SURVEYING

► Definition
Definition::
Surveying is the science and art of
determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface
and locating the points in the field
field..
 The work of the surveyor
consists of 5 phases:
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and
final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements
and recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing
calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to
produce a map, plot
plot,, or chart in the proper form.
5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or
stakes in the proper locations in the field.
 Object of Surveying
► The primary object of survey is the
preparation of plan of estate or buildings
roads, railways, pipelines, canals, etc
etc.. Or to
measure area of field, state, nation
nation..

► Objectof geodetic surveying is to determine

precise positions on the surface of the earth
of widely distant points
points..
 Uses of Surveying
► To prepare a topographical map this shows
the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town, etc, of
a country
country..
► Map
Map--3D, Plan
Plan--2D
► To prepare a cadastral map showing the
boundaries of fields houses, and other
properties..
properties
► To prepare an engineering map to show
details like roads, railways, canals, etc
etc..
Plan and Maps
 Uses of Surveying
► To prepare maps showing roads and
railways, communication with different parts
of country
country..
► To prepare contour map and to determine
capacity of a reservoirs and find the best
possible route for roads, railways etc
etc..
► To prepare archeological map including
places where ancient relics exist
exist..
► To prepare a geological map showing areas
including underground resources
 History
ØSurveying an essential element in the development of the
human environment and had a long and important history
throughout the world.
ØFirst example is Pyramid of Gizeh (2900 BC), 755 feet long
(square) and 481 feet high.
“Modern surveying techniques have shown that the lengths
of the pyramid’s four sides, agree within ±8 cm with each
other, the elevations of all corners differ by no more than 14
mm” (Wolf, 2002)
ØEvidence of boundary surveying as early as 1400 BC, in
Egypt, Babylonia, India, China.
ØAbout 120 BC, Heron (Greek) proposed methods for
surveying a field, drawing a geometric plan, and making
associated computations. Heron also developed first
surveying instruments, the diopter.
► Cadastral
plan
► Rope stretchers
Mesopotamia
1700BC
1. Romans: developed surveying into a science
Romans:
to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and
land division systems
systems..
§ Surveyors held great power, had schools and a
professional organization
§ Developed several instruments
instruments::
• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and
right angles
• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
• Chorobates – 20 20’’ straight edge with oil in notch for
leveling
2. Middle Ages
Ages:: Land division of Romans
continued in Europe
Europe..
§ Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning
angles up to 9090°° and has a graduated scale
developed by an Italian named Von Piso
Piso..
1. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the
need for mapping and marking land claims
caused extensive surveying, especially by
the English.
§ 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of
public lands into one mile square sections
• 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System
(also called the Rectangular System)
§ 1807: United States Geological Survey founded
to establish an accurate control network and
mapping
§ Famous American Surveyors: George
Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers
Clark, Abe Lincoln and many more.
 Indian Survey
ØMajor James Rennell was appointed as Surveyor General
of Bengal, on the first of January 1767
ØSurveyed Bengal and Bihar, an area of over 1500 sq.
miles, producing a continuous and uniform set of maps.
ØThe surveys, however, were not accurate and complete
but were sufficient to meet the needs of the time.
ØMichael Topping,1787 ran a 300 mile line of triangles
along the coast from Madras to Palk Strait.
ØHe built a permanent astronomical observatory in Madras
in 1793 and founded the first surveying school in 1794.
 Great Trigonometrical Surveying
ØColonel Lambton in November 1799, put forward proposal of
Mathematical and Geographical Survey
ØStart measuring first base line in 1802 near Madras using a
100 ft chain.
ØTook over 70 years, thousands of workers and many officials
ØIn 1818 George Everest joined Lambton to carry on the work
ØEverest introduced the compensation bars to negotiate the
effect of temperature during the measurement of baselines
in 1830
ØMount Everest was measured as the tallest peak in 1856.
The height of Mt Everest was found to be 29,002 ft (8,840
m) by GTS.
Ø In 1955, an Indian survey found that Everest ht is 8,848 m
(29,029 ft). This height was reaffirmed by Chinese in 1975.
36 inch Theodolite used during GTS (~500 Kg)
ØDuring the past 50 years, surveying and engineering
measurement technology has made six quantum
leaps:

ØTHE ELECTRONIC DISTANCE METER

Ø TOTAL STATION
ØGPS
ØROBOTIC TOTAL STATION
Ø LASER SCANNER
ØUAV
Types of Surveying
Classification
 A. Primary Classification or
Primary Division :

1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
 1. Plane Surveying
Ø The shape of the earth is spherical. Thus
the surface is obviously curved. But in plane
surveying the curvature of earth is not
taken into account. This is because plane
surveying is carried out over a small area,
so the surface of the earth is considered as
a plane. The degree of accuracy required in
this type of surveying is completely low.
Plane surveying is done on an area of less
than 250 sq.km.
 2. Geodetic surveying
Ø In geodetic surveying the curvature of the
earth is taken into consideration. It is
extended over a large area greater than 250
sq.km. The line joining any two points
considered as a curved line.
Ø The difference in length between the arc &
the subtended chord on the earth surface
for a distance of 18.2km is only 0.1m
 B. Secondary Classification

a. Classification based upon the nature of the

field of survey:
(1) Land Surveys.
(2) Hydrographic Surveys.
(3) Astronomical Surveys.
b. Classification based upon the object of
survey:
(1) Archaeological Surveys for unearthing relics
of antiquity
(2) Geological Surveys for determining different
strata in the earth’s crust.
(3) Mine Surveys for exploring mineral wealth such as gold,
coal, etc.
(4) Military Surveys for determining points for strategic
importance both offensive and defensive.
(5) Engineering Surveys for determination of quantities for
designing engineering works.

c. Classification based upon the methods employed in survey:

(1) Triangulation Surveys.
(2) Traverse Surveys.

d. Classification based upon the instrument employed:

(1) Chain Surveys.
(2) Theodolite Surveys.
(3) Tachometric Surveys.
(4) Compass Surveys
(5) Plane Table Surveys.
(6) Photogrammetric Surveys.
 Other Types of Surveys:
1. Photogrammetry – mapping utilizing data obtained
by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or
satellites..
satellites
2. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners,
boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
3. Control Surveying – establish a network of horizontal
and vertical monuments that serve as a reference
framework for other survey projects.
4. Engineering Surveying – providing points and
elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects
projects..
 Other Types of Surveys:
5. Topographic Surveying – collecting data and
preparing maps showing the locations of natural
man--made features and elevations of points of the
man
ground for multiple uses.
6. Route Surveys – topographic and other surveys for
long – narrow projects associated with Civil
Engineering projects.
§ Highways,, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.
Highways
7. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and
the bottom of bodies of water.
water.
§ Also known as bathymetric surveying.
 Principle of Surveying
1.Working from whole to part
2.Locate a point position from 2 known
points
 Measurement of Distance

► Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying

and even though angles may be read precisely, the
length of at least one line in a tract must be
measured to supplement the angles in locating
points..
points

► Old surveys were often measured using a

Surveyors Chain
Chain.. These were literally chains made
up of 100 links
links.. Each Chain was 66 feet long
long.. Each
link was 0.666 of a foot
foot..
 Methods

► There are 3 methods of making linear

measurements.
► 1- Direct Method.
► 2- Optical Method.
► 3- E.D.M Method.
 Basic Methods
► Pacing
► Passometer
► Pedometer
► Odometer
► Speedometer
► Measuring Wheel
► Chaining
 Speedometer passometer

Pedometer (distance o n
Measuring wheel Odometer
foot
Passometer:
It automatically records the number of paces in pocket
pocket..
It should be carried vertically, in waistcoat pocket or
suspended from a button
button..
Pedometer::
Pedometer
It is similar to passometer
passometer.. But it registers the distance
walked by the persons carrying itit..
Odometer::
Odometer
It registers the number of revolution of the wheel
wheel..
Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the distance
traversed may be obtained by multiplying the number of
revolutions..
revolutions
Speedometer: The Speedometer of an automobile
may be used to measure distances approximately
approximately..
Chaining:: Measuring distance with chain or rope
Chaining
is the most accurate and common method, called
as chaining. For work of ordinary precision a
chain is used. Where great accuracy is required,
a steel tape is used.
Taping::
Taping applying the known length of a
graduated tape directly to a line a number of
times..
times
 Measurement of Distance
6 Steps of Taping
1. Ranging–
Ranging – shortest distance between two points is a
straight line.
2. Applying tension – rear chain is anchor and head
chain applies required tension.
3. Plumbing – horizontal distance requires tape to be
horizontal.
4. Marking tape lengths – each application of the tape
requires marking using chaining pins to obtain total
length.
5. Reading the tape – the graduated tape must be read
correctly.
6. Recording the distance – the total length must be
reported and recorded correctly.
 Types of Chains
► Gunter’s Chain (surveyor’s chain)
§ 66’ long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches
or 0.66 feet long.
§ Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600’s
§ 80GC=1 mile, 10GC=1 furlong, 10 square GC=1 acre
► Engineer’s Chain
§ 100ft, 100 links, used for engineering projects
► Revenue chain:
chain: 33ft 16 links, For cadastral survey
► Metric chain:
chain: 30 m or 20m, 100 links
 Types of Tapes
► Invar Tapes
§ Made of special nickel (37% NI) steel to reduce length
variations due to temperature changes
§ The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
► Cloth, Fiberglass, and matellic Tapes:
§ Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement
of 0.1’ accuracy requirements
 Instruments used in Chain
Surveying
1) Chains
2) Tapes
3) Arrows
4) Ranging Rods and Offset Rod
5) Pegs
6) Plumb- bob
Plumb-
 Testing and Adjustment of chain
► If chain is found to be ► If chain is found to be
too long too short
1) Closing up the joints of the 1) Straightening the bent links.
rings if found to be opened out. 2) Opening the joints of the rings.
2) Reshaping the elongated rings. 3) Replacing one or more small
3) Replacing damaged rings. circular rings by bigger ones.
4) Removing one or more small 4) Inserting new rings where
rings. necessary.
5) Adjusting the links at the end. 5) Adjusting the links at the end.
 Arrows
► Arrows are made of tempered steel wire of diameter 4mm.
► One end of the arrow is bent into a ring of diameter 50mm
and the other end is pointed.
► An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain
measured on the ground.
 Ranging Rods and Offset Rod
► Ranging rods are 2 to 3 m in length.
► Used for ranging some intermediate points on the
survey line.
► Painted with alternate bands of black and white or
red and white colours
colours..
► With length of each equalising 20 cm.
Ranging rods
 Pegs
► Made of timber or steel.
► Used to mark the position of stations.
► Pegs are in length of 15 cm.
 Plumb--Bob
Plumb
► Used to transfer points on ground.
► Used for fixing instrument exactly over the
stations.
 Principle of Chain Surveying
► Chain Triangulation is the principle
principle..
► In this area is divided into a number of triangles with the
suitable sides
sides..
► The plan of the area can be easily drawn
drawn..
► As a triangle is the only simple plane geometrical figure
that can be plotted without angles
angles..
► The framework should consist of triangles which are as
nearly equilateral as possible, such triangles being known
as well conditioned, or well shaped
shaped..
► A triangle is said to be well conditioned when it contains no
angle smaller than 30o and no angle greater than 120 o. IllIll--
conditioned triangles having angles less than 30o or greater
than 120o should always be avoided
avoided..
 Terms related with Chain
Surveying
1) Survey Stations:
(a) Main stations
(b) Subsidiary stations
(c) tie stations
2) Main survey lines
3) Base line
4) Check line
5) Tie-
Tie-line
 Selection of Survey Stations
1). Main survey stations at the ends of chain lines should be
intervisible.
2). Survey lines should be minimum possible.
3). The main principle of surveying viz., working from the whole to
the part & not from the part to the whole, should be strictly
observed.
4). Survey stations should form well conditioned triangles.
5). Every triangle should be provided with a check line.
6). Tie lines should be provided to reduce long offsets.
7). Obstacles to ranging & chaining, if any, should be avoided.
8). The larger side of the triangle should be placed parallel to
boundaries, roads, buildings etc. to have short offsets.
9). To avoid trespassing, main survey lines should remain within the
boundaries of the property to be surveyed.
10). Chain lines should be preferably over level ground.
11). Lines should be laid on one side of the road to avoid
interruption of changing by passing traffic.
 Operations in Chain Surveying
► Chaining
► Ranging
► Offsetting
 Chaining on Level Ground
► Chaining on level ground
It involves following operations
1) Fixing the stations.
2) Unfolding the chain.
3) Ranging.
4) Measuring the distance.
5) Folding the chain.
 Chaining on Sloping Ground

There are 2 methods:

1) Direct Method:
Also called as stepping
stepping.. In this method, the
distance is measured in small horizontal
stretches.. Say a1, a2 …an
stretches an..
with suitable length of chain or tape
tape..
finally the total horizontal distances are added to
get the required distances
 Chain surveying (“stepping”)
a
w
b
x c
y

z
Chaining on sloping ground
 Indirect Method
It involves calculation from directly
measured lengths.
Method1:
Horizontal distance of the segment is calculated by
knowing sloping length of the segment and angle of
inclination of that with horizontal. The angle
The angle of the sloping surface with horizontal can be
known by instrument called Abney’s Level.
 Method2:
► Ifthe elevation difference between 2
terminals points and the sloping distance
between 2 terminal points is known the
horizontal distance D can be calculated as
► D = Ö(l
(l²²-h²)
 Method3:
► Also called as hypotenusal allowance
method
► Instead of putting the end arrow at actual
end of chain, it is put at some advanced
distance and that point is considered as the
end of one chain length
C

A
A total of 10 base lines: Nine base line: 6.4 to 7.8 miles, tenth
base=1.7 mile

During GTS survey

 Ranging
► There are 2 methods:
1) Direct ranging
2) Indirect ranging or reciprocal ranging.
 Direct Ranging
► When intermediate ranging rods are fixed
on a straight line by direct observation from
end stations, the process is known as direct
ranging.
► Direct ranging also can be done with a line
ranger it consist of 2 right isosceles
triangular prisms. Placed one above other.
 Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging
► When the end stations are not intervisible
due to there being high ground between
them, intermediate ranging rods are fixed
on the line in an indirect way.
► The method is known as indirect ranging or
reciprocal ranging.
Indirect Ranging
 Offsetting
► There are 2 types of offsets:
1) Perpendicular offsets:
the offsets which are taken perpendicular to the chain
are termed as above.
2) Oblique offsets:
Oblique distance is always greater than perpendicular
distance. All the offsets which are not taken at right
angle to chain line are known as above.
 Instruments for laying Offsets
► Opticalsquare.
► Indian optical square.
► Open cross staff.
► Prism square.
 Errors in Chaining
► There are 2 types
1) Compensating errors
2) Cumulating errors
COMPENSATING ERRORS: Errors, which may occur in both directions (that is both
positive and negative) and which finally tend to compensate are known as compensating errors.

CUMULATIVE ERRORS: Errors, which may occur in the same direction and which finally
tend to accumulate are said to be cumulative. They seriously affect the accuracy of the work and
are proportional to the length of the line (L).The errors may be positive or negative.
Positive Cumulative Error: The error, which make the measured length more than the
actual is known as positive cumulative error (Length of chain is shorter than 30m)
Negative Cumulative Error: The error, which make the measured length less than the actual is
known as negative cumulative error (length of chain is more than 30m)

True length of a line x true length of chain = actual length

of a line x actual length of chain
 Sources of Errors in Chaining
► Instrumental Errors
► Natural errors
► Personal errors
Errors due to Incorrect Chain
► Ifchain is too ► Measured
long distance will be
less. Correction:
positive

► Measured
► Ifchain is too
small distance will be
more.
Correction:
negative
 Tape corrections
CORRECTIONS FOR LINEAR MEASUREMENTS:
i). Correction for Standard Length
ii). Correction for Slope
iii). Correction for Temperature
iv). Correction for Tension
v). Correction for Sag

CORRECTION FOR STANDARD LENGTH:

Ca = L.C/ l
where:
Ca = Correction for absolute length
L = Measured length of a line
l = nominal or designated length of the tape
C = Correction to be applied to the tape
CORRECTION FOR SLOPE:
1). CASE 1:
Let L = slope distance
D = horizontal distance
h = difference in elevations of A & B
Therefore, D = √(L2 – h2) and
Slope Correction = L – D
= h2/2L
2). CASE 2: Slope Correction = L – L cosφ = L (1 – cosφ)

CORRECTION FOR SAG:

Correction for Sag is given by the formula:
Cs = l1 (w l1)2 / 24P2
where:
Cs = correction for sag
M = total mass of the tape
P = applied pull
l1 = distance between supports

Sag correction due to std pull- sag correction due to

applied pull
CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE:
Correction for Temperature is given by the formula:
Ct = α L (Tm – To)
where: Ct = correction for temperature
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
Tm = mean temperature during measurement
To = temperature at which the tape is standardized
L = measured length

CORRECTION FOR PULL (TENSION):

Correction for Pull is given by the formula:
Cp = (Pm – Po) × L / AE
where:
Cp = correction for pull
Pm = pull applied during measurement
Po = pull under which the tape is standardized
A = cross-sectional area of the tape
E = modulus of elasticity of steel
L = measured length
Problems in chaining and ranging

Problem in both chaining and randing

Problem in chaining