REPRODUCTION &

DEVELOPMENT
PREPARED BY PATRICK JASON A. SODUSTA BSc MBA
Objectives
1.Describe the different stages of animal development.
2.Differentiate the developmental process in
monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
3.Describe human reproductive organ systems.
4.Illustrate the human female menstrual cycle.
5.Explain the processes in human development
6.Differentiate various forms of contraception in
humans.
Stages of Animal Development
Development – involves formation
of sex cells, zygote formation,
subsequent stages in one’s life
span. Development is terminated
by death.
Life Cycle – the series of stages
in form and functional activity
through which an organism passes
between successive recurrences
of a specified primary stage.
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Sigmund Frued’s Psychosexual
Development
Stages of Development - Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis – Stage of development that yields haploid
gametes.
Meiosis – a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells
each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as
in the production of gametes and plant spores.
Diploid (2n) condition – When a cell has the full chromosome
number or two sets of chromosomes
Haploid (n) condition – When a cell has only half the
chromosome number or only one set of chromosomes.
Monozygotic twins - Also known as identical twins;
result from the union of a sperm and egg to form a
single zygote that splits up during the first cleavage
stage.
Dizygotic twins - Also known as fraternal twins;
results from the development of two or more
separate fertilization events where the resulting
zygotes develop almost simultaneously.
Stages of Development - Fertilization
Fertilization – Stage of development that results in a unicellular
diploid zygote.
Fertilization brings the haploid nuclei of sperm and egg
together, forming a diploid zygote.
The sperm’s contact with the egg’s surface initiates metabolic
reactions in the egg that trigger the onset of embryonic
development:
Acrosomal Reaction
Cortical Reaction
Acrosomal Reaction
The acrosomal reaction is triggered when the sperm
meets the egg.

The acrosome at the tip of the sperm releases hydrolytic

enzymes that digest material surrounding the egg.

Gamete contact and/or fusion depolarizes the egg cell

membrane and sets up a fast block to polyspermy.
Cortical Reaction
Fusion of egg and sperm also initiates the cortical
reaction:

This reaction induces a rise in Ca2+ that stimulates cortical

granules to release their contents outside the egg.

These changes cause formation of a fertilization envelope

that functions as a slow block to polyspermy.
The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin
fertilization.
Fertilization in mammals and other terrestrial animals is
internal.

In mammalian fertilization, the cortical reaction modifies the

zona pellucida, the extracellular matrix of the egg, as a slow
block to polyspermy.

In mammals the first cell division occurs 12–36 hours after

sperm binding.

The diploid nucleus forms after this first division of the zygote.
After fertilization, embryonic development proceeds
through cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis.
Important events regulating development occur during
fertilization and the three stages that build the animal’s body
Cleavage: cell division creates a hollow ball of cells called a
blastula
Gastrulation: cells are rearranged into a three-layered
gastrula
Organogenesis: the three germ layers interact and move to
give rise to organs.
Stages of Development - Cleavage
Cleavage – Stage of development involving a series of mitotic
divisions to produce a multicellular blastula from a unicellular
zygote.
Totipotent cell – A cell that is capable of differentiating to
become any kind of cell.
Pluripotent cells can give rise to all of the cell types that make up
the body.
Multipotent cells can develop into more than one cell type, but
are more limited than pluripotent cells.
Fertilization is followed by cleavage, a period of rapid cell
division without growth.

Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many

smaller cells called blastomeres.

The blastula is a ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity called a

blastocoel.
Stages of Development - Gastrulation
Gastrulation rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-
layered embryo, called a gastrula, which has a primitive gut.

The three layers produced by gastrulation are called

embryonic germ layers:

The ectoderm forms the outer layer

The endoderm lines the digestive tract
The mesoderm partly fills the space between the
endoderm and ectoderm.
The eggs and zygotes of many animals, except mammals, have
a definite polarity.
The polarity is defined by distribution of yolk (stored
nutrients).

The vegetal pole has more yolk; the animal pole has less yolk.
The blastula consists of a single layer of cells surrounding the
blastocoel.

Mesenchyme cells migrate from the vegetal pole into the

blastocoel.

The vegetal plate forms from the remaining cells of the vegetal
pole and buckles inward through invagination.

The newly formed cavity is called the archenteron.

This opens through the blastopore, which will become the
anus.
Stages of Development - Organogenesis
During organogenesis, various regions of the germ layers
develop into rudimentary organs.

Early in vertebrate organogenesis, the notochord forms

from mesoderm, and the neural plate forms from
ectoderm.
• The neural plate soon curves inward, forming the
neural tube. The neural tube will become the central
nervous system = brain and spinal cord.
• Neural crest cells develop along the neural tube of
vertebrates and form various parts of the embryo:
nerves, parts of teeth, skull bones ...
• Mesoderm lateral to the notochord forms blocks
called somites.
• Lateral to the somites, the mesoderm splits to form
the coelom.
Human Reproductive Organ System - Male
•The male’s external reproductive organs are
the scrotum and penis.
•Internal organs are the gonads, which produce
sperm and hormones, and accessory glands.
Human Reproductive Organ System - Male
Testes = Male gonads
• The testes consist of highly coiled tubes surrounded by
connective tissue. Sperm form in these seminiferous
tubules. Leydig cells produce hormones and are
scattered between the tubules.
• Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the body
temperatures of most mammals. So the testes are held
outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum, where the
temperature is lower than in the abdominal cavity.
Human Reproductive Organ System - Male
• From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, mature
sperm pass into the coiled tubules of the
epididymis.
• During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through
the muscular vas deferens and the ejaculatory
duct, and then exit the penis through the urethra.
Accessory Glands
• Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three
sets of accessory glands.
• The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the
total volume of semen.
• The prostate gland secretes its products directly into the
urethra through several small ducts.
• The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus before
ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the
urethra.
Penis
• The human penis is composed of three cylinders of
spongy erectile tissue.
• During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with
blood from the arteries, causing an erection.
• The head of the penis has a thinner skin covering
than the shaft, and is more sensitive to stimulation.
The timing and pattern of meiosis in mammals
differ for males and females
• Gametogenesis = the production of gametes by
meiosis. This differs in females and males
• Sperm are small and motile and are produced
throughout the life of a sexually mature male.
• Spermatogenesis is production of mature sperm.
Human Reproductive Organ System - Female
•The female external reproductive structures
include the clitoris and two sets of labia;
collectively known as vulva.
•The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a
system of ducts and chambers that carry
gametes and house the embryo and fetus.
Human Reproductive Organ System - Female
Ovaries = Female Gonads
• The female gonads, the ovaries, lie in the abdominal
cavity.
• Each ovary contains many follicles, which are egg
chambers consisting of a partially developed egg,
called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells.
• Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum
(egg) by the process of oogenesis.
• Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle.
• The remaining follicular tissue grows within the
ovary, forming a mass called the corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum secretes hormones that help to
maintain pregnancy.
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates.
Oviducts and Uterus
• The egg cell travels from the ovary to the uterus via
an oviduct, or fallopian tube.
• Cilia in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus,
also called the womb.
• The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many
blood vessels.
• The uterus narrows at the cervix, then opens into
the vagina.
Vagina and Vulva
• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the
repository for sperm during copulation and serves
as the birth canal.
• The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva, which
consists of the labia majora, labia minora, hymen,
and clitoris.
Menstrual Cycle
The timing and pattern of meiosis in mammals differ for
males and females
• Gametogenesis = the production of gametes by
meiosis. This differs in females and males
• Sperm are small and motile and are produced
throughout the life of a sexually mature male.
• Spermatogenesis is production of mature sperm.
 Epididymis
Seminiferous tubule Spermatogenesis

Testis

Cross section
of seminiferous
tubule

Primordial germ cell in embryo

Mitotic divisions

Sertoli cell
nucleus Spermatogonial 2n
stem cell

Mitotic divisions

Spermatogonium 2n

Mitotic divisions

Primary spermatocyte 2n

Meiosis I

Lumen of
seminiferous tubule Secondary spermatocyte n n

Meiosis II

Neck Spermatids Early

(at two stages of spermatid n n n n
Tail Midpiece Head differentiation)
Plasma membrane Differentiation
(Sertoli cells
provide nutrients)
Mitochondria
Sperm n n n n
Nucleus
Acrosome
• Eggs contain stored nutrients and are much larger.
• Oogenesis is development of mature oocytes (eggs)
and can take many years.
Oogenesis Ovary

Primary
oocyte
within
follicle

In embryo
Growing
Primordial germ cell follicle

Mitotic divisions

2n Oogonium

Mitotic divisions

Primary oocyte Mature follicle

2n (present at birth), arrested
in prophase of meiosis I
Ruptured
Completion of meiosis I follicle

First and onset of meiosis II

polar n
body n Secondary oocyte,
arrested at metaphase of
meiosis II
Ovulated
secondary oocyte
Ovulation, sperm entry

Completion of meiosis II
Second Corpus luteum
polar n
body
Fertilized egg
n

Degenerating
corpus luteum
 Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis
• Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis:
• In oogenesis, one egg forms from each cycle of meiosis; in
spermatogenesis four sperm form from each cycle of meiosis.
• Oogenesis ceases later in life in females; spermatogenesis
continues throughout the adult life of males.
• Oogenesis has long interruptions; spermatogenesis produces
sperm from precursor cells in a continuous sequence.
 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones
regulates mammalian reproduction
• Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the
hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and gonads.
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by the
hypothalamus and directs the release of FSH and LH from the
anterior pituitary.
• FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the
production of sex hormones.
• The sex hormones are androgens, estrogens, and progesterone.
• Sex hormones regulate:
• The development of primary sex characteristics during
embryogenesis
• The development of secondary sex characteristics at puberty
• Sexual behavior and sex drive.
Hormonal Control of the Male
Reproductive System
• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which
nourish developing sperm and are located within the
seminiferous tubules.
• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone
and other androgen hormones, which in turn
promote spermatogenesis.
Hormonal control –
in the Male Hypothalamus

GnRH

– –
Anterior pituitary

Negative feedback
Negative feedback
FSH LH

Sertoli cells Leydig cells

Inhibin Spermatogenesis Testosterone

Testis
“The regulation of GnRH secretion is still not completely
understood, but we have witnessed a substantial expansion of
our understanding of the signals involved in this regulation in
the past two decades.”
• Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH, FSH,
and LH through negative feedback mechanisms.
• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which
reduces FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary.
The Reproductive Cycles of Females
• In females, the secretion of hormones and the
reproductive events they regulate are cyclic.
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium = uterine lining,
thickens with blood vessels in preparation for
embryo implantation.
• If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium,
the endometrium is shed in a process called
menstruation.
• Hormones closely link the two cycles of female
reproduction:
• Changes in the uterus / uterine lining with blood
vessels define the menstrual cycle (also called the
uterine cycle).
• Changes in the ovaries / follicle / egg chamber
define the ovarian cycle.
The (a) Control by hypothalamus
Hypothalamus –
Inhibited by combination of
estradiol and progesterone
Stimulated by high levels

reproductive 1 GnRH
+ of estradiol

Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of

–
cycle of the 2 FSH LH
estradiol

human (b) Pituitary gonadotropins

in blood
6

female
LH

FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8

Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Maturing corpus luteum
luteum
follicle

Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase

Estradiol secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estradiol secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d) Ovarian 5
Peak causes
hormones in blood LH surge

10
Estradiol Progesterone 9

Estradiol level Progesterone and estra-

very low diol promote thickening
of endometrium

(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle

Endometrium

Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Days

| | | | | | | |
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
(a) Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of
estradiol and progesterone
Hypothalamus –
Stimulated by high levels
GnRH + of estradiol

Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of

– estradiol

FSH LH

(b) Pituitary gonadotropins

in blood

LH

FSH
FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle

Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Maturing luteum corpus luteum
follicle

Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase

Days

| | | | | | | |

0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
(d) Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood LH surge

Estradiol Progesterone

Estradiol level Ovulation Progesterone and estra-

very low diol promote thickening
of endometrium

(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle

Endometrium

Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Days

| | | | | | | |
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
The Ovarian Cycle
• The sequential release of GnRH then FSH and LH
stimulates follicle growth.
• Follicle growth and an increase in the hormone
estradiol characterize the follicular phase of the
ovarian cycle.
• The follicular phase ends at ovulation, and the
secondary oocyte is released.
• Following ovulation, the follicular tissue left behind
transforms into the corpus luteum; this is the luteal
phase.
• The corpus luteum disintegrates, and ovarian steroid
hormones decrease.
 The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with the ovarian cycle:
• Thickening of the endometrium during the proliferative phase
coordinates with the follicular phase.
• Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase coordinates with
the luteal phase.
• Shedding of the endometrium during the menstrual flow phase
coordinates with the growth of new ovarian follicles.
• A new cycle begins if no embryo implants in the
endometrium.
• Cells of the uterine lining can sometimes migrate to
an abnormal, or ectopic, location.
• Swelling of these cells in response to hormone
stimulation results in a disorder called
endometriosis.
Menopause
• After about 500 cycles, human females undergo
menopause, the cessation of ovulation and
menstruation.
• Menopause is very unusual among animals.
• Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother to
provide better care for her children and
grandchildren.
Menstrual vs Estrous Cycles
• Menstrual cycles are characteristic of humans and
some other primates:
• The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a
bleeding called menstruation
• Sexual receptivity is not limited to a timeframe.
• Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals:
• The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
• Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
• The length and frequency of estrus cycles varies
from species to species.
In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully
within the mother’s uterus
• An egg develops into an embryo in a series of
predictable events.
Conception, Embryonic Development,
and Birth
• Conception = fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
occurs in the oviduct.
• The resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis in a
process called cleavage.
• Division of cells gives rise to a blastocyst, a ball of
cells with a cavity.
 3 Cleavage
4 Cleavage
continues

Ovary
2 Fertilization

Uterus 5 The blastocyst

implants
1 Ovulation

(a) From ovulation to implantation Endometrium

Endo- Inner cell mass

metrium

Cavity

Blastocyst Trophoblast

(b) Implantation of blastocyst

• After blastocyst formation, the embryo implants into the
endometrium.
• The embryo releases human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG), which prevents menstruation.
• Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of carrying one or
more embryos in the uterus.
• Duration of pregnancy in other species correlates with
body size and maturity of the young at birth.
• Pregnancies can terminate spontaneously due to
chromosomal or developmental abnormalities.
• An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg
begins to develop in the fallopian tube.
First Trimester
• Human gestation can be divided into three
trimesters of about three months each.
• The first trimester is the time of most radical change
for both the mother and the embryo.
• During implantation, the endometrium grows over
the blastocyst.
• During its first 2 to 4 weeks, the embryo obtains
nutrients directly from the endometrium.
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst, called the
trophoblast, mingles with the endometrium and
eventually forms the placenta.
• Blood from the embryo travels to the placenta through
arteries of the umbilical cord and returns via the
umbilical vein.
Placental circulation
Maternal Maternal
arteries veins
Placenta

Maternal
portion
of placenta
Umbilical
cord
Chorionic villus,
containing fetal
capillaries Fetal
portion of
Maternal blood placenta
pools (chorion)

Uterus Umbilical
Fetal arteriole arteries
Fetal venule
Umbilical cord Umbilical
vein
• Splitting of the embryo during the first month of development
results in genetically identical twins. Release and fertilization
of two eggs results in fraternal and genetically distinct twins.
• The first trimester is the main period of organogenesis =
development of the body organs.
• All the major structures are present by 8 weeks, and the
embryo is called a fetus.
• Changes occur in the mother:
• Growth of the placenta
• Cessation of ovulation and the menstrual cycle
• Breast enlargement
• Nausea is also very common.
 Human fetal development

(a) 5 weeks (b) 14 weeks (c) 20 weeks

(a) 5 weeks
(b) 14 weeks
(c) 20 weeks
 Second Trimester

• During the second trimester:

• The fetus grows and is very active
• The mother may feel fetal movements
• The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to
become obvious.
Third Trimester
• During the third trimester, the fetus grows and fills
the space within the embryonic membranes.
• A complex interplay of local regulators and
hormones induces and regulates labor, the process
by which childbirth occurs.
Labor
Estradiol Oxytocin
+
from from fetus
and mother’s

Positive feedback
ovaries
posterior pituitary
Induces oxytocin
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract

Stimulates
placenta to make
+
Prostaglandins

Stimulate more
contractions
of uterus
The three stages of labor

Placenta
Umbilical cord
Uterus
Cervix

1 Dilation of the cervix

2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant
 Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical
cord
3 Delivery of the placenta
The three Placenta
Umbilical cord
stages of
Uterus
labor Cervix

1 Dilation of the cervix

2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant

Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical
cord

3 Delivery of the placenta

• Birth, or parturition, is brought about by a series of
strong, rhythmic uterine contractions.
• First the baby is delivered, and then the placenta.
• Lactation = the production of milk. This is unique to
mammals.
 Maternal Immune Tolerance of the
Embryo and Fetus
• A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign” offspring is not
fully understood.
• It may be due to suppression of the immune response in
her uterus.
 Contraception and Abortion
• Contraception, the deliberate prevention of pregnancy,
can be achieved in a number of ways.
• Contraceptive methods fall into three categories:
• Preventing release of eggs and sperm
• Keeping sperm and egg apart
• Preventing implantation of an embryo.
Mechanisms of Male Female
several Method Event Event Method
Production of Production of
contraceptive sperm primary oocytes

methods Vasectomy Combination

birth control
pill (or injection,
patch, or
Oocyte vaginal ring)
Sperm transport
down male development
duct system and ovulation
Abstinence Abstinence
Condom Female condom
Coitus
interruptus
(very high Sperm Capture of the
failure rate) deposited oocyte by the
in vagina oviduct

Tubal ligation

Spermicides;
diaphragm;
cervical cap;
Sperm Transport progestin alone
movement of oocyte in (as minipill,
through oviduct implant,
female or injection)
reproductive
tract

Meeting of sperm and oocyte

in oviduct

Morning-after
Union of sperm and egg pill; intrauterine
device (IUD)

Implantation of blastocyst
in endometrium
References
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Marieb, E.N. (2006). Essentials of human anatomy & physiology.

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and Jackson, R.B. (2012). Campbell Biology,(9ed). The
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Sheridan, M. (1999). Instructor’s guide for Biology, 5 ed. By

th

Campbell, Reece, Mitchell. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.