Radiographic Image Quality

and Detail Visibility

Because the purpose of most radiographic inspections is to examine a specimen for

inhomogeneity, a knowledge of the factors affecting the visibility of detail in the
finished radiograph is essential. The summary chart below shows the relations of
the various factors influencing image quality and radiographic sensitivity, together
with page references to the discussion of individual topics. For convenience, a few
important definitions will be repeated.

Factors Affecting Image Quality

Radiographic Image Quality

Radiographic Contrast Definition

Subject Contrast Film Contrast Geometric Film Graininess,

Factors Screen Mottle
Factors

Affected by: Affected by: Affected by: Affected by:

A - Absorption A - Type of Film A - Focal-spot size A - Type of Film
differences in B - Degree of B - Source-film B - Type of screen
specimen development (type distance C - Radiation
(thickness, of developer, time C - Specimen-film wavelength
composition, and temperature of distance D - Development
density) development, D - Abruptness of
B - Radiation activity of thickness changes
wavelength developer, degree in specimen
C - Scattered of agitation) E - Screen-film
radiation C - Density contact
D - Type of screens F - Motion of
(fluorescent vs specimen
lead or none)

Improved by:
1 - Masks and
diaphragms
2 - Filters
3 - Lead screens
4 - Potter-Bucky
diaphragm

Radiographic sensitivity is a general or qualitative term referring to the size of the

smallest detail that can be seen in a radiograph, or to the ease with which the
images of small details can be detected. Phrased differently, it is a reference to the
amount of information in the radiograph. Note that radiographic sensitivity depends
on the combined effects of two independent sets of factors. One is radiographic
contrast (the density difference between a small detail and its surroundings) and
the other is definition (the abruptness and the "smoothness" of the density
transition). See the figure below.
Advantage of higher radiographic contrast (left) is largely offset by
poor definition. Despite lower contrast (right), better rendition of
detail is obtained by improved definition.

Radiographic contrast between two areas of a radiograph is the difference between

the densities of those areas. It depends on both subject contrast and film contrast.
Subject contrast is the ratio of x-ray or gamma-ray intensities transmitted by two
selected portions of a specimen. (See the figure below.) Subject contrast depends
on the nature of the specimen, the energy (spectral composition, hardness, or
wavelengths) of the radiation used, and the intensity and distribution of the
scattered radiation, but is independent of time, milliamperage or source strength,
and distance, and of the characteristics or treatment of the film.

With the same specimen, the lower-kilovoltage beam (left)

produces higher subject contrast than does the higher-kilovoltage
beam (right).

Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the characteristic curve of the film.
It depends on the type of film, the processing it receives, and the density. It also
depends on whether the film is exposed with lead screens (or direct) or with
fluorescent screens. Film contrast is independent, for most practical purposes, of
the wavelengths and distribution of the radiation reaching the film, and hence is
independent of subject contrast.
Definition refers to the sharpness of outline in the image. It depends on the types
of screens and film used, the radiation energy (wavelengths, etc), and the
geometry of the radiographic setup.

SUBJECT CONTRAST
Subject contrast decreases as kilovoltage is increased. The decreasing slope
(steepness) of the lines of the earlier exposure chart as kilovoltage increases
illustrates the reduction of subject contrast as the radiation becomes more
penetrating. For example, consider a steel part containing two thicknesses, 3/4 inch
and 1 inch, which is radiographed first at 160 kV and then at 200 kV.

In the table above, column 3 shows the exposure in milliampere-minutes required

to reach a density of 1.5 through each thickness at each kilovoltage. These data are
from the exposure chart mentioned above. It is apparent that the milliampere-
minutes required to produce a given density at any kilovoltage are inversely
proportional to the corresponding x-ray intensities passing through the different
sections of the specimen. Column 4 gives these relative intensities for each
kilovoltage. Column 5 gives the ratio of these intensities for each kilovoltage.

Column 5 shows that, at 160 kV, the intensity of the x-rays passing through the 3/4-
inch section is 3.8 times greater than that passing through the 1-inch section. At
200 kV, the radiation through the thinner portion is only 2.5 times that through the
thicker. Thus, as the kilovoltage increases, the ratio of x-ray transmission of the
two thicknesses decreases, indicating a lower subject contrast.

FILM CONTRAST
The dependence of film contrast on density must be kept in mind when considering
problems of radiographic sensitivity. In general the contrast of radiographic films,
except those designed for use with fluorescent screens, increases continuously with
density in the usable density range. Therefore, for films that exhibit this continuous
increase in contrast, the best density, or upper limit of density range, to use is the
highest that can conveniently be viewed with the illuminators available. Adjustable
high-intensity illuminators that greatly increase the maximum density that can be
viewed are commercially available.

The use of high densities has the further advantage of increasing the range of
radiation intensities that can be usefully recorded on a single film. This in turn
permits, in x-ray radiography, the use of lower kilovoltage, with resulting increase
in subject contrast and radiographic sensitivity.

Maximum contrast of screen-type films is at a density of about 2.0. Therefore,

other things being equal, the greatest radiographic sensitivity will be obtained when
the exposure is adjusted to give this density.
FILM GRAININESS, SCREEN MOTTLE
(See also "Film Graininess; Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Radiographs".)

The image on an x-ray film is formed by countless minute silver grains, the
individual particles being so small that they are visible only under a microscope.
However, these small particles are grouped together in relatively large masses,
which are visible to the naked eye or with a magnification of only a few diameters.
These masses result in the visual impression called graininess.

All films exhibit graininess to a greater or lesser degree. In general, the slower films
have lower graininess than the faster. Thus, Film Y would have a lower graininess
than Film X.

The graininess of all films increases as the penetration of the radiation increases,
although the rate of increase may be different for different films. The graininess of
the images produced at high kilovoltages makes the slow, inherently fine-grain
films especially useful in the million- and multimillion-volt range. When sufficient
exposure can be given, they are also useful with gamma rays.

The use of lead screens has no significant effect on film graininess. However,
graininess is affected by processing conditions, being directly related to the degree
of development. For instance, if development time is increased for the purpose of
increasing film speed, the graininess of the resulting image is likewise increased.
Conversely, a developer or developing technique that results in an appreciable
decrease in graininess will also cause an appreciable loss in film speed. However,
adjustments made in development technique to compensate for changes in
temperature or activity of a developer will have little effect on graininess. Such
adjustments are made to achieve the same degree of development as would be
obtained in the fresh developer at a standard processing temperature, and
therefore the graininess of the film will be essentially unaffected.

Another source of the irregular density in uniformly exposed areas is the screen
mottle encountered in radiography with the fluorescent screens. The screen mottle
increases markedly as hardness of the radiation increases. This is one of the factors
that limits the use of fluorescent screens at high voltage and with gamma rays.

PENETRAMETERS
A standard test piece is usually included in every radiograph as a check on the
adequacy of the radiographic technique. The test piece is commonly referred to as
a penetrameter in North America and an Image Quality Indicator (IQl) in Europe.
The penetrameter (or lQI) is made of the same material, or a similar material, as
the specimen being radiographed, and is of a simple geometric form. It contains
some small structures (holes, wires, etc), the dimensions of which bear some
numerical relation to the thickness of the part being tested. The image of the
penetrameter on the radiograph is permanent evidence that the radiographic
examination was conducted under proper conditions.

Codes or agreements between customer and vendor may specify the type of
penetrameter, its dimensions, and how it is to be employed. Even if penetrameters
are not specified, their use is advisable, because they provide an effective check of
the overall quality of the radiographic inspection.
Hole Type Penetrameters
The common penetrameter consists of a small rectangular piece of metal,
containing several (usually three) holes, the diameters of which are related to the
thickness of the penetrameter (see the figure below).

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) penetrameter

(ASTM E 142-68).

The ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) penetrameter contains
three holes of diameters T, 2T, and 4T, where T is the thickness of the
penetrameter. Because of the practical difficulties in drilling minute holes in thin
materials, the minimum diameters of these three holes are 0.010, 0.020, and
0.040 inches, respectively. These penetrameters may also have a slit similar to the
ASME penetrameter described below. Thick penetrameters of the hole type would
be very large, because of the diameter of the 4T hole. Therefore, penetrameters
more than 0.180 inch thick are in the form of discs, the diameters of which are 4
times the thickness (4T) and which contain two holes of diameters T and 2T. Each
penetrameter is identified by a lead number showing the thickness in thousandths
of an inch.

The ASTM penetrameter permits the specification of a number of levels of

radiographic sensitivity, depending on the requirements of the job. For example,
the specifications may call for a radiographic sensitivity level of 2-2T. The first
symbol (2) indicates that the penetrameter shall be 2 percent of the thickness of
the specimen; the second (2T) indicates that the hole having a diameter twice the
penetrameter thickness shall be visible on the finished radiograph. The quality level
2-2T is probably the one most commonly specified for routine radiography.
However, critical components may require more rigid standards, and a level of 1-2T
or 1-1T may be required. On the other hand, the radiography of less critical
specimens may be satisfactory if a quality level of 2-4T or 4-4T is achieved. The
more critical the radiographic examination--that is, the higher the level of
radiographic sensitivity required--the lower the numerical designation for the
quality level.

Some sections of the ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code require a penetrameter similar in general to the ASTM
penetrameter. It contains three holes, one of which is 2T in diameter, where T is
the penetrameter thickness. Customarily, the other two holes are 3T and 4T in
diameter, but other sizes may be used. Minimum hole size is 1/6 inch.
Penetrameters 0.010 inch, and less, in thickness also contain a slit 0.010-inch wide
and 1/4 inch long. Each is identified by a lead number designating the thickness in
thousandths of an inch.

Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity

Ideally, the penetrameter should be made of the same material as the specimen.
However, this is sometimes impossible because of practical or economic difficulties.
In such cases, the penetrameter may be made of a radiographically similar
material--that is, a material having the same radiographic absorption as the
specimen, but one of which it is easier to make penetrameters. Tables of
radiographically equivalent materials have been published wherein materials having
similar radiographic absorptions are arranged in groups. In addition, a
penetrameter made of a particular material may be used in the radiography of
materials having greater radiographic absorption. In such a case, there is a certain
penalty on the radiographic testers, because they are setting for themselves more
rigid radiographic quality standards than are actually required. The penalty is often
outweighed, however, by avoidance of the problems of obtaining penetrameters of
an unusual material or one of which it is difficult to make penetrameters.

In some cases, the materials involved do not appear in published tabulations.

Under these circumstances the comparative radiographic absorption of two
materials may be determined experimentally. A block of the material under test and
a block of the material proposed for penetrameters, equal in thickness to the part
being examined, can be radiographed side by side on the same film with the
technique to be used in practice. If the density under the proposed penetrameter
materials is equal to or greater than the density under the specimen material, that
proposed material is suitable for fabrication of penetrameters.

In practically all cases, the penetrameter is placed on the source side of the
specimen--that is, in the least advantageous geometric position. In some instances,
however, this location for the penetrameter is not feasible. An example would be
the radiography of a circumferential weld in a long tubular structure, using a source
positioned within the tube and film on the outer surface. In such a case a "film-
side" penetrameter must be used. Some codes specify the film-side penetrameter
that is equivalent to the source-side penetrameter normally required. When such a
specification is not made, the required film-side penetrameter may be found
experimentally. In the example above, a short section of tube of the same
dimensions and materials as the item under test would be used to demonstrate the
technique. The required penetrameter would be used on the source side, and a
range of penetrameters on the film side. If the penetrameter on the source side
indicated that the required radiographic sensitivity was being achieved, the image
of the smallest visible penetrameter hole in the film-side penetrameters would be
used to determine the penetrameter and the hole size to be used on the production
radiograph.

Sometimes the shape of the part being examined precludes placing the
penetrameter on the part. When this occurs, the penetrameter may be placed on a
block of radiographically similar material of the same thickness as the specimen.
The block and the penetrameter should be placed as close as possible to the
specimen.

Wire Penetrameters
A number of other penetrameter designs are also in use. The German DIN
(Deutsche Industrie-Norm) penetrameter (See the figure below) is one that is
widely used. It consists of a number of wires, of various diameters, sealed in a
plastic envelope that carries the necessary identification symbols. The thinnest wire
visible on the radiograph indicates the image quality. The system is such that only
three penetrameters, each containing seven wires, can cover a very wide range of
specimen thicknesses. Sets of DIN penetrameters are available in aluminum,
copper, and steel. Thus a total of nine penetrameters is sufficient for the
radiography of a wide range of materials and thicknesses.

DIN (German) penetrameter (German Standard DIN 54109).

Comparison of Penetrameter Design

The hole type of penetrameter (ASTM, ASME) is, in a sense, a "go no-go" gauge;
that is, it indicates whether or not a specified quality level has been attained but, in
most cases, does not indicate whether the requirements have been exceeded, or by
how much. The DIN penetrameter on the other hand is a series of seven
penetrameters in a single unit. As such, it has the advantage that the radiographic
quality level achieved can often be read directly from the processed radiograph.

On the other hand, the hole penetrameter can be made of any desired material but
the wire penetrameter is made from only a few materials. Therefore, using the hole
penetrameter, a quality level of 2-2T may be specified for the radiography of, for
example, commercially pure aluminum and 2024 aluminum alloy, even though
these have appreciably different compositions and radiation absorptions. The
penetrameter would, in each case, be made of the appropriate material. The wire
penetrameters, however, are available in aluminum but not in 2024 alloy. To
achieve the same quality of radiographic inspection of equal thicknesses of these
two materials, it would be necessary to specify different wire diameters--that for
2024 alloy would probably have to be determined by experiment.
Special Penetrameters
Special penetrameters have been designed for certain classes of radiographic
inspection. An example is the radiography of small electronic components wherein
some of the significant factors are the continuity of fine wires or the presence of
tiny balls of solder. Special image quality indicators have been designed consisting
of fine wires and small metallic spheres within a plastic block, the whole covered on
top and the bottom with steel approximately as thick as the case of the electronic
component.

Penetrameters and Visibility of Discontinuities

It should be remembered that even if a certain hole in a penetrameter is visible on
the radiograph, a cavity of the same diameter and thickness may not be visible.
The penetrameter holes, having sharp boundaries, result in an abrupt, though
small, change in metal thickness whereas a natural cavity having more or less
rounded sides causes a gradual change. Therefore, the image of the penetrameter
hole is sharper and more easily seen in the radiograph than is the image of the
cavity. Similarly, a fine crack may be of considerable extent, but if the x-rays or
gamma rays pass from source to film along the thickness of the crack, its image on
the film may not be visible because of the very gradual transition in photographic
density. Thus, a penetrameter is used to indicate the quality of the radiographic
technique and not to measure the size of cavity that can be shown.

In the case of a wire image quality indicator of the DIN type, the visibility of a wire
of a certain diameter does not assure that a discontinuity of the same cross section
will be visible. The human eye perceives much more readily a long boundary than it
does a short one, even if the density difference and the sharpness of the image are
the same.

VIEWING AND INTERPRETING RADIOGRAPHS

The examination of the finished radiograph should be made under conditions that
favor the best visibility of detail combined with a maximum of comfort and a
minimum of fatigue for the observer. To be satisfactory for use in viewing
radiographs, an illuminator must fulfill two basic requirements. First, it must
provide light of an intensity that will illuminate the areas of interest in the
radiograph to their best advantage, free from glare. Second, it must diffuse the
light evenly over the entire viewing area. The color of the light is of no optical
consequence, but most observers prefer bluish white. An illuminator incorporating
several fluorescent tubes meets this requirement and is often used for viewing
industrial radiographs of moderate density.

For routine viewing of high densities, one of the commercially available high-
intensity illuminators should be used. These provide an adjustable light source, the
maximum intensity of which allows viewing of densities of 4.0 or even higher.

Such a high-intensity illuminator is especially useful for the examination of

radiographs having a wide range of densities corresponding to a wide range of
thicknesses in the object. If the exposure was adequate for the greatest thickness
in the specimen, the detail reproduced in other thicknesses can be visualized with
illumination of sufficient intensity.
The contrast sensitivity of the human eye (that is, the ability to distinguish small
brightness differences) is greatest when the surroundings are of about the same
brightness as the area of interest. Thus, to see the finest detail in a radiograph, the
illuminator must be masked to avoid glare from bright light at the edges of the
radiograph, or transmitted by areas of low density. Subdued lighting, rather than
total darkness, is preferable in the viewing room. The room illumination must be
such that there are no troublesome reflections from the surface of the film under
examination.