = − sin x cos y = Nx . From
fx = tan x − sin x sin y we obtain f = ln | sec x| + cos x sin y + h(y), h′ (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0.
A solution is ln | sec x| + cos x sin y = c.
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78 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

2 2
18. Let M = 2y sin x cos x − y + 2y 2 exy and N = −x + sin2 x + 4xyexy so that
2 2
My = 2 sin x cos x − 1 + 4xy 3 exy + 4yexy = Nx .
2 2
From fx = 2y sin x cos x − y + 2y 2 exy we obtain f = y sin2 x − xy + 2exy + h(y), h′ (y) = 0,
2
and h(y) = 0. A solution is y sin2 x − xy + 2exy = c.

19. Let M = 4t3 y − 15t2 − y and N = t4 + 3y 2 − t so that My = 4t3 − 1 = Nt . From

ft = 4t3 y − 15t2 − y we obtain f = t4 y − 5t3 − ty + h(y), h′ (y) = 3y 2 , and h(y) = y 3 .
A solution is t4 y − 5t3 − ty + y 3 = c.



20. Let M = 1/t + 1/t2 − y/ t2 + y 2 and N = yey + t/ t2 + y 2 so that



2 2


My = y 2 − t2 / t2 +  y = Nt . From ft = 1/t + 1/t − y/ t + y
2 2 2 we obtain
1 t
f = ln |t| − − arctan + h(y), h′ (y) = yey , and h(y) = yey − ey . A solution is
t y
 
1 t
ln |t| − − arctan + yey − ey = c.
t y

21. Let M = x2 + 2xy + y 2 and N = 2xy + x2 − 1 so that My = 2(x + y) = Nx . From

fx = x2 + 2xy + y 2 we obtain f = 13 x3 + x2 y + xy 2 + h(y), h′ (y) = −1, and h(y) = −y. The
solution is 13 x3 + x2 y + xy 2 − y = c. If y(1) = 1 then c = 4/3 and a solution of the initial-value
problem is 31 x3 + x2 y + xy 2 − y = 43 .

22. Let M = ex + y and N = 2 + x + yey so that My = 1 = Nx . From fx = ex + y we

obtain f = ex + xy + h(y), h′ (y) = 2 + yey , and h(y) = 2y + yey − ey . The solution is
ex + xy + 2y + yey − ey = c. If y(0) = 1 then c = 3 and a solution of the initial-value problem
is ex + xy + 2y + yey − ey = 3.

23. Let M = 4y + 2t − 5 and N = 6y + 4t − 1 so that My = 4 = Nt . From ft = 4y + 2t − 5

we obtain f = 4ty + t2 − 5t + h(y), h′ (y) = 6y − 1, and h(y) = 3y 2 − y. The solution is
4ty + t2 − 5t + 3y 2 − y = c. If y(−1) = 2 then c = 8 and a solution of the initial-value problem
is 4ty + t2 − 5t + 3y 2 − y = 8.


24. Let M = t/2y 4 and N = 3y 2 − t2 /y 5 so that My = −2t/y 5 = Nt . From ft = t/2y 4 we
t2 ′ 3 3 t2 3
obtain f = 4
+ h(y), h (y) = 3
, and h(y) = − 2
. The solution is 4
− 2 = c. If
4y y 2y 4y 2y
t2 3 5
y(1) = 1 then c = −5/4 and a solution of the initial-value problem is 4 − 2 = − .
4y 2y 4
25. Let M = y 2 cos x − 3x2 y − 2x and N = 2y sin x − x3 + ln y so that My = 2y cos x − 3x2 = Nx .
From fx = y 2 cos x − 3x2 y − 2x we obtain f = y 2 sin x − x3 y − x2 + h(y), h′ (y) = ln y, and
h(y) = y ln y − y. The solution is y 2 sin x − x3 y − x2 + y ln y − y = c. If y(0) = e then c = 0
and a solution of the initial-value problem is y 2 sin x − x3 y − x2 + y ln y − y = 0.


26. Let M = y 2 + y sin x and N = 2xy − cos x − 1/ 1 + y 2 so that My = 2y + sin x = Nx . From
−1
fx = y 2 + y sin x we obtain f = xy 2 − y cos x + h(y), h′ (y) = , and h(y) = − tan−1 y.
1 + y2
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2.4 Exact Equations 79

The solution is xy 2 − y cos x − tan−1 y = c. If y(0) = 1 then c = −1 − π/4 and a solution of

π
the initial-value problem is xy 2 − y cos x − tan−1 y = −1 − .
4
27. Equating My = 3y 2 + 4kxy 3 and Nx = 3y 2 + 40xy 3 we obtain k = 10.

28. Equating My = 18xy 2 − sin y and Nx = 4kxy 2 − sin y we obtain k = 9/2.

29. Let M = −x2 y 2 sin x + 2xy 2 cos x and N = 2x2 y cos x so that
My = −2x2 y sin x + 4xy cos x = Nx . From fy = 2x2 y cos x we obtain f = x2 y 2 cos x + h(y),
h′ (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A solution of the differential equation is x2 y 2 cos x = c.

30. Let M = (x2 + 2xy − y 2 )/(x2 + 2xy + y 2 ) and N = (y 2 + 2xy − x2 )/(y 2 + 2xy + x2 ) so


that My = −4xy/(x + y)3 = Nx . From fx = x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 2y 2 /(x + y)2 we obtain
2y 2
f = x+ + h(y), h′ (y) = −1, and h(y) = −y. A solution of the differential equation is
x+y
x2 + y 2 = c(x + y).
´
31. We note that (My −Nx )/N = 1/x, so an integrating factor is e dx/x = x. Let M = 2xy 2 +3x2
and N = 2x2 y so that My = 4xy = Nx . From fx = 2xy 2 +3x2 we obtain f = x2 y 2 +x3 +h(y),
h′ (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0. A solution of the differential equation is x2 y 2 + x3 = c.
´
32. We note that (My − Nx )/N = 1, so an integrating factor is e dx = ex . Let
M = xyex + y 2 ex + yex and N = xex + 2yex so that My = xex + 2yex + ex = Nx . From
fy = xex + 2yex we obtain f = xyex + y 2 ex + h(x), h′ (x) = 0, and h(x) = 0. A solution of
the differential equation is xyex + y 2 ex = c.
´
33. We note that (Nx − My )/M = 2/y, so an integrating factor is e 2 dy/y = y 2 . Let M = 6xy 3
and N = 4y 3 + 9x2 y 2 so that My = 18xy 2 = Nx . From fx = 6xy 3 we obtain f = 3x2 y 3 + h(y),
h′ (y) = 4y 3 , and h(y) = y 4 . A solution of the differential equation is 3x2 y 3 + y 4 = c.
´
34. We note that (My − Nx )/N = − cot x, so an integrating factor is e− cot x dx = csc x. Let
M = cos x csc x = cot x and N = (1 + 2/y) sin x csc x = 1 + 2/y, so that My = 0 = Nx . From
fx = cot x we obtain f = ln (sin x) + h(y), h′ (y) = 1 + 2/y, and h(y) = y + ln y 2 . A solution
of the differential equation is ln (sin x) + y + ln y 2 = c.
´
35. We note that (My − Nx )/N = 3, so an integrating factor is e 3 dx = e3x . Let
M = (10 − 6y + e−3x )e3x = 10e3x − 6ye3x + 1 and N = −2e3x , so that My = −6e3x = Nx .
From fx = 10e3x − 6ye3x + 1 we obtain f = 10 3x 3x ′
3 e − 2ye + x + h(y), h (y) = 0, and h(y) = 0.
A solution of the differential equation is 10 3x
3 e − 2ye
3x + x = c.

´
36. We note that (Nx − My )/M = −3/y, so an integrating factor is e−3 dy/y = 1/y 3 . Let
M = (y 2 + xy 3 )/y 3 = 1/y + x and N = (5y 2 − xy + y 3 sin y)/y 3 = 5/y − x/y 2 + sin y, so that
My = −1/y 2 = Nx . From fx = 1/y+x we obtain f = x/y+ 21 x2 +h(y), h′ (y) = 5/y+sin y, and
h(y) = 5 ln |y| − cos y. A solution of the differential equation is x/y + 12 x2 + 5 ln |y| − cos y = c.
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80 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

37. We note that (My − Nx )/N = 2x/(4 + x2 ), so an integrating factor is

2
´
e−2 x dx/(4+x ) = 1/(4 + x2 ). Let M = x/(4 + x2 ) and N = (x2 y + 4y)/(4 + x2 ) = y, so
that My = 0 = Nx . From fx = x(4 + x2 ) we obtain f = 12 ln (4 + x2 ) + h(y), h′ (y) = y, and
h(y) = 12 y 2 . A solution of the differential equation is 12 ln (4 + x2 )+ 21 y 2 = c. Multiplying both
2

sides by 2 the last equation can be written as ey x2 + 4 = c1 . Using the initial condition
2

y(4) = 0 we see that c1 = 20. A solution of the initial-value problem is ey x2 + 4 = 20.
´
38. We note that (My −Nx )/N = −3/(1+x), so an integrating factor is e−3 dx/(1+x) = 1/(1+x)3 .
Let M = (x2 + y 2 − 5)/(1 + x)3 and N = −(y + xy)/(1 + x)3 = −y/(1 + x)2 , so that
My = 2y/(1 + x)3 = Nx . From fy = −y/(1 + x)2 we obtain f = − 21 y 2 /(1 + x)2 + h(x),
h′ (x) = (x2 − 5)/(1 + x)3 , and h(x) = 2/(1 + x)2 + 2/(1 + x) + ln |1 + x|. A solution of the
differential equation is

y2 2 2
− 2
+ 2
+ + ln |1 + x| = c.
2(1 + x) (1 + x) (1 + x)

Using the initial condition y(0) = 1 we see that c = 7/2. A solution of the initial-value
problem is
y2 2 2 7
− 2 + 2 + 1 + x + ln |1 + x| = 2
2 (1 + x) (1 + x)

39. (a) Implicitly differentiating x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = c and solving for dy/dx we obtain

dy dy dy 3x2 + 4xy
3x2 + 2x2 + 4xy + 2y =0 and =− 2 .
dx dx dx 2x + 2y

By writing the last equation in differential form we get (4xy + 3x2 )dx + (2y + 2x2 )dy = 0.

(b) Setting x = 0 and y = −2 in x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = c we find c = 4, and setting x = y = 1 we

also find c = 4. Thus, both initial conditions determine the same implicit solution.

(c) Solving x3 + 2x2 y + y 2 = 4 for y we get

y
p 4
y1 (x) = −x2 − 4 − x3 + x4
2 y2
and p x
y2 (x) = −x2 + 4 − x3 + x4 . –4 –2 2 4
–2
Observe in the figure that y1 (0) = −2 and y2 (1) = 1. y1
–4

–6

40. To see that the equations are not equivalent consider dx = −(x/y) dy. An integrating factor
is µ(x, y) = y resulting in y dx + x dy = 0. A solution of the latter equation is y = 0, but this
is not a solution of the original equation.
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2.4 Exact Equations 81

p
41. The explicit solution is y = (3 + cos2 x)/(1 − x2 ) . Since 3 + cos2 x > 0 for all x we must
have 1 − x2 > 0 or −1 < x < 1. Thus, the interval of definition is (−1, 1).
y
42. (a) Since fy = N (x, y) = xexy + 2xy + 1/x we obtain f = exy + xy 2 + + h(x) so that
x
y y
fx = yexy + y 2 − 2 + h′ (x). Let M (x, y) = yexy + y 2 − 2 .
x x

−1
(b) Since fx = M (x, y) = y 1/2 x−1/2 + x x2 + y we obtain
1  2  1 2
−1
f = 2y x + ln x + y  + g(y) so that fy = y −1/2 x1/2 +
1/2 1/2
x +y + g ′ (y). Let
2 2
1 2
−1
N (x, y) = y −1/2 x1/2 + x +y .
2
43. First note that p  x y
d x2 + y 2 =p dx + p dy.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
p
Then x dx + y dy = x2 + y 2 dx becomes
x y p 
p dx + p dy = d = dx.x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
p
The left side is the total differential of x2 + y 2 and the right side is the total differential of
p
x + c. Thus x2 + y 2 = x + c is a solution of the differential equation.

44. To see that the statement is true, write the separable equation as −g(x) dx + dy/h(y) = 0.
Identifying M = −g(x) and N = 1/h(y), we see that My = 0 = Nx , so the differential
equation is exact.

45. (a) In differential form

v 2 − 32x dx + xv dv = 0

This is not an exact equation, but µ(x) = x is an integrating factor. The new equation


xv 2 − 32x2 dx + x2 v dv = 0 is exact and solving yields 21 x2 v 2 − 32 3
3 x = c. When x = 3,
v = 0 and so c = −288. Solving 12 x2 v 2 − 32 3
3 x = −288 for v yields the explicit solution
r
x 9
v(x) = 8 − 2.
3 x
(b) The chain leaves the platform when x = 8, and so
r
8 9
v(8) = 8 − ≈ 12.7 ft/s
3 64

46. (a) Letting

2xy y 2 − x2
M (x, y) = and N (x, y) = 1 +
(x + y 2 )2
2 (x2 + y 2 )2
we compute
2x3 − 8xy 2
My = = Nx ,
(x2 + y 2 )3
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82 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

so the differential equation is exact. Then we have

∂f 2xy
= M (x, y) = 2 = 2xy(x2 + y 2 )−2
∂x (x + y 2 )2
y
f (x, y) = −y(x2 + y 2 )−1 + g(y) = − + g(y)
x2 + y2
∂f y 2 − x2 ′ y 2 − x2
= 2 + g (y) = N (x, y) = 1 + .
∂y (x + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2

y
Thus, g′ (y) = 1 and g(y) = y. The solution is y − = c. When c = 0 the solution
x2 + y2
is x2 + y 2 = 1.

(b) The first graph below is obtained in Mathematica using f (x, y) = y − y/(x2 + y 2 ) and

ContourPlot[f[x, y], {x, -3, 3}, {y, -3, 3},

Axes−>True, AxesOrigin−>{0, 0}, AxesLabel−>{x, y},
Frame−>False, PlotPoints−>100, ContourShading−>False,
Contours−>{0, -0.2, 0.2, -0.4, 0.4, -0.6, 0.6, -0.8, 0.8}]

The second graph uses

s s
y 3 − cy 2 − y y 3 − cy 2 − y
x=− and x= .
c−y c−y

In this case the x-axis is vertical and the y-axis is horizontal. To obtain the third graph,
we solve y−y/(x2 +y 2 ) = c for y in a CAS. This appears to give one real and two complex
solutions. When graphed in Mathematica however, all three solutions contribute to the
graph. This is because the solutions involve the square root of expressions containing c.
For some values of c the expression is negative, causing an apparent complex solution to
actually be real.

y x y
3 3
3

2 2
2
1
1 1

y
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3

–1 –1
–1

–2 –2 –2

–3 –3 –3
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2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 83

2.5 Solutions by Substitutions

1. Letting y = ux we have

(x − ux) dx + x(u dx + x du) = 0

dx + x du = 0
dx
+ du = 0
x
ln |x| + u = c
x ln |x| + y = cx.

2. Letting y = ux we have

(x + ux) dx + x(u dx + x du) = 0

(1 + 2u) dx + x du = 0
dx du
+ =0
x 1 + 2u
1
ln |x| + ln |1 + 2u| = c
2
 y
x2 1 + 2 = c1
x
x2 + 2xy = c1 .

3. Letting x = vy we have

vy(v dy + y dv) + (y − 2vy) dy = 0

vy 2 dv + y v 2 − 2v + 1 dy = 0
v dv dy
2
+ =0
(v − 1) y
1
ln |v − 1| − + ln |y| = c
v−1
 
x  1
ln  − 1 − + ln |y| = c
y x/y − 1

(x − y) ln |x − y| − y = c(x − y).
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84 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

4. Letting x = vy we have

y(v dy + y dv) − 2(vy + y) dy = 0

y dv − (v + 2) dy = 0
dv dy
− =0
v+2 y
ln |v + 2| − ln |y| = c
 
x 
ln  + 2 − ln |y| = c

y

x + 2y = c1 y 2 .

5. Letting y = ux we have

u2 x2 + ux2 dx − x2 (u dx + x du) = 0
u2 dx − x du = 0
dx du
− 2 =0
x u
1
ln |x| + =c
u
x
ln |x| + = c
y
y ln |x| + x = cy.

6. Letting y = ux and using partial fractions, we have

u2 x2 + ux2 dx + x2 (u dx + x du) = 0


x2 u2 + 2u dx + x3 du = 0
dx du
+ =0
x u(u + 2)
1 1
ln |x| + ln |u| − ln |u + 2| = c
2 2
x2 u
= c1
u+2
y y 
x2 = c1 +2
x x
x2 y = c1 (y + 2x).
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2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 85

7. Letting y = ux we have

(ux − x) dx − (ux + x)(u dx + x du) = 0

u2 + 1 dx + x(u + 1) du = 0
dx u+1
+ 2 du = 0
x u +1
1

ln |x| + ln u2 + 1 + tan−1 u = c
2
 2 
2 y y
ln x 2
+ 1 + 2 tan−1 = c1
x x

y
ln x2 + y 2 + 2 tan−1 = c1
x

8. Letting y = ux we have

(x + 3ux) dx − (3x + ux)(u dx + x du) = 0

u2 − 1 dx + x(u + 3) du = 0
dx u+3
+ du = 0
x (u − 1)(u + 1)

ln |x| + 2 ln |u − 1| − ln |u + 1| = c

x(u − 1)2
= c1
u+1
y 2 y 
x − 1 = c1 +1
x x
(y − x)2 = c1 (y + x).

9. Letting y = ux we have

√
−ux dx + (x + u x)(u dx + x du) = 0
√
(x2 + x2 u ) du + xu3/2 dx = 0
 
−3/2 1 dx
u + du + =0
u x

−2u−1/2 + ln |u| + ln |x| = c

p
ln |y/x| + ln |x| = 2 x/y + c
y(ln |y| − c)2 = 4x.
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86 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

10. Letting y = ux we have

p
x2 − u2 x2 dx − x2 du = 0
p
x 1 − u2 dx − x2 du = 0, (x > 0)
dx du
−√ =0
x 1 − u2
ln x − sin−1 u = c
sin−1 u = ln x + c1
y
sin−1 = ln x + c2
x
y
= sin (ln x + c2 )
x
y = x sin (ln x + c2 ).

See Problem 33 in this section for an analysis of the solution.

11. Letting y = ux we have

x3 − u3 x3 dx + u2 x3 (u dx + x du) = 0
dx + u2 x du = 0
dx
+ u2 du = 0
x
1
ln |x| + u3 = c
3
3x3 ln |x| + y 3 = c1 x3 .

Using y(1) = 2 we find c1 = 8. The solution of the initial-value problem is 3x3 ln |x|+y 3 = 8x3 .

12. Letting y = ux we have

(x2 + 2u2 x2 )dx − ux2 (u dx + x du) = 0

x2 (1 + u2 )dx − ux3 du = 0
dx u du
− =0
x 1 + u2
1
ln |x| − ln(1 + u2 ) = c
2
x2
= c1
1 + u2
x4 = c1 (x2 + y 2 ).

Using y(−1) = 1 we find c1 = 1/2. The solution of the initial-value problem is 2x4 = y 2 + x2 .
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2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 87

13. Letting y = ux we have

(x + uxeu ) dx − xeu (u dx + x du) = 0

dx − xeu du = 0
dx
− eu du = 0
x
ln |x| − eu = c
ln |x| − ey/x = c.

Using y(1) = 0 we find c = −1. The solution of the initial-value problem is ln |x| = ey/x − 1.

14. Letting x = vy we have

y(v dy + y dv) + vy(ln vy − ln y − 1) dy = 0

y dv + v ln v dy = 0
dv dy
+ =0
v ln v y
ln |ln |v|| + ln |y| = c
 
x
y ln   = c1 .
y
 
x
Using y(1) = e we find c1 = −e. The solution of the initial-value problem is y ln   = −e.
y
1 1 dw 3 3
15. From y ′ + y = y −2 and w = y 3 we obtain + w = . An integrating factor is x3 so
x x dx x x
that x3 w = x3 + c or y 3 = 1 + cx−3 .
dw
16. From y ′ − y = ex y 2 and w = y −1 we obtain + w = −ex . An integrating factor is ex so
dx
that ex w = − 12 e2x + c or y −1 = − 21 ex + ce−x .

dw
17. From y ′ + y = xy 4 and w = y −3 we obtain − 3w = −3x. An integrating factor is e−3x so
dx
that e−3x w = xe−3x + 31 e−3x + c or y −3 = x + 13 + ce3x .
   
′ 1 2 −1 dw 1
18. From y − 1 + y = y and w = y we obtain + 1+ w = −1. An integrating
x dx x
1 c
factor is xex so that xex w = −xex + ex + c or y −1 = −1 + + e−x .
x x
1 1 dw 1 1
19. From y ′ − y = − 2 y 2 and w = y −1 we obtain + w = 2 . An integrating factor is t so
t t dt t t
−1 1 c t
that tw = ln t + c or y = ln t + . Writing this in the form = ln t + c, we see that the
t t y
solution can also be expressed in the form et/y = c1 t.
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88 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

2 2t dw 2t −2t
20. From y ′ + y = y 4 and w = y −3 we obtain − w = . An
3 (1 + t2 ) 3 (1 + t2 ) dt 1 + t2 1 + t2
1 w 1

integrating factor is 2
so that 2
= 2
+ c or y −3 = 1 + c 1 + t2 .
1+t 1+t 1+t

2 3 dw 6 9
21. From y ′ − y = 2 y 4 and w = y −3 we obtain + w = − 2 . An integrating factor
x x dx x x
is x6 so that x6 w = − 59 x5 + c or y −3 = − 95 x−1 + cx−6 . If y(1) = 21 then c = 49
5 and
−3 9 −1 49 −6
y = −5x + 5 x .

dw 3 3
22. From y ′ + y = y −1/2 and w = y 3/2 we obtain + w = . An integrating factor is e3x/2 so
dx 2 2
that e3x/2 w = e3x/2 + c or y 3/2 = 1 + ce−3x/2 . If y(0) = 4 then c = 7 and y 3/2 = 1 + 7e−3x/2 .

du 1
23. Let u = x + y + 1 so that du/dx = 1 + dy/dx. Then − 1 = u2 or du = dx. Thus
dx 1 + u2
−1
tan u = x + c or u = tan (x + c), and x + y + 1 = tan (x + c) or y = tan (x + c) − x − 1.

du 1−u
24. Let u = x + y so that du/dx = 1 + dy/dx. Then −1 = or u du = dx. Thus
dx u
1 2
2u = x + c or u2 = 2x + c1 , and (x + y)2 = 2x + c1 .

du
25. Let u = x + y so that du/dx = 1 + dy/dx. Then − 1 = tan2 u or cos2 u du = dx. Thus
dx
1 1
2 u + 4 sin 2u = x + c or 2u + sin 2u = 4x + c1 , and 2(x + y) + sin 2(x + y) = 4x + c1 or
2y + sin 2(x + y) = 2x + c1 .

du 1
26. Let u = x + y so that du/dx = 1 + dy/dx. Then − 1 = sin u or du = dx.
dx 1 + sin u
1 − sin u
Multiplying by (1−sin u)/(1−sin u) we have du = dx or (sec2 u−sec u tan u)du = dx.
cos2 u
Thus tan u − sec u = x + c or tan (x + y) − sec (x + y) = x + c.

du √ 1
27. Let u = y − 2x + 3 so that du/dx = dy/dx − 2. Then + 2 = 2 + u or √ du = dx. Thus
√ √ dx u
2 u = x + c and 2 y − 2x + 3 = x + c.

du
28. Let u = y − x + 5 so that du/dx = dy/dx − 1. Then + 1 = 1 + eu or e−u du = dx. Thus
dx
−e−u = x + c and −e−y+x−5 = x + c.
du 1
29. Let u = x + y so that du/dx = 1 + dy/dx. Then − 1 = cos u and du = dx. Now
dx 1 + cos u

1 1 − cos u 1 − cos u
= = = csc2 u − csc u cot u
1 + cos u 2
1 − cos u sin2 u

so we have (csc2 u − csc u cot u) du = dx and − cot u + csc u = x + c. Thus − cot (x + y) +

´ ´
√
csc (x + y) = x + c. Setting x = 0 and y = π/4 we obtain c = 2 − 1. The solution is
√
csc (x + y) − cot (x + y) = x + 2 − 1.
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2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 89

du 2u 5u + 6
30. Let u = 3x + 2y so that du/dx = 3 + 2 dy/dx. Then = 3+ = and
dx u+2 u+2
u+2
du = dx. Now by long division
5u + 6
u+2 1 4
= +
5u + 6 5 25u + 30
so we have ˆ  
1 4
+ du = dx
5 25u + 30
1 4
and 5u + 25 ln |25u + 30| = x + c. Thus

1 4
(3x + 2y) + ln |75x + 50y + 30| = x + c.
5 25
4
Setting x = −1 and y = −1 we obtain c = 25 ln 95. The solution is

1 4 4
(3x + 2y) + ln |75x + 50y + 30| = x + ln 95
5 25 25
or

5y − 5x + 2 ln |75x + 50y + 30| = 2 ln 95

31. We write the differential equation M (x, y)dx + N (x, y)dy = 0 as dy/dx = f (x, y) where

M (x, y)
f (x, y) = − .
N (x, y)

The function f (x, y) must necessarily be homogeneous of degree 0 when M and N are ho-
mogeneous of degree α. Since M is homogeneous of degree α, M (tx, ty) = tα M (x, y), and
letting t = 1/x we have

1
M (1, y/x) = M (x, y) or M (x, y) = xα M (1, y/x).
xα
Thus
dy xα M (1, y/x) M (1, y/x) y
= f (x, y) = − α =− =F .
dx x N (1, y/x) N (1, y/x) x

32. Rewrite (5x2 − 2y 2 )dx − xy dy = 0 as

dy
xy = 5x2 − 2y 2
dx
and divide by xy, so that
dy x y
=5 −2 .
dx y x
We then identify
y   y −1 y
F =5 −2 .
x x x
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90 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

33. (a) By inspection y = x and y = −x are solutions of the differential equation and not
members of the family y = x sin (ln x + c2 ).

(b) Letting x = 5 and y = 0 in sin−1 (y/x) = ln x + c2 we get

y
sin−1 0 = ln 5 + c2 or c2 = − ln 5. Then
sin−1 (y/x) = ln x − ln 5 = ln (x/5). Because the range of 20
the arcsine function is [−π/2, π/2] we must have
15
π x π
− ≤ ln ≤ 10
2 5 2
x 5
e−π/2 ≤ ≤ eπ/2
5 x
5 10 15 20
−π/2 π/2
5e ≤ x ≤ 5e

The interval of definition of the solution is approximately [1.04, 24.05].

34. As x → −∞, e6x → 0 and y → 2x+3. Now write (1+ce6x )/(1−ce6x ) as (e−6x +c)/(e−6x −c).
Then, as x → ∞, e−6x → 0 and y → 2x − 3.

35. (a) The substitutions y = y1 + u and

dy dy1 du
= +
dx dx dx
lead to
dy1 du
+ = P + Q(y1 + u) + R(y1 + u)2
dx dx
= P + Qy1 + Ry12 + Qu + 2y1 Ru + Ru2

or
du
− (Q + 2y1 R)u = Ru2 .
dx
This is a Bernoulli equation with n = 2 which can be reduced to the linear equation
dw
+ (Q + 2y1 R)w = −R
dx
by the substitution w = u−1 .
 
dw 1 4
(b) Identify P (x) = −4/x2 ,Q(x) = −1/x, and R(x) = 1. Then + − + w = −1.
dx x x
  −1
An integrating factor is x3 so that x3 w = − 14 x4 + c or u = − 14 x + cx−3 . Thus,
 −1
2 2 1 −3
y = +u or y = + − x + cx
x x 4

36. Write the differential equation in the form x(y ′ /y) = ln x + ln y and let u = ln y. Then
du/dx = y ′ /y and the differential equation becomes x(du/dx) = ln x + u or du/dx − u/x =
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2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 91

´
(ln x)/x, which is first-order and linear. An integrating factor is e− dx/x = 1/x, so that
(using integration by parts)
 
d 1 ln x u 1 ln x
u = 2 and =− − + c.
dx x x x x x
The solution is
ecx−1
ln y = −1 − ln x + cx or y= .
x
37. Write the differential equation as
dv 1
+ v = 32v −1 ,
dx x
and let u = v 2 or v = u1/2 . Then
dv 1 du
= u−1/2 ,
dx 2 dx
and substituting into the differential equation, we have
1 −1/2 du 1 1/2 du 2
u + u = 32u−1/2 or + u = 64.
2 dx x dx x
´
The latter differential equation is linear with integrating factor e (2/x) dx = x2 , so
d  2 
x u = 64x2
dx
and
64 3 64 c
x2 u = x + c or v 2 = x+ 2 .
3 3 x
38. Write the differential equation as dP/dt − aP = −bP 2 and let u = P −1 or P = u−1 . Then
dp du
= −u−2 ,
dt dt
and substituting into the differential equation, we have
du du
−u−2 − au−1 = −bu−2 or + au = b.
dt dt
´
The latter differential equation is linear with integrating factor e a dt = eat , so
d at
[e u] = beat
dt
and
b at
eat u = e +c
a
b at
eat P −1 = e +c
a
b
P −1 = + ce−at
a
1 a
P = −at
= .
b/a + ce b + c1 e−at
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92 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

2.6 A Numerical Method

1. We identify f (x, y) = 2x − 3y + 1. Then, for h = 0.1,

yn+1 = yn + 0.1(2xn − 3yn + 1) = 0.2xn + 0.7yn + 0.1,

and

y(1.1) ≈ y1 = 0.2(1) + 0.7(5) + 0.1 = 3.8

y(1.2) ≈ y2 = 0.2(1.1) + 0.7(3.8) + 0.1 = 2.98

For h = 0.05,
yn+1 = yn + 0.05(2xn − 3yn + 1) = 0.1xn + 0.85yn + 0.1,
and

y(1.05) ≈ y1 = 0.1(1) + 0.85(5) + 0.1 = 4.4

y(1.1) ≈ y2 = 0.1(1.05) + 0.85(4.4) + 0.1 = 3.895
y(1.15) ≈ y3 = 0.1(1.1) + 0.85(3.895) + 0.1 = 3.47075
y(1.2) ≈ y4 = 0.1(1.15) + 0.85(3.47075) + 0.1 = 3.11514

2. We identify f (x, y) = x + y 2 . Then, for h = 0.1,

yn+1 = yn + 0.1(xn + yn2 ) = 0.1xn + yn + 0.1yn2 ,

and

y(0.1) ≈ y1 = 0.1(0) + 0 + 0.1(0)2 = 0

y(0.2) ≈ y2 = 0.1(0.1) + 0 + 0.1(0)2 = 0.01

For h = 0.05,
yn+1 = yn + 0.05(xn + yn2 ) = 0.05xn + yn + 0.05yn2 ,
and

y(0.05) ≈ y1 = 0.05(0) + 0 + 0.05(0)2 = 0

y(0.1) ≈ y2 = 0.05(0.05) + 0 + 0.05(0)2 = 0.0025
y(0.15) ≈ y3 = 0.05(0.1) + 0.0025 + 0.05(0.0025)2 = 0.0075
y(0.2) ≈ y4 = 0.05(0.15) + 0.0075 + 0.05(0.0075)2 = 0.0150

3. Separating variables and integrating, we have

dy
= dx and ln |y| = x + c.
y
Thus y = c1 ex and, using y(0) = 1, we find c = 1, so y = ex is the solution of the initial-value
problem.
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2.6 A Numerical Method 93

h = 0.1 h = 0.05
xn yn Actual Abs. %Rel. xn yn Actual Abs. %Rel.
Value Error Error Value Error Error
0.00 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.00 0.00 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.00
1.10 1.1000 1.1052 0.0052 0.47 0.05 1.0500 1.0513 0.0013 0.12
0.20 1.2100 1.2214 0.0114 0.93 0.10 1.1025 1.1052 0.0027 0.24
0.30 1.3310 1.3499 0.0189 1.40 0.15 1.1576 1.1618 0.0042 0.36
0.40 1.4641 1.4918 0.0277 1.86 0.20 1.2155 1.2214 0.0059 0.48
0.50 1.6105 1.6487 0.0382 2.32 0.25 1.2763 1.2840 0.0077 0.60
0.60 1.7716 1.8221 0.0506 2.77 0.30 1.3401 1.3499 0.0098 0.72
0.70 1.9487 2.0138 0.0650 3.23 0.35 1.4071 1.4191 0.0120 0.84
0.80 2.1436 2.2255 0.0820 3.68 0.40 1.4775 1.4918 0.0144 0.96
0.90 2.3579 2.4596 0.1017 4.13 0.45 1.5513 1.5683 0.0170 1.08
1.00 2.5937 2.7183 0.1245 4.58 0.50 1.6289 1.6487 0.0198 1.20
0.55 1.7103 1.7333 0.0229 1.32
0.60 1.7959 1.8221 0.0263 1.44
0.65 1.8856 1.9155 0.0299 1.56
0.70 1.9799 2.0138 0.0338 1.68
0.75 2.0789 2.1170 0.0381 1.80
0.80 2.1829 2.2255 0.0427 1.92
0.85 2.2920 2.3396 0.0476 2.04
0.90 2.4066 2.4596 0.0530 2.15
0.95 2.5270 2.5857 0.0588 2.27
1.00 2.6533 2.7183 0.0650 2.39

4. Separating variables and integrating, we have

dy
= 2x dx and ln |y| = x2 + c.
y

2 2 −1
Thus y = c1 ex and, using y(1) = 1, we find c = e−1 , so y = ex is the solution of the
initial-value problem.

h = 0.1 h = 0.05
xn yn Actual Abs. %Rel. xn yn Actual Abs. %Rel.
Value Error Error Value Error Error
1.00 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.00 1.00 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.00
1.10 1.2000 1.2337 0.0337 2.73 1.05 1.1000 1.1079 0.0079 0.72
1.20 1.4640 1.5527 0.0887 5.71 1.10 1.2155 1.2337 0.0182 1.47
1.30 1.8154 1.9937 0.1784 8.95 1.15 1.3492 1.3806 0.0314 2.27
1.40 2.2874 2.6117 0.3243 12.42 1.20 1.5044 1.5527 0.0483 3.11
1.50 2.9278 3.4903 0.5625 16.12 1.25 1.6849 1.7551 0.0702 4.00
1.30 1.8955 1.9937 0.0982 4.93
1.35 2.1419 2.2762 0.1343 5.90
1.40 2.4311 2.6117 0.1806 6.92
1.45 2.7714 3.0117 0.2403 7.98
1.50 3.1733 3.4903 0.3171 9.08
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94 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

5. x h = 0.1 h = 0.05 6. x h = 0.1 h = 0.05

xn yn xn yn xn yn xn yn
0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 1.0000 0.00 1.0000
0.10 0.1000 0.05 0.0500 0.10 1.1000 0.05 1.0500
0.20 0.1905 0.10 0.0976 0.20 1.2220 0.10 1.1053
0.30 0.2731 0.15 0.1429 0.30 1.3753 0.15 1.1668
0.40 0.3492 0.20 0.1863 0.40 1.5735 0.20 1.2360
0.50 0.4198 0.25 0.2278 0.50 1.8371 0.25 1.3144
0.30 0.2676 0.30 1.4039
0.35 0.3058 0.35 1.5070
0.40 0.3427 0.40 1.6267
0.45 0.3782 0.45 1.7670
0.50 0.4124 0.50 1.9332

7. x h = 0.1 h = 0.05 8. x h = 0.1 h = 0.05

xn yn xn yn xn yn xn yn
0.00 0.5000 0.00 0.5000 0.00 1.0000 0.00 1.0000
0.10 0.5250 0.05 0.5125 0.10 1.1000 0.05 1.0500
0.20 0.5431 0.10 0.5232 0.20 1.2159 0.10 1.1039
0.30 0.5548 0.15 0.5322 0.30 1.3505 0.15 1.1619
0.40 0.5613 0.20 0.5395 0.40 1.5072 0.20 1.2245
0.50 0.5639 0.25 0.5452 0.50 1.6902 0.25 1.2921
0.30 0.5496 0.30 1.3651
0.35 0.5527 0.35 1.4440
0.40 0.5547 0.40 1.5293
0.45 0.5559 0.45 1.6217
0.50 0.5565 0.50 1.7219

9. x h = 0.1 h = 0.05 10. x h = 0.1 h = 0.05

xn yn xn yn xn yn xn yn
1.00 1.0000 1.00 1.0000 0.00 0.5000 0.00 0.5000
1.10 1.0000 1.05 1.0000 0.10 0.5250 0.05 0.5125
1.20 1.0191 1.10 1.0049 0.20 0.5499 0.10 0.5250
1.30 1.0588 1.15 1.0147 0.30 0.5747 0.15 0.5375
1.40 1.1231 1.20 1.0298 0.40 0.5991 0.20 0.5499
1.50 1.2194 1.25 1.0506 0.50 0.6231 0.25 0.5623
1.30 1.0775 0.30 0.5746
1.35 1.1115 0.35 0.5868
1.40 1.1538 0.40 0.5989
1.45 1.2057 0.45 0.6109
1.50 1.2696 0.50 0.6228
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2.6 A Numerical Method 95

11. Tables of values were computed using the Euler and RK4 methods. The resulting points were
plotted and joined using ListPlot in Mathematica.

h = 0.25 h = 0.1 h = 0.05

y y y
7 RK4 7 RK4 7 RK4
6 6 6 Euler
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 Euler 2 2
1 1 Euler 1
x x x
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10

12. See the comments in Problem 11 above.

h = 0.25 h = 0.1 h = 0.05

y y y
6 6 6
RK4 RK4 RK4
5 5 5
Euler Euler
4 4 4
Euler
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

13. Using separation of variables we find that the solution of the differential equation is y =
1/(1 − x2 ), which is undefined at x = 1, where the graph has a vertical asymptote. Because
the actual solution of the differential equation becomes unbounded at x approaches 1, very
small changes in the inputs x will result in large changes in the corresponding outputs y. This
can be expected to have a serious effect on numerical procedures. The graphs below were
obtained as described in Problem 11.

h = 0.1 h = 0.05
y y
10 10
RK4 RK4
8 8

6 6

4 4
Euler
2 2
Euler
x x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

14. (a) The graph to the right was obtained using RK4
and ListPlot in Mathematicawith h = 0.1.
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96 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

(b) Writing the differential equation in the form y ′ + 2xy = 1 we see that an integrating
2
´
2xdx
factor is e = ex , so
d x2 2
[e y] = ex
dx
and ˆ x
−x2 2 2
y=e et dt + ce−x .
0

This solution can also be expressed in terms of the inverse error function as
√
π −x2 2
y= e erfi(x) + ce−x .
2
Letting x = 0 and y(0) = 0 we find c = 0, so the solution of the initial-value problem is
ˆ x √
−x2 t2 π −x2
y=e e dt = e erfi(x).
0 2

(c) Using FindRoot in Mathematica we see that y ′ (x) = 0 when x = 0.924139. Since
y(0.924139) = 0.541044, we see from the graph in part (a) that (0.924139, 0.541044) is
a relative maximum. Now, using the substitution u = −t in the integral below, we have
ˆ −x ˆ x ˆ x
2 2 2 2 2 2
y(−x) = e−(−x) et dt = e−x e(−u) (−du) = −e−x eu du = −y(x).
0 0 0

Thus, y(x) is an odd function and (−0.924139, −0.541044) is a relative minimum.

Chapter 2 in Review

1. Writing the differential equation in the form y ′ = k(y + A/k) we see that the critical point
−A/k is a repeller for k > 0 and an attractor for k < 0.

2. Separating variables and integrating we have

dy 4
= dx
y x
ln y = 4 ln x + c = ln x4 + c

y = c1 x4 .

We see that when x = 0, y = 0, so the initial-value problem has an infinite number of solutions
for k = 0 and no solutions for k 6= 0.

3. True; y = k2 /k1 is always a solution for k1 6= 0.

4. True; writing the differential equation as a1 (x) dy + a2 (x)y dx = 0 and separating variables
yields
dy a2 (x)
=− dx.
y a1 (x)
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Chapter 2 in Review 97

d3 y
5. = x sin y (There are many answers.)
dx3
dr
6. False: = rθ + r + θ + 1 = (r + 1) (θ + 1).
dθ
7. True

8. Since the differential equation in the form y ′ = 2 − |y| is seen to be autonomous, 2 − |y| = 0
has critical points 2 and −2 so y1 = 2 and y2 = −2 are constant (equilibrium) solutions.

dy
9. = ex dx
y
ln y = ex + c
x +c x x
y = ee = ec ee or y = c1 ee

10. y ′ = |x| , y(−1) = 2

(
dy −x, x < 0
=
dx x, x≥0

1 2
− 2 x + c1 , x < 0


y=
 1 x2 + c2 ,


x≥0
2
1 5
The initial condition y(−1) = 2 implies 2 = − + c1 and thus c1 = . Now y(x) is supposed
2 2
to be differentiable and so continuous. At x = 0 the two parts of the functions must agree
5
and so c2 = c1 = . So,
2
y
10

1 2

5
2 5 − x , x < 0


y= x
 1 x2 + 5 , x ≥ 0


-4 -2 2 4
2 -5

-10
ˆ x
11. y = ecos x te− cos t dt
0
x
dy
ˆ
= ecos x xe− cos x + (− sin x) ecos x te− cos t dt
dx 0

dy dy
= x − (sin x) y or + (sin x) y = x.
dx dx
dy dy
12. = y + 3, = (y + 3)2
dx dx
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98 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

dy
13. = (y − 1)2 (y − 3)2
dx
dy
14. = y(y − 2)2 (y − 4)
dx
15. When n is odd, xn < 0 for x < 0 and xn > 0 for x > 0. In this case 0 is unstable. When n is
even, xn > 0 for x < 0 and for x > 0. In this case 0 is semi-stable.
When n is odd, −xn > 0 for x < 0 and −xn < 0 for x > 0. In this case 0 is asymptotically
stable. When n is even, −xn < 0 for x < 0 and for x > 0. In this case 0 is semi-stable.

16. Using a CAS we find that the zero of f occurs at approximately P = 1.3214. From the graph
we observe that dP/dt > 0 for P < 1.3214 and dP/dt < 0 for P > 1.3214, so P = 1.3214 is
an asymptotically stable critical point. Thus, lim P (t) = 1.3214.
t→∞
y
17. x

18.
(a) linear in y, homogeneous, exact (b) linear in x

(c) separable, exact, linear in x and y (d) Bernoulli in x

(e) separable (f ) separable, linear in x, Bernoulli

(g) linear in x (h) homogeneous

(i) Bernoulli (j) homogeneous, exact, Bernoulli

(k) linear in x and y, exact, separable, (l) exact, linear in y

homogeneous

(m) homogeneous (n) separable

19. Separating variables and using the identity cos2 x = 12 (1 + cos 2x), we have
y
cos2 x dx = 2 dy,
y +1
1 1 1

x + sin 2x = ln y 2 + 1 + c,
2 4 2
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Chapter 2 in Review 99

and


2x + sin 2x = 2 ln y 2 + 1 + c.

20. Write the differential equation in the form

 
x x
y ln dx = x ln − y dy.
y y

This is a homogeneous equation, so let x = uy. Then dx = u dy + y du and the differential

equation becomes

y ln u(u dy + y du) = (uy ln u − y) dy or y ln u du = −dy.

Separating variables, we obtain

dy
ln u du = −
y
u ln |u| − u = − ln |y| + c
 
x  x  x
ln − = − ln |y| + c
y y  y

x(ln x − ln y) − x = −y ln |y| + cy.

21. The differential equation

dy 2 3x2 −2
+ y=− y
dx 6x + 1 6x + 1
is Bernoulli. Using w = y 3 , we obtain the linear equation
dw 6 9x2
+ w=− .
dx 6x + 1 6x + 1
An integrating factor is 6x + 1, so
d
[(6x + 1)w] = −9x2 ,
dx
3x3 c
w=− + ,
6x + 1 6x + 1
and
(6x + 1)y 3 = −3x3 + c.
(Note: The differential equation is also exact.)

22. Write the differential equation in the form (3y 2 + 2x)dx + (4y 2 + 6xy)dy = 0. Letting
M = 3y 2 + 2x and N = 4y 2 + 6xy we see that My = 6y = Nx , so the differential equation is
exact. From fx = 3y 2 +2x we obtain f = 3xy 2 +x2 +h(y). Then fy = 6xy +h′ (y) = 4y 2 +6xy
and h′ (y) = 4y 2 so h(y) = 43 y 3 . A one-parameter family of solutions is
4
3xy 2 + x2 + y 3 = c.
3
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100 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

23. Write the equation in the form

dQ 1
+ Q = t3 ln t.
dt t
An integrating factor is eln t = t, so
d
[tQ] = t4 ln t
dt
1 5 1 5
tQ = − t + t ln t + c
25 5
and
1 4 1 4 c
Q=− t + t ln t + .
25 5 t
24. Letting u = 2x + y + 1 we have
du dy
=2+ ,
dx dx
and so the given differential equation is transformed into
 
du du 2u + 1
u − 2 = 1 or = .
dx dx u

Separating variables and integrating we get

u
du = dx
2u + 1
 
1 1 1
− du = dx
2 2 2u + 1
1 1
u − ln |2u + 1| = x + c
2 4
2u − ln |2u + 1| = 4x + c1 .

Resubstituting for u gives the solution

4x + 2y + 2 − ln |4x + 2y + 3| = 4x + c1

or
2y + 2 − ln |4x + 2y + 3| = c1 .

25. Write the equation in the form

dy 8x 2x
+ 2 y= 2 .
dx x + 4 x +4

4
An integrating factor is x2 + 4 , so
d h 2
4 i
3
x + 4 y = 2x x2 + 4
dx

4 1 2
4
x2 + 4 y = x +4 +c
4
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Chapter 2 in Review 101

and

1
−4
y= + c x2 + 4 .
4

26. Letting M = 2r 2 cos θ sin θ + r cos θ and N = 4r + sin θ − 2r cos2 θ we see that
Mr = 4r cos θ sin θ + cos θ = Nθ , so the differential equation is exact. From
fθ = 2r 2 cos θ sin θ + r cos θ we obtain f = −r 2 cos2 θ + r sin θ + h(r). Then
fr = −2r cos2 θ + sin θ + h′ (r) = 4r + sin θ − 2r cos2 θ and h′ (r) = 4r so h(r) = 2r 2 . The
solution is

−r 2 cos2 θ + r sin θ + 2r 2 = c.

dy dy 1
27. We put the equation + 4 (cos x) y = x in the standard form + 2 (cos x) y = x then
dx ´ dx 2
the integrating factor is e 2 cos x dx = e2 sin x . Therefore

d  2 sin x  1 2 sin x
e y = xe
dx 2
x
d  2 sin t 1 x 2 sin t
ˆ ˆ

e y(t) dt = te dt
0 dt 2 0
1
z}|{ 1 ˆ x
2 sin x 0
e y(x) − e y(0) = te2 sin t dt
2 0
1 x 2 sin t
ˆ
2 sin x
e y(x) − 1 = te dy
2 0
x
1
ˆ
y(x) = e−2 sin x + e−2 sin x te2 sin t dt
2 0

dy
28. The equation − 4xy = sin x2 is already in standard form so the integrating factor is
dx
´ 2 d h −2x2 i 2
e− 4x dx = e−2x . Therefore e y = e−2x sin x2 . Because of the initial condition
dx
y(0) = 7 we write

x ˆ x
d h −2t2 i
ˆ
2
e y(t) dt = e−2t sin t2 dt
0 dt 0

7
z}|{ ˆ x
−2x2 0 2
e y(x) − e y(0) = e−2t sin t2 dt
0
ˆ x
2x2 2x2 2
y(x) = 7e +e e−2t sin t2 dt
0
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102 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

dy 2 dy 2 2
29. We put the equation x dx +2y = xex into standard form + y = ex . Then the integrating
´ 2
dx x
dx 2
factor is e x = eln x = x2 . Therefore
dy 2
x2 + 2xy = x2 ex
dx
d  2  2
x y = x2 ex
dx
x ˆ x
d 2
ˆ
 2
t y(t) dt = t2 et dt
1 dt 1

3
z}|{ ˆ x
2 2
x y(x) − y(1) = t2 et dt
1
x
3 1
ˆ
2
y(x) = 2
+ 2 t2 et dt
x x 1

30.
dy
x + (sin x) y = 0
dx
dy sin x
+ y=0
dx x
´x sin t
dy
The integrating factor is e 0 t . Therefore,

d h ´ x sin t dt i
e0 t y =0
dx
x ˆ x
d h ´ t sin u du i
ˆ
e0 u y(t) dt = 0 dt = 0
0 dt 0

10
´x sin t
z}|{
dt 0
e 0 t y(x) − e y(0) = 0
´x sin t
y(x) = 10e− 0 t
dt

31.
( −x
dy e , 0≤x<1
+ y = f (x), y(0) = 5, where f (x) =
dx 0, x≥1

For 0 ≤ x < 1,

d x
[e y] = 1
dx
ex y = x + c1
y = xe−x + c1 e−x
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Chapter 2 in Review 103

Using y(0) = 5, we have c1 = 5. Therefore y = xe−x + 5e−x . Then for x ≥ 1,

d x
[e y] = 0
dx
ex y = c2
y = c2 e−x

Requiring that y(x) be continuous at x = 1 yields

c2 e−1 = e−1 + 5e−1

c2 = 6

Therefore
( −x
xe + 5e−x , 0 ≤ x < 1
y(x) =
6e−x , x≥1

32.
(
dy 1, 0≤x<1
+ P (x)y = ex , y(0) = −1, where P (x) =
dx −1, x ≥ 1

For 0 ≤ x < 1,
d x
[e y] = e2x
dx
1 2x
ex y = e + c1
2
1
y = ex + c1 e−x
2

Using y(0) = −1, we have c1 = − 23 . Therefore y = 12 ex − 23 e−x . Then for x ≥ 1,

d  −x 
e y =1
dx
e−x y = x + c2
y = xex + c2 ex

Requiring that y(x) be continuous at x = 1 yields

1 3
e + c2 e = e − e−1
2 2
1 3 −2
c2 = − − e
2 2
Therefore

1 3
 ex − e−x ,
 0≤x<1
y(x) = 2 2
xex − 1 ex − 3 ex−2 , x ≥ 1

2 2
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104 CHAPTER 2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

33. The differential equation has the form (d/dx) [(sin x)y] = 0. Integrating, we have (sin x)y = c
or y = c/ sin x. The initial condition implies c = −2 sin (7π/6) = 1. Thus, y = 1/ sin x, where
the interval (π, 2π) is chosen to include x = 7π/6.

34. Separating variables and integrating we have

dy
= −2(t + 1) dt
y2
1
− = −(t + 1)2 + c
y
1
y= , where − c = c1
(t + 1)2 + c1

The initial condition y(0) = − 81 implies c1 = −9, so a solution of the initial-value problem is
1 1
y= or y= ,
(t + 1)2 − 9 t2 + 2t − 8
where −4 < t < 2.
√
35. (a) For y < 0, y is not a real number.

(b) Separating variables and integrating we have

dy √
√ = dx and 2 y = x + c.
y
√
Letting y(x0 ) = y0 we get c = 2 y0 − x0 , so that
√ √ 1 √
2 y = x + 2 y 0 − x0 and y = (x + 2 y0 − x0 )2 .
4
√ √
Since y > 0 for y 6= 0, we see that dy/dx = 12 (x + 2 y0 − x0 ) must be positive. Thus,
√
the interval on which the solution is defined is (x0 − 2 y0 , ∞).

36. (a) The differential equation is homogeneous and we let y = ux. Then

(x2 − y 2 ) dx + xy dy = 0
(x2 − u2 x2 ) dx + ux2 (u dx + x du) = 0
dx + ux du = 0
dx
u du = −
x
1 2
u = − ln |x| + c
2
y2
= −2 ln |x| + c1 .
x2
The initial condition gives c1 = 2, so an implicit solution is y 2 = x2 (2 − 2 ln |x|).
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Chapter 2 in Review 105

(b) Solving for y in part (a) and being sure that the initial con-
√ y
dition is still satisfied, we have y = − 2 |x|(1 − ln |x|)1/2 , 2
where −e ≤ x ≤ e so that 1 − ln |x| ≥ 0. The graph of 1
this function indicates that the derivative is not defined at x
–2 –1 1 2
x = 0 and x = e. Thus, the solution of the initial-value
√ –1
problem is y = − 2 x(1 − ln x)1/2 , for 0 < x < e.
–2

37. The graph of y1 (x) is the portion of the closed blue curve lying in the fourth quadrant. Its
interval of definition is approximately (0.7, 4.3). The graph of y2 (x) is the portion of the
left-hand blue curve lying in the third quadrant. Its interval of definition is (−∞, 0).

38. The first step of Euler’s method gives y(1.1) ≈ 9 + 0.1(1 + 3) = 9.4. Applying Euler’s method
√
one more time gives y(1.2) ≈ 9.4 + 0.1(1 + 1.1 9.4 ) ≈ 9.8373.

39. Since the differential equation is autonomous, all lineal

elements on a given horizontal line have the same slope.
The direction field is then as shown in the figure at the
right. It appears from the figure that the differential
equation has critical points at −2 (an attractor) and
at 2 (a repeller). Thus, −2 is an aymptotically stable
critical point and 2 is an unstable critical point.

40. Since the differential equation is autonomous, all lineal

elements on a given horizontal line have the same slope.
The direction field is then as shown in the figure at the
right. It appears from the figure that the differential
equation has no critical points.