Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering & Technology, Ashta

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Notes: Unit I

An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It
counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic
lift of an airfoil. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift
type, aircraft propulsion, usage and others.

Classification of Aircrafts considering different criteria

 Classification of Aircraft considering method of lift generation

1. Classification Based on Method of Lift generation:

It can be classified as lighter than air and heavier than air

Lighter-Than-Air Aircraft
Any aircraft kept aloft by gas, which is lighter than air, contained in the
craft is known as an aerostat. Examples of aerostats are balloons and airships.
Today, lighter-than-air aircraft are used almost only for recreational purposes.
Aerostats are further classified as follows, airships, free balloons and kite
balloons.

i. Airships:
These are aerostats having power plant for propulsion and means of
steering the craft. They are made buoyant by enclosing a volume of gas
which is lighter than air In the case of airships, the internal pressure of
the gas keeps maintains the shape of the envelope without the need of
any longitudinal members.

ii. Free balloons:

These are balloons which are not anchored to the ground and are free to
move with the wind.
iii. Kite balloons:
A Kite balloon is a balloon which is shaped and trimmed so as to derive
stability from wind.
Heavier-Than-Air Aircraft
Aerodyne is the technical name for any type of heavier than air aircraft.
This covers all aircraft that derive lift in flight principally from aerodynamic
forces. Examples are conventional planes, gliders, helicopters etc.

Aerodynes can be with or without engines.

i. Aerodynes with engines are classified as airplanes, rotary wing aircraft

and Ornithopter.

A. Airplane - This is an engine driven aerodyne that achieves lift from

the dynamic action of air against fixed wings.

B. Rotary wing aircraft - These are aerodynes that achieve lift through
the dynamic action of air against rotating wings.

C. Ornithopter - This is an aircraft that flies due to the lift generated

by flapping wings.

ii. Airplanes can be further classified as amphibians, land and sea planes.

A. Amphibians - These are airplanes which can take off and land on
both land and water.

B. Land planes - These can take off and land only on a land surface.

C. Sea planes - These are aircraft that take off and land only on sea.
Sea planes are classified further as float seaplanes and flying
boats.

a) Float seaplane - This is a seaplane supported on water by a

pair of floats instead of a hull.

b) Flying boat - This is an aircraft which has a hull as its main

body. The hull also supports the aircraft on water.

iii. Rotary wing aircraft are classified into two types as gyroplanes and
helicopter.

A. Gyroplane - This is a power driven aerodyne which derives lift

mainly from a rotor freely rotating in the horizontal plane, but
thrust is obtained from a conventional engine.
 B. Helicopter - This is an aerodyne which derives both lift and thrust
from rotating rotors.
iv. Aerodynes without engine are classified as gliders, sailplanes and kites.
A. Glider - This is an aerodyne which flies without any applied power
due to aerodynamic lift generated by its wings and initial thrust
given by some launching mechanism.

B. Sailplanes - These are high performance gliders that soar,

maintain and direct their flight over extended periods of time and
distance.

C. Kites - A kite is any non-power driven structure which is anchored

to the earth, and which derives lift from aerodynamic forces.

2. Classification Based on Mach number

Aircraft are classified based on their maximum Mach number
i. Subsonic
ii. Transonic
iii. Supersonic
iv. Hypersonic

3. Classification Based On Purpose

i. Aircraft are mainly classified based on their purpose as follows,
ii. Passenger Transport
iii. Business jets
iv. Cargo Transport
v. Experimental aircraft
vi. Trainers
vii. Military aircraft
A. Fighters
B. Bombers
C. Medical / Rescue Aircraft
D. Spy / Reconnaissance Aircraft
viii. Agricultural aircraft
ix. Sports aircraft

4. Classification Based On Type of Engine

Aircraft with engine are classified based on the type of engine as follows,
i. Propeller
ii. Turboprop
iii. Turbofan
iv. Turbojet
v. Ramjet

5. Classification Based On Number of Wings

 Airplanes are classified based on the number of wings as,
i. Monoplanes
ii. Biplanes etc
Present day aircrafts have a Monoplane configuration

6. Classification Based On Range

Aircraft are classified based on their range as follows,
Short range (3000 km)

7. Classification Based On Mode of Takeoff and Landing

Aircraft can also be classified based on the mode of takeoff and landing as
follows,
i. Normal
ii. VTOL
iii. STOL
iv. STOVL etc
8. Classification Based On Size and Payload Capacity
Aircraft are classified based on size as follows,
i. Micro-airplanes
ii. Single or double seater airplanes
iii. Medium size airplanes (~50 passengers)
iv. Large Airplanes (~ 400 passengers)
v. Cargo planes for transporting cars, trucks, military tanks etc.

9. Classification Based On Source of Power

Aircraft are classified based on their source of power as,
i. Oil
ii. Solar Power
iii. Electric Power
iv. Nuclear Power ( quite rare)
 The above figure shows the important parts of the airplane along with its
function. Airplanes are transportation devices which are designed to
move people and cargo from one place to another. Airplanes come in
many different shapes and sizes depending on the mission of the aircraft. The
airplane shown in the figure is a turbine-powered airliner which has been
chosen as a representative aircraft.

The different parts of the Aircraft are.

Cockpit:
The cockpit holds the command and control section of an airplane.
Modern aircraft cockpits have a number of vital instruments for controlling the
airplane on the ground as well as when flying.

Fuselage:
The fuselage holds the structure together and accommodates passengers
and/or cargo. Modern aircraft fuselage may accommodate up to 800
passengers in economy class

Wing:
Wings generate lift and control the airflow while flying. Wing design is a
crucial factor in aviation: a wing is designed to reduce drag at the leading edge,
generate lift by its crescent and manage airflow using the rear edge.
Furthermore, while gliding (i.e. without engine power), the wings allow the pilot
to increase and decrease the descent rate.

Power Plant/ Engine:

Engines generate thrust and provide hydraulic and electric power.
Modern aircraft are employed with different types of engines, although jet
engines are favoured with by most commercial airliners.

Under Carriage/ Landing Gear:

The undercarriage, also known as landing gear, provides a platform for
the aircraft to stand as well as plays an important obvious role in landing and
take-off.

Flap:
Flaps adjust the camber of the wings, increasing lift. Flaps are normally
fitted at the trailing edge of the wings. Extending the flaps increase the camber
of the wings airfoils, thus increasing lift at lower speeds, an important feature
for landing.
Slat:
Slats adjust the angle of attack of the wings, increasing lift. Slats are
fitted at the leading edges of the wings, and deploying them increases the angle
of attack of the wings, allowing the pilot to increase the lift generated by the
wing.
Spoiler:
Spoilers adjust the camber of sections of the wings, decreasing lift.
Spoilers are fitted on top of the wings, and are used to reduce lift on a section
of the wing in a controlled manner. Spoilers are useful for decreasing lift
without increasing the airspeed of the airplane or without increasing drag
significantly.

Ailerons:
Ailerons increase or decreases lift asymmetrically, in order to change roll
and, thus, move the aircraft left or right while flying. Ailerons are hinged
sections fitted at the rear of each wing. Ailerons work asymmetrically as a pair:
as the right aileron goes up, the left one comes down and vice versa, thus
making the aircraft roll right or left, respectively.

Horizontal Stabilizer:
The horizontal stabilizer helps maintain an airplane's equilibrium and
stability in flight. It does so by providing a mini wing at a certain distance from
the main wings (typically at the back, although it can also be positioned at the
form of the aircraft). This smaller wing produces enough lift to control the pitch
of the aircraft and maintain its stability. Although an aircraft without a
horizontal stabilizer could, in principle, fly with wings only, controlling its pitch
and airspeed would be difficult, as pitch and, subsequently, airspeed can be
easily disturbed by air conditions: as soon as the aircraft pitches up, the
tendency is to continue pitching up even further and decrease airspeed; and as
soon as the aircraft pitches down, the tendency then is to continue pitching
down even further and increase airspeed. An aircraft with a horizontal
stabilizer, however, could be flown hand-offs (once correctly trimmed) without
affecting its pitch and speed.

Elevator:
Elevators increase or decrease lift on the horizontal stabilizer
symmetrically in order to control the pitch motion of an airplane. Elevators are
hinged surfaces fitted at the rear of the horizontal stabilizer. They work
symmetrically as a pair: when the elevators are up, the aircraft ascends; when
the elevators are down, the aircraft descends, and when the elevators are
horizontal, the aircraft flies straight.

Vertical Stabilizer:
The vertical stabilizer prevents lateral movements of the airplane.
Without a vertical stabilizer, most aircraft would lose lateral control, tend to
slip, increase drag and become uncontrollable.

Rudder:
The rudder controls the yaw motion of an airplane. The rudder is a
hinged surface fitted to the vertical stabilizer. When the rudder is turned to the
left, the aircraft turns to the left in the horizontal plane; when the rudder is
turned to the right, the aircraft turns to the right. The rudder is used to turn
the aircraft left or right on the ground. In the air, however, the rudder is
primarily used to coordinate left and right turns (the turns themselves are done
with the ailerons) or to counter adverse yaw.

Winglets:
In order to reduce the induced drag winglets are used. The idea behind the
winglet is to reduce the strength of the tip vortex and therefore cause the flow
across the wing to be more two-dimensional.

Flight control surfaces- types, functions and working principle

Flight Control:
Flight Control is the action taken to make the aircraft follow any desired
flight path. When an aircraft is said to be controllable, it means that the craft
responds easily and promptly to movement of the controls. Different control
surfaces are used to control the aircraft about each of the three axes. Moving
the control surfaces on an aircraft changes the airflow over the aircraft’s
surface. This, in turn, creates changes in the balance of forces acting to keep
the aircraft flying straight and level.
Primary control surfaces: These surfaces are used for moving the aircraft about
its three axes. The primary control surfaces includes the-

i. Ailerons
ii. Elevators, and
iii. Rudder
The ailerons and elevators are generally operated from the cockpit by a control
stick on single-engine aircraft and by a wheel and yoke assembly on
multiengine aircraft. The rudder is operated by foot pedals on all types of
aircraft.

Control around the longitudinal axis (Roll control):

The motion of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis is called rolling or
banking. The ailerons are used to control this movement. The ailerons form a
part of the wing and are located in the trailing edge of the wing toward
the tips. Ailerons are the movable surfaces of an otherwise fixed-surface wing.
The aileron is in neutral position when it is streamlined with the trailing edge
of the wing.

Rolling control using aileron

Control around the vertical axis (Yaw control):

Turning the nose of the aircraft causes the aircraft to rotate about its
vertical axis. Rotation of the aircraft about the vertical axis is called
yawing. This motion is controlled by using the rudder. The rudder is a movable
control surface attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. To turn
the aircraft to the right, the rudder is moved to the right. The rudder protrudes
into the airstream, causing a force to act upon it. This is the force necessary to
give a turning movement about the center of gravity which turns the aircraft to
the right. If the rudder is moved to the left, it induces a counterclockwise
rotation and the aircraft similarly turns to the left. The rudder can also be used
in controlling a bank or turn in flight.

.
Rudder action

Yawing control using Rudder

Control around the lateral axis (Pitch control):
When the nose of an aircraft is raised or lowered, it is rotated about its
lateral axis. Elevators are the movable control surfaces that cause this rotation.
They are normally hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer.
The elevators are used to make the aircraft climb or dive and also to obtain
sufficient lift from the wings to keep the aircraft in level flight at
various speeds. The elevators can be moved either up or down. If the elevator is
rotated up, it decreases the lift force on the tail causing the tail to lower and
the nose to rise. If the elevator is rotated downward, it increases the lift force
on the tail causing it to rise and the nose to lower. Lowering the aircraft’s
nose increases forward speed, and raising the nose decreases forward speed.

Pitching control using elevator

Flight Instruments

Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that

provide the pilot with information about the flight situation of that aircraft,
such as altitude, airspeed and direction. They improve safety by allowing the
pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, and make turns, without a reference
outside the aircraft such as the horizon.

1. Pitot-static systems
i. Altimeter

a) The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring

the difference between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside
the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure obtained through
the static system.
b) It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly
to obtain accurate altitude readings.
c) As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure
drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude.
d) The opposite effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in
aviation and increased altitude ceiling, the altimeter dial had to be
altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence when the
needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360-degree operation
of the pointers was delineated by the appearance of a small window with
oblique lines warning the pilot that he or she is nearer to the ground.
e) This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence
of air accidents caused by the confusion in the pilot's mind. At higher
altitudes, the window will disappear.

ii. Airspeed Indicator

 a) The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots )
relative to the surrounding air.
b) It works by measuring the air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot tube relative
to the ambient static pressure.
c) The indicated airspeed (IAS) must be corrected for nonstandard pressure
and temperature in order to obtain the true airspeed (TAS).
d) The instrument is color coded to indicate important airspeeds such as
the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation speeds.

iii. Vertical speed indicator

a) The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator)

senses changing air pressure, and displays that information to the pilot
as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, meters per second or
knots.

2. Compass Systems
i. Magnetic compass

a) The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north.

Errors include Variation, or the difference between magnetic and true
direction, and Deviation, caused by the electrical wiring in the aircraft,
which requires a Compass Correction Card.
b) Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip Errors. While reliable in
steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning,
climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's
 magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator is also used for
aircraft operation, but periodically calibrated against the compass.
3. Gyroscopic Systems
i. Attitude Indicator

The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's
relation to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level
(roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon (pitch). This
is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of
poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination
should this instrument or its power fail.
ii. Heading Indicator

The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG) displays the
aircraft's heading with respect to magnetic north when set with a compass.
Bearing friction causes drift errors from precession, which must be periodically
corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass. In many
advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft), the heading indicator is
replaced by a horizontal situation indicator (HSI) which provides the same
heading information, but also assists with navigation.
iii. Turn Indicator
These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator, which
indicate rotation about the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to
indicate if the aircraft is in coordinated flight, or in a Slip or Skid. Additional
marks indicate a Standard rate turn.
4. Navigational Systems
i. Very-High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)

The VOR indicator instrument includes a Course deviation indicator (CDI),

Omnibearing Selector (OBS), TO/FROM indicator, and Flags. The CDI shows
an aircraft's lateral position in relation to a selected radial track. It is used for
orientation, tracking to or from a station, and course interception.[1]:7-8 to 7-11
ii. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)

The Automatic direction finder (ADF) indicator instrument can be a fixed-card,

movable card, or a Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An RMI is remotely coupled
to a gyrocompass so that it automatically rotates the azimuth card to represent
aircraft heading.[1]:7-3 to 7-4 While simple ADF displays may have only one needle,
a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF receivers, allowing for position
fixing using one instrument.